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Farmers  Cyclopedia 


of 


Live  Stock 


By  Earley  Vernon  Wilcox,  Ph.D.,    and 
Clarence  Beaman  Smith,  M.  S. 

Authors  of  Farmer  s  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture 


Illustrated 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

LONDON 
KEG  AN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.,  Limited 

1912 


COPYRIGHT,  1912 

by 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall, 
London,  England 


Printed    in    U.    S.    A. 


PREFACE 

In  Farmer's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  published  in  1904,  we  pre- 
sented in  a  systematic  manner  the  established  facts  which  constitute  the 
foundation  of  practical  agriculture  as  a  whole.  At  that  time  we  had  in 
mind  the  expansion  of  the  section  on  animal  husbandry  in  a  subsequent 
volume  to  more  adequately  meet  the  needs  of  the  two  million  American 
farmers  who  make  live  stock  their  principal  source  of  income.  After 
three  years  of  labor  this  idea  has  come  to  fruition. 

There  are  many  books  devoted  to  the  different  kinds  of  stock,  as  cat- 
tle, horses,  hogs,  and  poultry;  the  subject  has  also  been  treated  with  refer- 
ence to  special  features,  like  breeds  of  live  stock,  feeding,  animal  diseases, 
dairying,  stock  judging,  breeding,  refrigeration  of  animal  products,  curing 
of  meats,  meat  and  milk  inspection,  blacksmithing  and  marketing  stock. 
Occasionally  two  or  more  of  these  features  have  been  combined ;  but  here- 
tofore no  attempt  has  been  made  to  bring  all  these  matters  and  the  multi- 
tude of  other  features  of  animal  industry  into  a  symmetrical  whole. 

In  the  first  five  parts  of  the  book  we  have  considei-ed  the  general 
aspects  of  stock  raising,  giving  attention  to  those  facts  and  principles 
which  apply  to  all  kinds  of  farm  animals.  The  other  seven  parts  are  con- 
cerned with  specific  animals — horses,  mules,  asses,  beef  cattle,  dairy  cattle, 
sheep,  goats,  poultry,  etc.  We  have  also  discussed  the  present  status  and 
value  of  many  other  less  useful  or  semi-domesticated  animals  and  game 
in  which  an  increasing  interest  is  being  manifested. 

We  have  consistently  tried  to  present  all  the  important  facts  in  their 
logical  beaiung  on  each  problem  of  animal  production.  The  selection  of 
material  has  been  made  from  the  viewpoint  of  its  value  to  the  practical 
stock  raiser  in  solving  the  almost  innumerable  specific  problems  which  he 
finds. 

The  basis  of  this  volume  is  to  be  sought  in  the  bulletins  and  reports 
of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations,  Federal  and  State  Departments  of 
Agriculture,  live  stock  periodicals,  other  publications  of  this  and  foreign 
countries,  and  in  our  own  personal  experience.  The  book,  therefore,  em- 
bodies those  experimentally  established  facts  and  principles  of  animal 
husbandry  which  at  present  are  our  most  reliable  guides  to  profitable 
practice. 

American  stock  raisers  are  in  a  position  to  produce  economically  the 
finest  of  animal  products  of  all  sorts.  The  recent  meat  inspection  law  has 
enabled  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  to  devise  and  put  in  operation  the 
most  efficient  system  of  meat  inspection  known  to  the  world.  This  book 
is  designed  to  encourage  the  stockman  to  do  his  part  in  increasing  the 
national  resources. 

The  task  of  preparing  the  present  volume  has  been  a  peculiarly 
pleasant  one  on  account  of  the  hearty  co-operation  which  we  have  received 
from  various  sources.  The  list  of  names  of  those  to  whom  we  are  indebted 
would  run  into  the  hundreds.  We  are  thus  compelled  to  forego  further 
acknowledgment  than  the  specific  credits  given  throughout  the  text. 
Photographs  have  been  freely  loaned  by  the  secretaries  of  nearly  every 


vi  FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

breed  association,  many  experiment  station  workers  and  private  breeders. 
We  feel  particularly  grateful  for  the  generous  assistance  and  the 
untiring  interest  which  the  publishers  have  given  to  the  completion  of  the 
book.  After  the  illustrations  had  all  been  made  and  the  whole  text  was  in 
page  proof,  a  disastrous  fire  destroyed  the  printing  plant,  including  the 
illustrations  for  the  book,  some  of  the  original  manuscript  and  all  the 
page  proof.  The  publishers,  however,  at  once  began  the  work  of  putting- 
it  in  type  again  and  assisted  greatly  in  securing  new  illustrations.  In 
acknowledging  our  gratitude  to  the  publishers  we  should  mention  espe- 
cially Prof  W.  G.  Johnson,  secretary  of  Orange  Judd  Company  and  asso- 
ciate editor  of  American  Agriculturist,  who  has  had  general  supervision 
of  the  book  in  the  process  of  making. 

THE  AUTHORS. 
United  States  Department  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  January  1,  1908. 


FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA   OF  LIVE  STOCK 


CONTENTS 
PART  I 


Page 
History,  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  and  Breeding  of  Domes- 
tic  Animals    Pages        1-42 

The  domestication  of  animals — Animal  characteristics 
— Classification  of  farm  stock — Origin  of  farm  animals — 
Origin  of  domestic  fowls — Anatomy  and  physiology;  skele- 
ton, muscular  system,  nervous  system,  teeth,  alimentary 
canal,  blood  system,  respiratory  organs,  urinary  organs, 
reproductive  organs,  skin,  nutrition,  saliva,  gastric  and 
pancreatic  juices,  heart,  respiration,  kidneys,  body  tempera- 
ture, milk  secretion,  rumination  and  vomiting,  pregnancy. 
Breeding  farm  animals;  heredity,  variation,  atavism,  pre- 
potency, hybridization,  sports,  telegony,  determination  of 
sex,  domestication  and  variation,  influence  of  feed,  practi- 
cal methods  of  breeding,  inbreeding,  line  breeding,  natural 
breeding,  outcrossing,  crossbreeding,  grade  breeding. 

PART  II 

Principles  op  Stock  Feeding Pages      43-86 

Composition  of  animals  and  plants,  protein,  crude 
fiber,  carbohydrates,  fat,  necessity  for  food,  digestibility 
of  feeding  stuffs,  production  of  flesh,  production  of  fat, 
production  of  energy  and  heat,  production  of  milk,  eggs, 
etc — Water  for  animals — Mineral  matter  for  animals — 
Summary  of  the  laws  of  nutrition — Feeding  standards — ■ 
Calculating  balanced  rations — Average  composition  of 
American  feeding  stuffs — Percentage  digestibility  of  Amer- 
ican feeding  stuffs — Rapid  calculation  convenience  table. 

PART  III 

Diseases  op  Animals Pages    87-170 

Farm  hygiene;  wholesome  feeds,  careless  feeding,  me- 
dicinal effect  of  feeds,  water  as  source  of  disease,  ventila- 
tion, exercise,  disinfecting  premises,  cautions  about  conta- 
gious diseases. 

Diseases  of  the  horse;  influenza,  strangles,  scalma, 
pneumonia,  horse  pox,  anthrax,  glanders,  tetanus,  rabies, 
surra,  cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  choke,  colic,  jaundice, 
peritonitis,  diabetes,  bloody  urine,  azoturia,  heaves,  conges- 
tion of  the  brain,  sunstroke,  purpura  hemorrhagica, 
splints,  ringbone,  bone  spavin,  side  bones,  quittor,  corns, 
eczema,  fistula,  wounds,  big  head,  parasitic  troubles — Dis- 
eases of  mules. 

Diseases  of  cattle;  tuberculosis,  rabies,  cowpox,  acti- 
nomycosis, anthrax,  black  leg,  calf  diphtheria,  malignant 
catarrh,  malignant  edema,  Texas  fever,  nagana,  mycotic 
stomatitis,  wabble  flies,  horn  fly,  buffalo  gnat,  mange  or 
vu 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Page 
scabies,  corn  stalk  disease,  bloat,  loss  of  cud,  indigestion, 
verminous   bronchitis,   abortion,   retained   after-birth,  milk 
fever,  garget,  joint  ill,  scouring,  rickets,  creeDS,  rheumatism. 

Diseases  of  swine;  cholera,  swine  plague,  infectious 
sore  mouth,  swine  erysipelas,  tuberculosis,  actinomycosis, 
infectious  catarrhal  pneumonia,  blood  poisoning,  infectious 
joint  ill,  trichinosis,  worms,  mange,  hog  louse,  rickets, 
pitchy  mange,  thumps,  sore  mouth,  loss  of  appetite,  poison- 
ing, constipation. 

Disease  of  sheep;  sore  mouth,  white  scours,  catarrh, 
croupous  bronchitis,  croupous  pneumonia,  pleurisy,  abor- 
tion, garget,  sore  eyes,  eczema,  foot  rot,  foot  and  mouth  , 
disease,  arthritis,  malignant  edema,  big  head,  rabies,  para- 
sitic ictero-hematuria,  sheeppox,  ulcerative  leg  infection, 
aspergillosis,  pseudo-tuberculosis,  influenza,  scab,  dipping 
sheep,  head  scab,  botfly,  sheep  tick,  scab  mite,  bladder 
worm,  gicl,  fringed  tapeworm,  tape  and  stomach  worms, 
lung  worms,  nodular  disease — Diseases  of  goats. 

Diseases  of  poultry;  roup,  fowl  cholera,  tuberculosis, 
going  light,  chicken  pox,  leukaemia,  losses  in  incubator 
chicks,  gapes,  lice,  mites,  simple  catarrh — Diseases  of  water 
fowls — Diseases  of  turkeys — Diseases  of  pigeons — Dis- 
eases of  dogs;  distemper,  rabies,  fleas,  mange,  tapeworm — • 
Veterinary  medicines — Castration  and  spaying — Artificial 
impregnation — Sterility  in  animals — Horseshoeing — Poi- 
sonous plants  and  mineral  poisons. 


Business  Aspects  of  Stock  Farming Pages  It 0-229 

Stock  raising  and  soil  fertility,  pages  170-180 ;  .loss  of 
fertility  under  different  systems  of  farming,  manure  value 
of  farm  products,  quantity  and  value  of  farm  manure,  com- 
position, fermentation,  preservatives,  applying  manure. 

Systems  of  stock  farming,  pages  181-194,  general  stock 
farming,  pure  breed  stock  farming — Dairy  farming;  soil- 
ing system,  pasture  system — Systems  of  cattle  farming; 
range  methods,  beef  cattle  farms,  baby  beef  farms — Horse 
farming — Sheep  farming — Swine  farming — Goat  farm- 
ing— Poultry  farming. 

Live  stock  organizations,  institutions,  and  associations, 
pages  195-206.  "Work  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  of  the  experiment  stations,  agricul- 
tural colleges,  farmers'  institutes,  national  live  stock  asso- 
ciations, breeders'  associations,  registry  associations,  exposi- 
tions and  fairs,  state  and  county  fairs,  stock  periodicals. 

Transportation  and  marketing  of  live  stock,  pages  206- 
229.  Local  buyers,  marketing  pure  breeds,  auction  sales, 
horse  markets,  shipping  to  market,  shipping  laws,  inspec- 
tion of  stock,  live  stock  exchange,  when  to  ship  stock, 
securing  cars,  shipping  horses,  bills  of  lading,  liabilities 
of  railroads,  shipping  rates,  rules  of  stock  yards,  com- 
mission charges,  shipping  cattle,  market  quotations,  mar- 
keting hogs,  marketing  sheep,  shipping  stock  abroad, 
government  inspection,  shrinkage  in  shipping. 

PART  V 

Animal   Products Pages  231-278 

Slaughtering  and  curing  of  meats,  pages  233-258 
Slaughtering  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  cutting  up  carcasses. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS  ix 

Page 
percentages  of  dressed  meats,  veal  calves,  meat  prepara- 
tions and  by-products,  curing  hides,  tallow,  lard,  pickling 
materials,  curing  bacon,  hams,  tongues,  sausage,  smoking 
meats,  beef  extract,  tankage,  albumen — Farm  methods 
of  killing  and  curing  meats,  tanning  hides. 

Refrigeration  of  meat  and  other  animal  products,  pages 
258-269.  Sources  of  cold,  refrigerator  cars,  refrigerating 
machines,  cooling  meats,  eggs  in  cold  storage,  poultry  in 
cold  storage,  refrigeration  in  the  dairy,  construction  of 
cold  storage  houses. 

Meat  inspection,  pages  270-274.  Diseases  and  parasites 
transmitted  in  meats,  meat  poisoning,  federal  meat  inspec- 
tion, state  and  municipal  inspection. 

Milk  inspection,  pages  274-278.  Adulteration  of  milk, 
preservatives  in  milk,  bacteria  in  milk,  common  sources  of 
contamination,  abnormal  conditions  in  milk,  transmis- 
sion of  diseases  in  milk,  importance  of  sanitation. 

PART  VI 

Horses  and  Mules Pages  279-348 

Horses,  pages  283-340.  Breeds,  trotters,  pacers,  saddle, 
hackney,  coach,  hunter,  ponies,  draft  types.  Market 
classes;  roadsters,  coach,  cab,  bus,  draft,  loggers,  chunks, 
express,  artillery,  saddle,  cavalry,  carriage,  horse  breed- 
ing sires,  associations  of  breeders,  feeding  horses;  grains, 
by-products,  hay  and  other  roughage,  milk,  molasses,  and 
.  animal  feeds,  fattening  horses,  rations,  water,  feeding  colts, 
feeding  brood  mares,  stallions,  injurious  feeding  stuffs, 
stalls,  ventilation,  grooming,  blanketing. 

Mules  and  asses,  pages  340-348.  Industry,  zebroids, 
breeds  of  jacks,  burro,  breeding  mules,  hinnies,  market 
classes,  feeding  mules. 

PART  VII 

The  Beef  Cattle  Industry Pages  349-421 

Economic  importance  of  beef  cattle,  breeds,  market 
classes,  raising  calves,  baby  beef,  grains  for  steers,  rough- 
age, roots,  molasses,  feeding  methods,  fattening  period, 
heavy  vs.  light  steers,  home  grown  vs.  purchased  feed, 
shelter,  salt,  water,  beef  vs.  dairy  types,  market  grades, 
breeding  beef  heifers,  branding  steers,  period  of  pregnancy, 
oxen  for  draft  purposes. 

PART  VIII 

Dairy  Cattle  and  Dairy  Farming Pages  423-493 

Statistics,  breeds,  feeding,  grains  for  cows,  large  vs. 
small  grain  rations,  narrow  vs.  wide  rations,  roots  and 
fruits  for  cows,  forage  crops,  soiling  crops,  pasture,  sugar, 
condimentals,  miscellaneous  feeds,  practical  rations,  feeding- 
methods,  factors  affecting  quality  of  milk,  bedding,  fly  pro- 
tection, milking  methods,  milking  machines,  barns,  dehorn- 
ing, milk  contamination,  fermentation  of  milk,  pasteuriza- 
tion, formalin  as  preservative,  creaming,  separators,  care 
of  cream,  starters,  churning,  butter  making,  cheese  making, 
ereamei-ies  and  cheese  factories,  co-operative  associations, 
building  creameries  and  cheese  factories 


x  FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Page 

PART  IX 

Swine    Pages  495-559 

Statistics,  breeds,  types,  score  cards,  buildings  for 
hogs,  fences,  management  of  boar,  selection  and  breeding  of 
sow,  care  of  sows,  rations  for  sow  and  pigs,  weaning,  food 
requirements  of  pigs  from  bkth  to  maturity,  pasture  for 
hogs  roots  and  other  succulents,  soiling  hogs,  grains  and 
grain  by-products  for  hogs,  preparation  of  feeds  for  swine, 
tankage,  milk,  meat  meals,  etc.,  for  swine,  hay  and  miscel- 
laneous feeds,  wide  vs.  narrow  rations  for  hogs,  general 
considerations  on  feeding,  market  classes  and  grades  of 
swine. 

PARTX 

Sheep  and  Goats Pages  561-630 

Sheep,  pages  565-621.  Systems  of  sheep  fanning,  sta- 
tistics, breeds,  judging,  weedy  and  brush  lands  for,  be- 
ginning sheep  farming,  breeding  ewes,  bucks,  winter  feed- 
ing of  ewes,  period  of  pregnancy,  age  and  productiveness 
of  ewes,  care  and  management  of  lambs,  grain  for  lambs 
before  and  after  weaning,  fattening  sheep  and  lambs, 
roughage,  silage  and  roots,  grains  for  sheep,  hothouse  or 
winter  lambs,  sheep  ranching  in  West,  sheep  for  wool  alone, 
classification  of  wools. 

Goats,  pages  621-630.  Angora  goats,  handling,  milch 
breeds,  care. 

PART  XI 

Poultry    Pages  631-677 

Chickens ;  breeds,  feeding  for  eggs,  grains,  mashes,  ani- 
mal feeds,  stimulating  feeds,  grit,  salt,  early  molting,  build- 
ings and  yards,  characteristics  of  eggs,  packing,  preserving 
marketing,  desiccating,  factors  affecting  fertility,  hatching 
eggs,  incubators,  brooders,  classes  of  chicks,  fattening 
chickens,  marketing — Ducks;  breeds,  hatching,  feeding, 
buildings,  marketing — Geese;  breeds,  mating,  fattening, 
marketing — Turkeys;  breeds,  selection  of  breeding  stock, 
nesting,  feeding,  marketing.  Pigeons ;  breeds,  buildings  and 
fixtures,  hatching  and  feeding,  mating — Guineas. 

PART  XII 

Other  Useful  Animals  Pages  679-701 

American  bison  and  catalo,  deer,  elk,  antelope,  moose, 
preservation  of  game,  reindeer,  caribou,  musk  ox,  camel, 
carabao,  zebu,  rabbits,  dogs,  cats,  foxes,  skunks,  ostriches,' 
ruffed  grouse,  quail,  prairie  chickens,  pheasants,  peafowl, 
swans,  frogs,  fish. 


PART   I 

History,  Anatomy, 

Physiology  and  Breeding  of 

Domestic  Animals 


FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


HISTORY  AND  BREEDING  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


THE  DOMESTICATION  OF  ANI- 
MALS is  the  most  important  factor  in 
the  development  and  civilization  of  man. 
Before  man  had  animal  associates  he  was 
a  savage,  without  a  home,  without  culti- 
vated fields  and  without  sympathetic 
instincts.  Animals,  however,  have  pro- 
duced more  profound  changes  in  man's 
mental  and  moral  equipment  and  in  his 
social  and  domestic  affairs  than  any- 
other  feature  of  his  environment.  Ani- 
mals not  only  furnished  the  power  to 
subdue  nature,  cultivate  the  soil  and  in- 
augurate an  agricultural  system,  but 
they  also  supplied  food,  clothing  and 
many  necessary  utensils.  The  para- 
mount influence  of  domestic  animals 
upon  our  civilization  cannot  be  elimi- 
nated by  assuming  that  man  naturally 
had  the  impetus  toward  a  higher  form 
of  civilization.  The  races  which  have 
few  domesticated  animals  have  Temained 
far  behind  in  point  of  power,  commer- 
cial progress  and  mental  development. 

A  human  being  without  a  fondness  for 
animals  is  a  rare  and  strange  creature. 
A  bond  of  sympathy  exists  between  us 
and  our  animal  associates  and  this  sym- 
pathy has  led  to  the  establishment  of 
various  forms  of  association  between 
man  and  animals.  Many  species  of  an- 
imals have  found  how  to  profit  from  as- 
sociation with  man.  We  in  turn  have 
found  it  necessary  as  well  as  a  source  of 
satisfaction  to  utilize  animals  for  our 
own  purposes. 

From  the  thousands  of  species  of  ani- 
mals on  the  globe  only  a  few  have  been 
domesticated.  At  first  thought  this  may 
seem  strange  but  practically  all  of  the 
really  promising  species  have  been 
domesticated — most  of  them  before  the 
dawn  of  history.  Man  requires  certain 
characters  in  his  farm  animals.  These 
are  not  mysterious  characters,  however, 
but  simply  the  same  qualities  which  he 
requires  in  his  farm  workmen — the  abil- 
ity to  understand  and  willingness  to  do 
his  desires.    Farm  animals  are  useful  to 


the  extent  to  which  they  fulfill  these  re- 
quirements and  the  wages  of  farm  work- 
men are  rated  on  the  same  basis.  A 
balky  horse  or  one  with  vicious  habits  is 
of  little  or  no  value  although  his  strength 
and  speed  may  be  of  the  highest  stand- 
ard. 

Animal  characteristics—Perhaps  we 
have  not  all  realized  how  necessary  it 
is  to  have  an  understanding  between 
ourselves  and  our  animal  servants. 
But  everyone  has  noticed  differences  in 
attachment.  The  cat  becomes  attached 
to  the  place  but  there  is  little  or  no  per- 
sonal affection.  When  you  move  to  a 
new  home  your  cat  remains  at  the 
former  place,  or  if  taken  away  goes 
back  at  the  first  opportunity.  With  the 
dog,  on  the  other  hand,  home  is  at  his 
master's  side.  The  dog's  sense  of  local- 
ity is  as  well  developed  as  in  the  cat  but 
his  attachment  or  affection  is  a  personal 
matter.  The  dog,  moreover,  makes  great 
progress  in  understanding  his  master's 
business  and  desires.  We  have  all  seen 
dogs  which  knew  just  where  the  pigs  and 
chickens  were  allowed  to  range  and 
where  they  were  not  permitted.  Such 
dogs  will  learn  to  protect  their  master's 
interests  in  a  hundred  other  respects. 
All  of  us  who  have  seen  trained  sheep 
dogs  work  know  how  attentive  they  are 
to  their  business.  The  coyotes  and 
other  enemies  must  be  driven  away. 
None  of  the  sheep  can  be  permitted  to 
stray  away  from  the  herd.  Sleeping 
lambs  must  be  roused  and  driven  into 
the  herd  when  it  moves  away  from  the 
bed-ground.  These  and  a  hundred  other 
details  are  attended  to  without  any  ad- 
monition from  the  shepherd.  The  dog 
learns  how  to  frighten  stubborn  sheep 
without  injuring  them — by  threatening 
to  bite  and  otherwise.  All  this  requires 
a  high  order  of  intelligence — more  than 
some  of  our  human  servants  manifest. 

Cattle  show  less  of  the  personal  ele- 
ment in  their  association  with  man. 
Usually  they  are  perfectly  content  when 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA   OF  LIVE  STOCK 


they  have  comfortable  quarters  and 
enough  to  eat.  One  cannot  help  noticing, 
however,  how  differently  they  behave  in 
the  presence  of  strangers  than  with  their 
regular  attendants.  Like  children  in 
the  presence  of  company,  they  usually 
fail  to  show  all  the  wonderful  qualities 
which  have  been  ascribed  to  them.  A 
change  of  milkers  produces  a  loss  in  milk 
yield.  The  cows  are  worried  by  strangers. 

In  a  much  greater  degree  the  horse 
understands  our  desires  and  forms  close 
personal  attachments.  The  horse  knows 
instantly  when  a  stranger  has  the  reins 
and  soon  learns  whether  it  is  safe  for 
him  to  "soldier."  Our  horse  remembers 
kind  acts  and  also  cruelty.  He  knows, 
too,  whether  or  not  we  are  likely  to 
enforce  our  orders. 

The  domestication  of  animals  implies 
a  sort  of  contract.  It  is  not  a  one-sided 
affair.  The  animal  on  his  part  agrees  to 
fit  in  with  the  schemes  of  man  and  fur- 
ther his  purposes  by  doing  the  appointed 
tasks.  In  return  for  these  services  man 
is  under  obligation,  to  protect  his  animal 
associates  from  cold,  heat,  flies,  and 
storms ;  to  furnish  them  suitable  rations ; 
and  to  give  them  sanitary  quarters.  The 
domesticated  animal  is  a  servant  and  the 
servant  has  rights.  The  man  who  beats 
or  otherwise  maltreats  his  stock  is  not 
only  a  brute  but  a  fool  from  a  mere  bus- 
iness standpoint.  If  you  abuse  your 
farm  animals  you  get  less  wool,  less  mut- 
ton, less  pork,  less  beef,  less  milk,  and 
less  work.  This  is  one  case  in  which 
money  and  decency  are  on  the  same  side 
of  the  scales. 

Proper  sanitation — The  same  may  be 
said  of  farm  hygiene.  Animals  require 
sanitary  quarters  just  like  man.  Yet 
who  has  not  seen  farm  stock  in  stables 
quite  without  ventilation,  with  moisture 
dripping  from  the  walls  and  full  of  filth 
and  foul  odors?  Under  such  conditions 
stock  cannot  thrive  or  produce  a  profit 
for  the  owners.  Moreover,  animals  have 
the  right  to  healthful  surroundings.  In 
becoming  servants  of  man  they  gave  up 
the  freedom  which  enabled  them  to  se- 
cure plenty  of  fresh  air,  untainted  food 
and  a  clean  bed-ground.  Anyone  can 
readily  convince  himself  that  farm  ani- 
mals are  naturally  of  cleanly  habits  and, 
if  a  choice  is  offered,  will  not  voluntar- 
ily lie  in  filth  or  eat  soiled  food.  It  is 
an  easy  matter  to  encourage  and 
strengthen  this  tendency.  By  so  doing 
we  serve  the  interests  of  the  farm  stock 
and  our  own  pocketbooks. 


"Weaklings — In  this  connection  we 
wish  to  call  attention  to  a  reprehensible 
tendency  among  some  breeders.  Many 
fancy  or  pet  breeds  have  been  produced 
with  a  peculiar  and  striking  set  of  char- 
acters or  with  some  peculiar  feature  but 
without  health  or  vigor.  Such  creatures 
may  be  interesting  but  they  are  pitiable. 
Few  of  us  can  find  pleasure  in  the  study 
of  weaklings.  Vigor,  power  and  action 
are  more  attractive. 

Another  debt  to  domesticated  animals 
which  is  not  always  acknowledged  is  the 
fact  that  man  remained  a  savage  in  every 
sense  until  he  acquired  animal  friends. 
The  first  real  step  in  civilization  was  the 
domestication  of  animals.  Some  animals 
were  first  tamed  not  from  any  selfish 
motive,  but  purely  for  comradeship. 
Thus  the  dog  was  first  valued  as  a  com- 
panion but  was  soon  found  to  be  useful 
for  various  purposes. 

Successful  agriculture  is  the  very 
basis  of  civilization,  but  the  soil  could 
not  be  cultivated  without  the  help  of 
animals.  Man  needed  animals  also  for 
transportation  of  burdens,  for  food, 
clothing  and  for  innumerable  utensils 
and  articles  used  in  construction.  The 
races  which  showed  the  greatest  skill  and 
shrewdness  in  taming  and  training  ani- 
mal servants  made  the  greatest  progress. 
Similarly  today  the  most  prosperous 
stockman  is  the  one  who  has  the  most 
improved  breeds  and  knows  best  how  to 
handle  them.  Primarily,  too,  he  does 
not  raise  fine  animals  because  he  is 
prosperous,  but  he  is  prosperous  because 
he  keeps  fine  stock. 

Important  live  stock  problems — 
To  the  student  stock  raising  offers 
more  interesting  and  more  difficult  prob- 
lems than  any  other  line  of  life  work. 
The  world  has  long  worried  over  the 
various  questions  of  heredity  and  varia- 
tion. These  can  best  be  solved  by  work- 
ing on  domesticated  animals.  The  aver- 
age farmer  can  easily  keep  a  record  of  his 
animal  breeding  which  will  be  of  the 
utmost  value.  He  has  to  learn  how  to 
produce  more  fat  or  more  lean,  large 
bones  or  fine  bones,  long  or  short  legs, 
long  or  short  snout,  fine,  delicate  ears, 
the  proper  expression  in  the  eyes,  smooth- 
ness and  regularity  of  form,  a  well  bal- 
anced development,  the  deposition  of  fat 
in  certain  parts  of  the  body,  a  marbling 
of  the  meat,  strength  and  elasticity  of 
bone,  delicacy  of  skin,  a  certain  fineness 
and  length  of  hair,  definite  color  and 
definite  color  patterns,  feather  markings, 
size,  color,  and  form  of  comb,  wattles,  legs 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


and  other  parts,  lung  capacity,  tempera- 
ment, strength,  vigor,  action,  ability  to 
transmit  desirable  qualities  to  offspring, 
and  so  on  through  the  list  of  the  many 
thousand  points  which  have  been  at- 
tained by  breeding. 

The  great  strides  already  made  along 
this  line  have  not  been  accomplished  by 
accident  or  by  luck,  but  by  working  with 
a  definite  purpose  in  mind;  not  by  leaps 
and  jumps,  but  slowly  through  patient 
toil  and  after  numerous  failures.  To  the 
originator  of  a  new,  useful  breed  of  ani- 
mal the  world  owes  as  much  as  to  the 
inventor  of  the  most  useful  mechanical 
device.  These  men,  however,  are  little 
known  and  little  appreciated.  All  school 
children  are  taught  who  invented  the  tel- 
ephone, telegraph,  steam  engine,  loco- 
motive, etc.  How  many  of  our  readers 
know  the  names  of  the  men  who  contrib- 
uted to  the  origination  and  substantial 
improvement  of  Shorthorn,  Hereford, 
Angus,  Holstein,  or  Jersey  cattle;  mod- 
ern types  of  horses,  mules,  zebroids; 
Berkshire,  Victoria,  Duroc-Jersey,  York- 
shire, or  Tamworth  hogs;  Rambouillet, 
Southdown,  Dorset,  Suffolk,  Lincoln, 
Cotswold  or  Cheviot  sheep;  Wyandotte, 
Dorking,  Plymouth  Rock,  Orpington, 
Minorca,  Brahma  or  Houdan  chickens; 
and  so  on  through  the  almost  endless  list 
of  distinct  and  valuable  hreeds  of  farm 
animals  and  fowls. 

These  improved  breeds  have  contrib- 
uted untold  wealth,  comfort  and  enjoy- 
ment to  the  human  race.  In  order  to 
appreciate  this  point  more  fully  compare 
the  modern  Berkshire  hog  and  the  "razor- 
back,"  the  Shorthorn  and  the  Texas 
steer,  the  broncho  and  the  thoroughbred, 
the  common  goat  and  the  Angora,  the 
tough,  unimproved  fowl  and  the  Wyan- 
dotte. Breeders  have  made  improvement 
in  every  direction — in  the  quality  and 
flavor  of  the  meat,  in  the  value  of  the 
wool  and  mohair,  in  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mal, in  speed,  strength  and  endurance  of 
the  horse,  in  docility,  fertility  and  the 
power  to  utilize  feed  stuffs  economically. 

This  sounds  formidable  enough  on 
paper  and  in  practice  it  is  more  difficult 
than  it  sounds.  There  is  the  constant 
struggle  to  prevent  undesirable  charac- 
ters from  cropping  out  in  your  farm  ani- 
mals. The  process  of  improving  animals 
is  in  one  sense  unnatural  or  somewhat 
against  nature.  Certain  natural  tenden- 
cies have  to  be  overcome,  others  greatly 
developed.  The  sheep's  coat  is  a  protec- 
tion and  a  great  comfort  in  winter.  By 
careful  selection,  however,   we  have   so 


increased  the  weight  of  the  fleece  that  in 
warm  weather  it  is  a  positive  burden  to 
the  sheep  and  must  be  removed  once  or 
twice  per  year.  Without  man's  inter- 
vention nature  would  gradually  reduce 
the  amount  of  wool. 

Another  example  of  this  sort  is  seen  in 
milch  cows.  Native  cattle  have  small 
milk  glands  and  produce  a  quantity  of 
milk  barely  sufficient  to  nourish  the  calf 
for  the  first  two  months  of  its  life.  We 
have  increased  the  size  of  the  gland  and 
the  milk  yield  enormously  until  good 
dairy  cows  yield  6,500  to  30,000  pounds 
of  milk  per  year.  This  is,  again,  an  un- 
natural i^erformance  and  can  be  main- 
tained only  by  rigid  selection. 

In  the  hog,  in  turn,  we  have  taken 
advantage  of  the  tendency  to  lay  on  fat 
and  have  developed  it  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  hog  has  become  a  living  fat 
factory. 

Similarly  through  the  list  of  breeding 
achievements  we  have  exaggerated  cer- 
tain tendencies  and  suppressed  others  un- 
til the  breeder  must  be  constantly  on  the 
alert  to  maintain  the  high  standard  in 
his  stock.  Under  natural,  wild  condi- 
tions there  is  no  occasion  for  the  produc- 
tion of  a  ten-pound  fleece,  a  30,000-pound 
milk  yield  or  200  pounds  of  fat  and,  if 
left  to  themselves,  such  animals  would 
soon  return  to  the  normal,  wild  condition. 

The  animals  themselves  take  no 
conscious  part  in  the  improvement  of 
breeds.  In  fact  from  their  standpoint 
what  we  call  improvements  may  not  be 
improvements  at  all.  Animals  can  cer- 
tainly derive  no  advantage  to  themselves 
from  becoming  so  fat  that  they  cannot 
walk  without  danger  of  crushing  the 
bones  of  the  leg,  from  producing  a  fleece 
too  hot  and  heavy  for  comfort  or  from 
producing  three  times  as  much  milk  as 
is  needed  for  their  offspring.  These  con- 
ditions must  be  brought  about  by  man 
without  help  from  the  animals,  for  our 
farm  stock  can  hardly  be  expected  to  take 
interest  in  a  process  which  tends  in  some 
respects  toward  their  discomfort. 

The  unconscioiis  forces  of  nature  also 
operate  against  us  because  we  make  our 
animals  do  or  produce  more  than  would 
be  necessary  in  a  state  of  nature.  In  the 
natural  laziness  of  things  there  is  great 
inertia  against  doing  any  unnecessary 
work.  Enormous  milk  yields  and  in- 
creased production  of  other  animal  sub- 
stances constitute  a  more  or  less  serious 
drain  on  the  strength  of  the  animal. 
Their  health  is  liable  to  be  affected  and 
special  diseases  arise. 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


These  difficulties  have  been  overcome 
as  they  arose  and  it  is  therefore  unnec- 
essary to  consider  them  further.  They 
should  remind  us  again  of  our  debt  of 
gratitude  to  the  men  who  have  given  us 
our  modern  wonderfully  perfect  farm 
animals. 

A  farm  without  live  stock  is  an  in- 
complete idea.  Fields  of  alfalfa,  clover, 
rice,  sugar  cane,  cotton ;  orchards  of  cher- 
ries, peaches  and  oranges  may  be  beauti- 
ful, but  they  soon  become  tiresome  to  the 
eye  if  no  farm  animals  are  in  sight. 
The  well-sodded,  green  pasture  support- 
ings  cows,  sheep,  goats  and  horses  is  re- 
quired to  round  out  the  idea  of  farm  or 
homestead. 

Not  only  from  an  artistic  standpoint 
is  home  incomplete  without  animals,  but 
also  from  a  business  standpoint.  It  is 
impossible  to  sell  all  crops  as  such  to  the 
greatest  advantage.  Without  farm  ani- 
mals there  is  always  considerable  waste 
on  the  farm.  Small  undersized  potatoes 
must  be  thrown  away.  Turnips,  ruta- 
bagas, carrots,  cabbage,  cull  apples,  etc., 
are  allowed  to  rot  and  become  a  total  loss. 
Animals  manufacture  meat,  milk,  wool 
and  eggs  from  this  unsalable  material. 
Hogs  will  root  out  and  eat  all  potatoes 
that  may  have  been  missed  in  digging. 
They  will  also  harvest  other  root  crops 
and  will  pick  up  a  good  living  from  the 
shattered  grain  left  on  the  ground  after 
harvest.  Sheep  clean  the  weeds  out  of 
fence  corners  better  than  hired  help. 
All  this  work  is  done  without  expense, 
and  much  material  which  otherwise 
would  be  lost  is  utilized. 

There  is  another  practical  point  worth 
bearing  in  mind.  Farm  crops  are  bulky 
and  require  much  time  and  labor  for 
transportation  to  market.  Moreover, 
they  are  in  a  comparatively  raw,  crude 
condition.  In  the  finished  product 
(meat,  milk,  eggs,  wool,  etc.)  the  crops 
bring  more  and  are  more  easily  marketed. 
Many  farmers  keep  their  men  and  teams 
busy  all  fall  and  winter  long  hauling  hay 
and  corn  to  market.  The  same  hay  and 
corn  could  be  made  into  beef  and  pork 
on  the  farm  and  marketed  in  a  day. 
This  allows  the  men  and  teams  as  well  as 
the  farmer  himself  to  remain  on  the 
farm  and  attend  to  their  proper  business. 
The  fences  need  repairing,  a  few  broken 
hinges  are  to  be  replaced  and  definite 
plans  must  be  made  for  the  next  year's 
work.  The  whole  farm  should  be  care- 
fully mapped  and  crops  assigned  to  each 
field  for  a  period  of  five  years  in  advance. 
Such  plans  require  thoughtful  attention 


each  year.  It  is  good  work  for  the  fire- 
side in  winter  and  serves  to  keep  the 
farmer  at  home  rather  than  constantly 
on  the  road  between  the  farm  and  town. 

Farm  animals  contribute  much  to 
the  national  wealth.  We  usually  think 
of  factories  and  mines  as  the  real  foun- 
dation of  commerce  but  these  are  of  sec- 
ondary importance  as  compared  with 
farming.  In  1905  agricultural  produc- 
tion in  the  United  States  amounted  to 
$6,000,000,000.  A  large  part  of  this  was 
animal  products.  The  present  value  of 
our  horses  is  $1,200,000,000;  of  our 
mules,  $251,000,000;  of  our  dairy  cows, 
$482,000,000;  of  our  beef  cattle,  $662,000, 
000;  of  our  sheep,  $130,000,000;  of  our 
hogs,  $283,000,000.  These  are  almost  un- 
thinkable values  and  show  how  farm  ani- 
mals are  the  basis  of  our  national  great- 
ness. 

This  is  no  place  or  occasion  to  set 
forth  the  importance  of  meat  in  the 
human  diet.  This  is  too  well  known  by 
the  millions  who  eat  it.  A  corner  on 
meat  causes  unspeakable  anxiety  and 
even  panic  among  the  people.  The  work- 
ing man  must  have  meat.  Without  go- 
ing into  the  merits  of  the  vegetarian 
controversy  meat  is  indispensable  for 
most  of  us  if  we  are  to  remain  capable 
of  normal  work. 

Then,  as  already  indicated,  the  arti- 
cles of  clothing  and  manufacture  fur- 
nished by  animals  are  beyond  number. 
Our  debt  to  animals  is  large  but  we 
must  make  it  still  larger  by  greater  ani- 
mal production. 

Qualifications  of  a  stock  farmer — 
For  success  at  live  stock  raising  one 
must  put  all  his  time,  energy  and  thought 
into  the  business.  This  is  no  more  than 
must  be  said  for  any  other  business. 
Without  attention  animals  do  not  make 
profit  for  their  owners.  We  cannot  get 
something  for  nothing  from  farm  ani- 
mals. Special  education,  skill,  common 
sense  count  for  just  as  much  in  stock 
raising  as  in  banking.  The  time  has 
passed  when  the  man  who  does  not  know 
enough  to  do  anything  else  can  make 
success  of  stock  farming.  A  good  gen- 
eral education  is  required  and  also  ex- 
tensive special  training,  particularly  in 
chemistry  and  biology.  The  stock  raiser 
must  know  the  laws  of  heredity,  the 
principles  of  breeding,  animal  physiology, 
the  nature  and  treatment  of  diseases  and 
practical  hygiene.  This  involves  some 
engineering  skill  in  providing  water  sup- 
ply and  drainage.     Then  he  must  know 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


the  chemistry  and  effect  of  foods.  Brains 
and  skill  in  feeding  bring  results  and 
save  money. 

Stock  raising  a  science — The  man 
■who  understands  the  principles  of  feed- 
ing and  the  nutritive  value  of  feeding 
stuffs  will  be  able  to  compound  rations 
for  mere  maintenance,  for  growth,  for 
fattening  or  for  other  special  purposes. 
Stock  farming  is  not  a  trade  but  a 
science  combined  with  practical  skill. 
The  brain  work  is  far  more  important 
than  the  manual  labor. 

Farm  soils  are  not  inexhaustible.  Re- 
moving crops  year  after  year  is  like  draw- 
ing checks  against  your  bank  account. 
When  the  account  is  exhausted  in  either 
case  you  can  draw  no  more.  Now,  the 
ideal  way  of  cropping  the  soil  annually 
is  to  carry  farm  animals  up  to  the  limit 
of  the  farm's  capacity  and  raise  legumes, 
which  in  turn  are  effective  in  stock  feed- 
ing as  well  as  in  maintaining  the  fertil- 
ity of  the  soil.  When  the  farmer  hauls 
his  hay  and  grain  to  market  he  is  haul- 
ing away  his  farm ;  but  when  the  annual 
surplus  of  farm  animals  is  sold  the  farm 
and  its  fertility  remain. 

A  system  of  bookkeeping  {s  strictly 
necessary  in  stock  raising.  Otherwise 
the  farmer  must  work  in  the  dark,  for  he 
has  no  other  means  of  knowing  whether 
certain  methods  are  paying  or  losing 
propositions.  There  should  be  a  record 
of  the  performance  of  every  animal. 
Then  all  barren  ewes  can  be  fattened 
and  sold  for  mutton  and  unproductive 
cows  can  be  disposed  of.  The  stock 
raiser  is  thus  in  a  position  to  detect  and 
stop  leaks  in  his  profits. 

A  very  important  requisite  0f  the 
successful  stockman  remains  to  be  men- 
tioned. There  must  be  a  liking  of  the 
business  and  a  love  of  animals.  The 
farmer  need  not  be  fond  of  all  kinds  of 
live  stock.  In  fact  strong  prejudices  may 
exist  against  sheep,  hogs  or  some  other 
animal  simultaneously  with  a  special 
fondness  for  horses  or  cattle.  Cattle- 
men may  hate  the  sight  of  sheep  and 
sheepmen  of  cattle.  The  successful 
stockman,  however,  is  fond  of  his  ani- 
mals. He  has  names  for  all  of  them.  He 
knows  all  their  peculiar  habits — when 
they  sleep,  when  they  drink,  what  and 
how  much  they  eat.  He  therefore  recog- 
nizes instantly  when  one  of  his  animals 
is  "off  feed"  or  ailing  in  any  way  and 
promptly  attends  to  its  wants.  In  other 
words  he  knows  his  stock  as  individual 
animals,  not  as  a  herd.     The  peculiar 


requirements  of  each  animal  are  thus 
considered  in  farm  practice.  Farm  ani- 
mals differ  as  much  in  temperament  and 
habits  as  man.  In  the  same  herd  very 
different  dispositions  are  to  be  observed. 
When  these  differences  are  taken  into 
account  in  the  rations  and  daily  treat- 
ment of  different  animals  the  best  re- 
sults are  obtained. 

Farm  animals  must  continue  to  fur- 
nish us  with  food,  clothing  and  many 
other  necessities,  and  our  indebtedness 
to  them  will  increase  rather  than  dimin- 
ish. There  is  accordingly  a  glorious  op- 
portunity for  all  stock  raisers  to  improve 
the  quality  of  their  animals  and  an 
equally  fine  opportunity  for  the  great  ex- 
tension of  the  business  to  meet  the  ever 
increasing  demand  for  animal  products. 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  FARM  STOCK 

More  or  less  serious  attempts  have  been 
made  to  tame  or  domesticate  for  some 
use  almost  all  known  animals  including 
even  snakes,  crocodiles,  turtles  and  in- 
sects. Only  a  comparatively  few  species, 
however,  have  proved  suitable  to  man's 
uses.  Naturally  almost  all  of  our  impor- 
tant domesticated  animals  are  herbivo- 
rous, and  the  most  useful  mammals  be- 
long to  the  order  of  ungulates  or  hoofed 
-animals. 

This  order  of  animals  includes  the 
horse,  ass,  zebra,  camel,  llama,  alpaca, 
goat,  sheep,  buffalo,  bison,  zebu,  cattle, 
hog,  etc.  Ungulates  are  commonly  di- 
vided into  two  groups,  the  odd-toed  and 
the  even-toed.  The  group  of  odd-toed 
ungulates  includes,  the  horse,  ass,  quagga, 
zebra,  tapir,  and  rhinoceros.  Other 
ungulates,  except  hyrax  and  the  elephant, 
are  even-toed.  The  even -toed  or  artio- 
dactyl  ungulates  include  the  hippopot- 
amus, swine  and  ruminants  which  group 
in  turn  embraces  musk  ox,  cattle,  sheep, 
goats  and  antelopes  with  hollow  horns 
which  are  not  annually  shed,  and  the 
deer  family  with  solid  horns  which  are 
shed  annually  and  regrown. 

Eabbits  and  the  Belgian  hare  belong 
to  the  family  Leporidae  of  the  order  of 
rodents  which  includes  also  rats,  mice, 
squirrels,  prairie  dogs,  etc. 

The  majority  of  our  domestic  fowls 
belong  to  the  order  Gallinacese,  which  in- 
cludes the  domestic  hen,  turkeys,  guinea 
fowl  and  pea  fowl  in  addition  to  the 
various  species  of  grouse,  pheasants,  and 
quail,  some  of  which  are  raised  in  a 
state  of  semi-domestication. 

Ducks,  geese  and  swans  are  the  repre- 
sentatives of  three  families  of  the  order 
Lamellirostres. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


0 


The  numerous  breeds  of  domestic 
pigeons  are  descended  from  the  wild 
pigeon  (Columba  livia)  of  Europe. 

ORIGIN  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

Horse — This  subject  has  received 
much  attention  from  naturalists  and 
otbers,  and  a  great  variety  of  opinions 
has  prevailed.  We  are  told  by  paleon- 
tologists that  the  horse  originated  in  ""die 
new  world.  In  support  of  this  statement 
a  fairly  satisfactory  series  has  been 
worked  out  in  the  ancestry  of  the  horse 
leading  far  back  in  the  geological  history 
of  the  world  to  a  five-toed  ancestor  about 
the  size  of  a  rabbit.  Then  came  the 
three-toed  ancestor  of  the  horse  and  fi- 


grouped  into  five  species.  Sanson  was 
even  more  liberal  and  made  eight  species. 
Pietrement  practically  adopted  Sanson's 
system  of  classification  but  spoke  of 
races  rather  than  species.  Then  came 
Darwin,  who  rejected,  all  these  systems 
and  argued  that  all  modern  breeds  of 
horses  must  have  descended  from  one 
original  wild  species,  on  account  of  the 
"fertility  of  the  most  distinct  breeds 
when  crossed."  This  is  not  a  final  cri- 
terion, however,  for  there  are  certain 
species  which  produce  fertile  crosses,  for 
example  the  dog  and  wolf,  cattle  and 
zebu.  Nevertheless  the  majority  of  writ- 
ers have  followed  Darwin  in  recognizing 
only  one  species  of  horse. 


Fig.  3 OLD  BLACK  HORSE  OF  ENGLAND,  SOURCE  OF  OUR  DRAFT  BREEDS 


nally  all  the  toes  became  rudimentary 
except  the  middle  one.  Most  authorities 
seem  to  be  agreed  that  the  horse  origi- 
nated in  North  and  South  America 
whence  it  spread  to  Asia,  Europe  and 
Africa.  Subsequently,  for  some  reason, 
the  horse  became  extinct  in  the  western 
hemisphere.  All  of  our  present  breeds 
of  horses,  therefore,  came  from  the  old 
world. 

The  question  of  how  many  species  of 
wild  horses  have  been  domesticated  to 
form  the  basis  of  our  present  breeds  is 
a  vexed  one.  Hamilton  Smith  believed 
that  the  modern  horse  breeds  may  be 


Recently  Professor  Ewart  called  atten- 
tion to  the  constant  differences  between 
Celtic  ponies  and  other  horses.  The 
Celtic  pony  has  only  minute  hock  cal- 
losities and  the  hair  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  tail  is  long  and  forms  a  fringe. 
Then  we  have  Prejvalsky's  horse  from 
the  deserts  of  central  Asia.  This  is 
evidently  a  distinct  species  and  a  true 
wild  horse.  It  is  distinguished  by  a 
short,  erect  mane,  absence  of  forelock, 
and  short  hair  on  the  upper  two-thirds 
of  the  tail.  Prejvalsky's  horse  is  identi- 
cal with  the  tarpan  of  older  writers  and 
has  freely  crossed  with  the  domestic 
horses  of  the  region. 


10 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


\ 

i^JiS 

\ 

' 

^^gg^^ 

ye. 

..-.,  mm ■- ,ta 

IfSh^ST 

JBK  ■' 

l^Jf  ' 

DAN 

|Jn 

j.\i<  M  i  .-, 

■DAN   PATCH,  THE   WORLD  RENOWNED  PACER,  READY  FOR  THE  TRACK 
(By  courtesy  M.  W.  Savage) 


According  to  recent  studies  by  Ridge- 
way  on  the  origin  of  horsc<=,  the  horses  of 
northern  Europe  and  Asia  were  dun  or 
white,  thick-set  and  slow  of  action.  The 
Celtic  pony  was  of  lighter  build,  more 
elegant  form  and  more  active.  Appar- 
ently the  heavy  horses  of  northern  Eu- 
rope and  Asia  made  their  way  southward 
across  the  central  mountains  of  the  con- 


tinent, coming  to  Babylonia,  Palestine 
and  Greece  about  1500  B.  C.  About  the 
same  time  a  bay  breed  of  horses  appeared 
in  northern  Africa  and  attracted  atten- 
tion on  account  of  its  elegance  and  great 
speed.  It  bore  a  star  in  the  forehead  as 
another  distinguishing  mark.  This 
horse  was  the  ancestor  of  the  Arabs  and 
thoroughbreds  of  the  present  day.     Ac- 


Fig.  5- 


-TYPICAL  AMERICAN  ROADSTER  AND  RIG  IN   MODERN   USE 
(By  courtesy  Rider  and  Driver) 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


11 


cording  to  this  view  we  have  four  types 
or  species  of  existing  horses  :  The  com- 
mon horse  (Equus  caballus),  Prejvalsky's 
horse  (Equus  prejvalskii),  the  Thor- 
oughbred or  Libyan  horse  (Equus 
libycus)  and  the  Celtic  pony. 

Asses  and  zebras — Belonging  to  the 
same  genus  with  the  horse,  we  have  sev- 
eral asses  and  zebras  which  may  be  made 
to  interbreed  with  the  horse,  producing 
sterile  crosses  or  mules.  In  the  north- 
west part  of  the  Gobi  desert  lives  a  wild 
ass  known  as  the  dziggetai  (Equus 
hemionus)  while  the  Kiang  (Equus 
hemionus  kiang)  thrives  at  high  alti- 
tudes in  Tibet  and  Mongolia.  Through- 
out the  great  plains   of  Asia   is   found 


quagga  (Equus  quagga)  which  formerly 
roamed  through  Cape  Colony  and 
Orange  River  Colony  is  now  probably 
extinct. 

Cattle — From  a  geological  standpoint 
cattle  are  a  relatively  modern  group  of 
animals.  Their  original  home  was  in  the 
old  world,  probably  in  Asia.  Represen- 
tatives of  the  family  Bovidse,  however, 
are  now  found  throughout  the  world. 
From  fossil  remains  thus  far  discovered 
it  appears  that  cattle  were  originally 
polled  and  that  horns  were  developed 
later,  probably  as  a  means  of  defense 
against  carnivora.  The  absence  of  horns 
in  certain  modern  breeds  is  therefore  a 
reversion  to  an  earlier  condition.     The 


Fig.  G 


■LADY    SUFI 


THE   TROTTING    TRACK     FIFTY   YEARS    AGO 


the  onager  (Equus  onager)  and  the  va- 
riety hemippus.  The  African  wild 
ass  (Equus  asinus),  the  source  of  our 
modern  domestic  ass  still  survives  in 
northern  Africa.  The  Somali  wild  ass 
(Equus  somaliensis)  is  distinguished  by 
its  pronounced  gray  color.  At  least 
three  species  of  zebras  have  been  de- 
scribed with  numerous  varietal  forms. 
They  all  come  from  Africa  and  it  is 
likely  that  they  may  be  variations  of  one 
and  the  same  species.  At  present,  how- 
ever, distinction  is  made  between  the 
Grevy,  Burchell,  Common,  Grant,  Ward, 
Chapman  and  Crawshay  zebras.  They 
may  all  be  referred  to  the  species 
Eqv/us      zebra.       The     closely     related 


polled  ox  (Bos  planifrons)  was  succeeded 
by  the  aurochs  (Bosf  primigenius  or  urus) 
from  which,  according  to  Lydekker  all 
domesticated  breeds  of  European  cat- 
tle must  trace  their  origin.  The  so- 
called  Celtic  Shorthorns  have  been 
referred  to  another  supposed  wild 
species,  now  extinct  (Bos  longifrons). 
It  seems  unnecessary,  however,  to  com- 
plicate matters  with  the  assumption  of 
another  wild  species  as  an  ancestor. 
The  half-wild,  white  cattle  of  Chilling- 
ham  and  other  British  parks  are  stunted 
descendants  of  a  domesticated  form  of 
the  aurochs  and  are  not  truly  wild  cat- 
tle. The  aurochs  was  of  great  size, 
standing  6  feet  at  the  shoulder,  and  was 


32 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


probably  black.  It  gradually  became  ex- 
tinct during  the  twelfth  to  the  sixteenth 
centuries.  All  of  our  domesticated  cat- 
tle are  included  under  the  scientific 
name  Bos  taurus. 

Allied  species—While  all  our  domes- 
tic cattle  have  thus  descended  from  the 
aurochs  of  Europe,  there  are  other  related 
species  of  Bovidse  some  of  which  have 
been  domesticated  or  crossed  with  domes- 
tic cattle.  We  may  well  mention  a  few 
of  them  in  this  connection. 

The  Zebu  {Bos  indicus)  is  distin- 
guished by  a  hump  on  the  withers,  large 
drooping  ears  and  a  white  ring  around 
each  fetlock.  It  is  a  more  or  less  im- 
portant domestic  animal  in  Africa,  In- 
dia,   China,    Burma,    Siam    and    Mada- 


been  crossed  with  the  zebu.  The  crosses 
are  sometimes  fertile.  In  fact  a  gayal- 
zebu  hybrid  has  been  crossed  with  the 
American  bison  and  still  produced  fer- 
tile offspring. 

The  Banteng  (Bos  sondaicus)  occurs 
in  Java,  Borneo  and  neighboring  coun- 
tries. It  is  smaller  than  the  gayal  with 
longer  legs  and  a  white  rump  patch. 
The  banteng  breeds  freely  with  domes- 
tic cattle  and  has  been  domesticated  to 
some  extent.  Apparently  the  native 
Burmese  cattle  are  descended  from  it. 
In  forests  it  grazes  preferably  on  young 
bamboo  sprouts. 

The  Yak  (Bos  grunniens)  is  noted  for 
its  large  size,  height,  massive  horns  and 
fringe   of   long  hair  hanging  from   the 


Fig.  7 HANDSOME    TEAM    OF   MODERN    TROTTERS 

(By  courtesy  Rider  and  Driver) 


gascar.  In  Algeria  the  zebu  has  been 
crossed  with  domestic  cattle  and  the 
crosses  are  fertile.  Cattle  with  zebu 
blood  in  them  seem  to  be  immune  to 
Texas  fever.  The  crosses  also  produce  a 
good  quality  of  beef. 

The  Gaur  (Bos  gaurus)  is  massive 
with  large  ears  little  or  no  dewlap,  and 
dark  color  on  the  back.  It  is  found  in 
India,  Cochin  China,  Siam,  Burma,  etc. 
The  gaur  has  apparently  not  been  domes- 
ticated. On  the  other  hand  the  gayal 
(Bos  frontalis)  of  similar  appearance 
but  smaller  size  and  shorter  legs  is  eas- 
ily domesticated.  Even  when  allowed  to 
roam  at  will  in  the  forests  they  return 
at  night  to  their  owners.    The  gayal  has 


flanks.  Its  native  home  is  the  plateau 
of  Tibet  where  it  ranges  in  summer  at 
elevations  of  14,000  to  20,000  feet.  Do- 
mesticated yak  are  smaller,  with  slen- 
derer horns  and  may  be  kept  at  all  al- 
titudes. Domestic  yak  cross  freely  with 
native  Indian  cattle. 

The  European  Bison  (Bos  bonasus)  is 
now  extinct  except  for  a  few  herds  in 
the  Caucasus  and  Lithuania.  It  appears 
not  to  have  been  truly  domesticated  and 
not  to  have  crossed  with  domestic  cattle. 

The  American  Bison  (Bos  bison)  once 
extended  in  countless  herds  from  Penn- 
sylvania to  the  Bocky  mountains  but  is 
now  extinct  as  a  wild  species.  A  few 
thousand  are  preserved  in  the  Yellow- 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


13 


stone  and  other  parks  and  on  various 
private  estates  in  United  States  and 
Canada.  Our  bison  is  therefore  at  pres- 
ent in  a  state  of  semi-domestication.  It 
breeds  freely  in  captivity  and  when 
crossed  with  domestic  cattle  produces 
fertile  crosses  known  as  catalo.  These 
hybrid  animals  are  fertile  both  among 
themselves  and  with  either  of  the  parent 
species.  They  produce  a  shaggy  coat 
good  for  robes,  especially  when  the  buf- 
falo is  crossed  on  the  Galloway  cattle. 

The  African  Buffalo  (Bos  coffer)  is 
found  under  five  recognizable  varieties 
throughout  Africa.  Apparently  it  has 
not    been    domesticated     nor     interbred 


Sheep — The  ancestral  form  of  the  do- 
mestic breeds  of  sheep  (Ovis  aries)  is 
entirely  unknown.  The  wild  moufion  of 
Europe  (Ovis  musimon)  crosses  with  do- 
mestic sheep  and  has  been  considered  by 
some  writers  as  the  source  of  the  Euro- 
pean breeds  of  sheep.  There  is  no  good 
evidence  for  this  assumption.  It  is 
possible,  however,  that  the  moufion  is 
the  original  parent  of  the  European 
sheep  and  the  argali  (Ovis  ammon)  may 
have  given  rise  to  some  of  the  Asiatic 
sheep.  Wild  species  of  sheep  are  found 
in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  America. 
Although  specimens  are  kept  in  zoolog- 
ical parks  they  do  not  lend  themselves 


Fig.  8 LADY  PALMER  AND   FLATBUSH  MARE,  OF  FIFTY  YEARS  AGO,  AT  FULL  SPEED 


with  domestic  cattle.  The  Indian  buf- 
falo (Bos  bubalns)  is  found  wild  in 
India  and  other  parts  of  the  orient.  In 
a  semi-domesticated  condition  this  ani- 
mal is  found  in  southeastern  Europe, 
Africa,  Western  Asia,  Burma,  Philip- 
pine Islands  (where  it  is  known  as  car- 
abao)  and  neighboring  countries.  In 
India  the  domesticated  buffalo  gives 
more  milk  and  of  a  better  quality  than 
that  of  native  cattle.  The  period  of 
lactation  extends  over  about  three  years. 
Other  Bovidse  such  as  the  tamarau 
of  Mindoro,  the  anoa  of  the  island  of 
Celebes,  and  the  musk  ox  of  Arctic 
America  are  of  less  importance. 


readily  to  domestication.  Our  Rocky 
mountain  sheep  (Ovis  canadensis)  has 
apparently  never  produced  any  hybrids 
with  domestic  sheep.  In  former  years, 
however,  the  bucks  used  to  come  down 
among  the  flocks  of  domestic  ewes. 

Sheep  are  perhaps  more  influenced  by 
geological  conditions  than  any  other  do- 
mesticated animal.  In  England,  for  ex- 
ample, ea«h  region  has  its  characteris- 
tic breeds.  These  will  be  classified  and 
described    in    the    special    chapter    on 


Goats — The  zoological  differences  be- 
tween sheep  and  goats  are  very  slight  and 
many  naturalists    believe    they    should 


14 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


be  piaced  in  the  same  genus  but  re- 
frain from  doing  so  merely  on  account 
of  a  desire  to  avoid  the  confusion 
of  changing  names.  There  are  hairy- 
sheep  and  all  sheep  have  some  hair  in 
the  fleece.  The  difference  between  the 
horns  of  sheep  and  goats  is  no  greater 
than  that  in  different  breeds  of  sheep. 
All  our  domestic  goats  including  the 
common,  Angora,  and  Cashmere  goats 
are  domesticated  races  of  Capra  liircus, 
the  common  wild  form  of  which  is  the 
Persian  goat.  It  is  possible,  too,  that 
the  blood  of  the  markhor  {Capra  fal- 
coneri)  has  mingled  with  that  of  the 
Persian  goat.  Our  so-called  mountain 
goat  (Oreamnos  montanus)  of  the  Cas- 


from  the  European  wild  boar  by  the 
shortness  and  great  width  of  the  skull. 
The  Chinese  pig  has  been  repeatedly 
crossed  with  other  breeds  and  has  exer- 
cised a  strong  influence  in  shortening 
the  face  of  our  pigs.  The  same  results 
have  also  been  secured  by  selection  and 
breeding.  In  fact  shortness  of  legs  and 
shortness  of  snout  seem  to  be  associated 
characters.  The  Japan  pig  with  short 
head,  broad  forehead  and  nose,  fleshy 
ears  and  furrowed  skin  is  a  variety  of 
the  Chinese  pig.  There  are  other  wild 
species  of  the  family  Suidse,  but  they 
have  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  forma- 
tion of  our  modern  breeds.  Among 
those  we  may  mention  the  bearded  hog 


MODERN  TYPE  OF  HEREFORD  BULL 


cade  range  and  Rocky  mountains  is  not 
closely  related  to  the  goats  but  the  hair 
is  quite  like  mohair. 

Swine — Leaving  out  of  the  question 
the  pig's  fossil  ancestors,  which  have 
been  traced  back  at  least  to  the  eocene 
age,  we  may  start  with  the  wild  boar  of 
Europe  (Sus  scrofa)  and  the  Chinese 
pig  (Sus  indica.)  Sus  scrofa  once 
ranged  all  over  Europe,  northern  Africa 
and  Hindostan,  and  is  the  original  par- 
ent of  European  breeds  of  domesticated 
hogs.  Sus  indica  is  no  longer  known 
in  a  wild  state  but  was  domesti- 
cated by  the  Chinese  about  5000  years 
ago.     The  Chinese  pig  is  distinguished 


(Sus  barbatus)  of  Borneo,  the  wart  hog 
(Sus  verrucosus)  of  Java,  and  the  pec- 
cary (Dicotyles  torquatus),  ranging 
from  Arkansas  to  Texas  and  South 
America. 

OBIGIN  OF  DOMESTIC  FOWLS 

Most  authorities  are  agreed  that  the 
Red  jungle  fowl  (  Gallus  gallus,  formerly 
called  Gallus  banhiva)  is  the  wild  an- 
cestor of  all  breeds  of  chickens.  The 
jungle  fowl  inhabits  India,  Burma, 
Malay  peninsula,  Indo-China,  Java  and 
the  Philippines.  Several  geographical 
varieties  of  the  wild  fowl  have  been  de- 
scribed.    The  voice  of  the  jungle  fowl 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


la 


very  closely  resembles  that  of  domestic 
breeds  and  the  wild  form  breeds  freely 
with  domestic  races.  The  game  fowl 
most  closely  resembles  the  wild  species. 
In  fact  it  can  scarcely  be  distinguished 
from  it  except  by  the  larger  size  and 
more  erect  carriage  of  the  tail.  The 
jungle  fowl  is  difficult  of  domestication 
but  in  the  Philippines  wild  cocks  are 
kept  for  fighting  purposes. 

Brief  mention  may  be  made  of  other 
wild  fowl  which  have  sometimes  been 
referred  to  as  parents  of  our  common 
fowl.  The  Gray  or  Sonnerat's  jungle 
fowl  (Gallus  sonneratii)  of  India  resem- 
bles the  common  fowl  in  structure  but 
the    voice    is    entirely    different.     The 


increases  in  size  and  undergoes  changes 
in  color.  The  mallard  crosses  freely 
with  domestic  ducks  and  the  crosses  are 
fertile.  The  Rouen  resembles  the  wild 
mallard  more  closely  than  any  other 
duck.  Not  only  the  common  breeds  of 
ducks  but  also  the  call  duck,  penguin 
duck  and  hook-billed  duck  derive  their 
origin  from  the  mallard.  The  muscov- 
ies  come  from  the  wild  musk  duck 
(Cairina  moscha). 

Geese — Among  the  breeds  of  domestic 
geese  the  Embden  and  Toulouse  prob- 
ably descended  from  the  wild  graylag 
goose  of  Europe  (Anser  cinereus),  while 
the  brown  and  white  China  geese  seem 
to  derive  their  ancestry  from  the  wild 


Eig.  10 HEREFORD  BULL  OF  60  YEARS  AGO.      THE  WHITE  MARKS  ARE  NOT   PURE 

BUT   MOTTLED 


hackles  are  horny  and  transversely 
banded,  and  finally,  although  it  crosses 
readily  with  domestic  fowls,  the  off- 
spring are  invariably  sterile.  The  last 
statement  is  also  true  of  the  Ceylon 
jungle  fowl  {Gallus  lafayettii)  of  Ceylon 
and  the  Green  or  Java  jungle  fowl 
(Gallus  varius)  of  Java. 

Ducks — Naturalists  are  at  one  on  the 
point  that  nearly  all  our  breeds  of  ducks 
are  descended  from  the  wild  mallard 
(Anas  hoschas)  of  Europe  and  America. 
The  mallard  may  be  readily  tamed  and 
has  been  bred  in  domestication  for  sev- 
eral generations.  In  captivity  the  mal- 
lard in  the  course  of  a  few  generations 
acquires  the  gait  of  the  domestic  duck, 


Asiatic  goose  (Anser  cygnoides).  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities  the  common 
domestic  goose  of  India  is  a  hybrid  be- 
tween these  two  species.  The  domes- 
tic African  goose  may  also  be  a  mixture 
of  the  same  sort.  The  Canada  or  com- 
mon wild  goose  (Bernicla  canadensis)  is 
quite  widely  domesticated  and  is  also 
crossed  on  African  and  Toulouse  breeds 
to  produce  mongrels  which  are  sterile. 
Turkey— Three  species  of  wild  turk- 
eys have  been  recognized;  viz.,  Meleag- 
ris  gallopavo  in  the  United  States,  M. 
mexicana  in  Mexico  and  M.  ocellata  in 
Central  America.  The  first  two  seem  to 
be  merely  geographical  races  of  a  single 
species  and  from  this  wild  form  our  do- 


16 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


mestic  turkeys  are  descended.  All  the 
wild  forms  breed  freely  with  the  domes- 
tic turkeys  and  the  offspring  are  per- 
fectly fertile.  The  Bronze  turkey  stands 
nearest  to  the  wild  ancestor  and  its 
vigor  and  constitution  have  been  re- 
peatedly improved  by  admixture  of  wild 
blood. 

Guinea — The  common  guinea  fowl  of 
Western  Africa   (Numida  meleagris)  is 
supposed  to  be  the  wild  ancestor  of  our 
domesticated  guinea  fowl. 
ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY 

It  would  not  be  in  accord  with  the 
purposes  of  the  present  work  to  go  into 
details  concerning  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  domesticated  animals. 
It  is  desirable,  however,  to  discuss  such 
points  as  may  assist  the  farmer  in  ob- 
taining a  comprehensive  knowledge  of 
his  farm  stock.  (For  names  and  illus- 
trations of  various  parts  see  colored 
plates.) 

The  skeleton  consists  of  a  backbone, 
skull,  shoulder  girdle,  pelvic  girdle  and 
two  pairs  of  appendages.  The  backbone 
may  be  conveniently  divided  into  re- 
gions, each  comprising  a  certain  num- 
ber of  vertebrae.  The  cervical  vertebras 
include  those  from  the  skull  to  the  first 
rib.  In  all  mammals  except  the  sloth 
and  sea  cow  the  number  of  cervical  ver- 
tebras is  seven,  being  long  or  short  ac- 
cording as  the  neck  of  the  animal  is 
relatively  long  or  short.  The  first  and 
second  cervical  vertebrae,  known  as  the 
atlas  and  axis,  are  especially  modified 
so  as  to  allow  free  turning  movements 
of  the  head. 

The  next  region  includes  the  dorsal 
or  thoracic  vertebras  which  are  charac- 
terized by  having  ribs  movably  articu- 
lated with  them.  The  number  is  13  in 
the  cat,  dog,  ox,  sheep  and  goat;  14  in 
the  hog,  18  or  19  in  the  horse  and  ass, 
and  six  or  seven  in  domestic  poultry.  In 
mammals  they  are  so  joined  together  as 
to  permit  motion  in  several  directions, 
but  in  poultry  the  dorsal  vertebras  are 
more  rigidly  articulated,  those  next  to 
the  sacrum  often  being  grown  together 
with  the  sacrum.  The  spines  are  high 
and  much  flattened  in  all  ungulates, 
long  and  slender  in  dogs  and  cats.  They 
slope  backward  forming  strong  points 
of  attachment  for  the  back  muscles.  Sev- 
eral ribs,  varying  in  number  in  different 
animals,  meet  and  become  articulated 
with  the  breast  bone  or  sternum.  The 
sternum  consists  of  seven  to  nine  artic- 
ulated segments  in  our  domestic  mam- 


mals, while  in  fowls  the  sternum  is  one 
thin,  broad  bone  furnished  with  a  keel 
of  varying  depth.  The  lumbar  vertebras 
lie  between  the  dorsal  vertebras  and  the 
sacrum.  The  number  is  five  in  the 
horse,  six  in  the  hog,  ox  and  goat  and 
seven  in  the  sheep.  Tbe  sacrum  is  made 
up  of  a  certain  number  of  vertebras 
which  are  rigidly  united  and  serve  as  an 
articulation  for  the  pelvic  arch.  The 
number  of  sacral  vertebras  is  five  in  the 
ox  and  horse,  four  in  sheep  and  hogs 
and  12  to  17  in  birds.  The  caudal  or 
tail  vertebras  naturally  vary  in  number 
according  to  the  length  of  the  tail,  (7  to 
10  in  sheep,  21  in  the  ox,  23  in  hogs,  17 
in  the  horse,  22  in  the  cat,  16  to  23  in 
the  dog). 

In  ungulates  the  anterior  ribs  are 
scarcely  curved,  the  chest  being  very 
narrow  in  front.  The  number  of  pairs 
of  ribs  is  the  same  as  the  number  of 
dorsal  vertebras  with  which  they  artic- 
ulate. 

The  skull  is  really  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  modified  vertebras,  just  how  many 
is  not  determined.  The  bones  of  the 
skull  can  therefore  best  be  enumerated 
in  rings  beginning  with  the  base  of  the 
cranium.  The  first  three  segments  con- 
sist of  four  bones  each  (one  at  the  base, 
one  on  either  side,  and  one  above  the 
brain).  By  studying  a  weather-cleaned 
skull  of  a  sheep  the  following  bones  may 
be  identified:  Basioccipital,  two  exoccip- 
itals,  supraoccipital,  basisphenoid,  two 
alisphenoids,  parietal,  presphenoid,  two 
orbitosphenoids,  frontal.  These  enclose 
the  brain.  The  face  is  composed  of 
ethmoid,  lachrymals,  turbinated  and 
nasal  bones  in  addition  to  the  vomer, 
palatines,  pterygoids,  malar,  maxillary 
and  premaxillary  of  the  upper  jaw  and 
palate  and  the  mandible,  squamosal  and 
hyoid  belonging  to  the  lower  jaw  and 
tongue. 

The  difference  in  the  shape  of  the 
skulls  of  different  animals  is  determined 
by  the  relative  size  of  the  various  bones 
of  the  skull.  In  hogs,  for  example,  the 
head  has  been  much  shortened  as  a  re- 
sult of  breeding,  thus  giving  the  skull 
of  the  improved  breeds  a  very  different 
appearance  from  that  of  the  razorback. 

The  shoulder  girdle  consists  of  a 
shoulder  blade,  collar  bone  and  coracoid 
on  either  side.  The  foreleg  (or  wing  in 
the  case  of  birds),  articulates  with  the 
socket  formed  by  the  junction  of  these 
three  bones.  In  all  of  the  ungulates  the 
shoulder  blade  is  high  and  narrow,  the 
coracoid  is  never  much  developed  and 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


17 


the  collar  bone  is  absent.  In  fowls  all 
three  bones  of  the  shoulder  girdle  are 
well  developed,  the  collar  bone  being  rep- 
resented by  the  "wish  bone." 

The  pelvic  girdle  also  consists  of  three 
bones  on  either  side,  viz :  ilium,  ischium, 
and  pubis.  The  first  two  are  directly- 
articulated  to  the  spinal  column  while 
the  pubic  bones  of  either  side  unite  be- 
low to  complete  the  arch.  The  three 
bones  of  each  side  of  the  pelvis  are  pres- 
ent in  all  of  our  domestic  animals  in- 
cluding the  fowls. 

Legbones  of  farm  animals — There 
is  one  formula  for  the  bones  of  the 
fore  and  hind  legs  of  farm  animals. 
The  first  segment  is  a  single  bone,  the 
humerus  of  the  fore  leg,  femur  of  the 
hind  leg.  In  the  next  segment  there 
are  two  bones;  radius  and  ulna  in  the 
fore  leg,  tibia  and  fibula  in  the  hind  leg. 
In  the  dog,  cat  and  Belgian  hare  the 
radius  and  ulna  are  both  well  developed 
and  distinct.  In  ungulates  the  humerus 
is  short  and  stout  while  the  ulna  is  com- 
plete in  the  pig,  rudimentary  and  be- 
hind the  radius  in  ruminants  and  firmly 
united  with  the  radius  in  the  horse. 
Similarly  with  the  hind  leg  the  fibula  is 
a  complete  bone  in  the  pig  while  in  the 
horse  there  is  merely  a  rudiment  of  it, 
attached  to  the  tibia. 

The  original  type  of  the  mammalian 
skeleton  has  undergone  the  greatest 
modification  in  the  bones  of  the  feet. 
In  the  horse  there  are  only  six  of  the 
original  ten  wrist  or  carpal  bones  and, 
since  there  is  but  one  of  the  original  five 
toes,  the  horse  has  also  but  one  meta- 
carpal or  cannon  bone.  Splint-like 
rudiments  of  two  other  metacarpal 
bones  are  to  be  found  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  cannon  bone  or  at  the  "knee" 
joint.  Below  the  cannon  bone  and  form- 
ing the  shaft  of  the  foot  we  have  the 
small  cannon  bone,  coronary  bone,  and 
coffin  bone — the  last  being  within  the 
hoof  with  the  navicular  bone  behind  it. 
The  stifle  joint  of  the  horse  corres- 
ponds to  the  knee  of  man.  The  "knee" 
of  the  horse's  fore  leg  corresponds  to  the 
hock  of  the  hind  leg,  both  being  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  cannon  bone.  The 
fetlock  joint  is  between  the  large  and 
small  cannon  bones,  the  pastern  joint 
between  the  small  cannon  or  large  pas- 
tern and  coronary  or  small  pastern 
bones,  and  the  coffin  joint  between  the 
coronary  and  coffin  bones.  The  horse 
walks  upon  what  corresponds  to  the  nail 
of  the  middle  finger  and  middle  toe  of 
man. 


In  pigs  four  digits  touch  the  ground, 
the  first  being  absent  and  the  third  and 
fourth  larger  and  in  front  of  the  second 
and  fifth.  In  ruminants  the  third  and 
fourth  digits  reach  the  ground  while  the 
second  and  fifth  do  not.  In  dogs  the 
first  digit  appears  on  the  side  of  the  leg, 
not  in  contact  with  the  ground. 

In  fowls  the  wing,  which  corresponds 
to  the  foreleg  of  mammals,  shows  a  well 
developed  humerus,  radius  and  ulna, 
while  only  one  carpal  and  one  metacar- 
pal bone  remain,  along  which  the  wing 
feathers  are  attached.  In  the  leg  the 
femur  and  tibia  are  strong  bones  but 
the  fibula  is  a  mere  splint.  The  tarsal 
bones  are  absent  while  the  shank  con- 
sists of  a  metatarsal  bone  (really  three 
bones  fused  together)  to  which  the 
four  toes  are  articulated. 

The  muscular  system  of  farm  animals 
is  too  elaborate,  the  number  of  muscles 
too  great,  and  their  modifications  for 
different  purposes  too  complex  for  con- 
sideration in  detail  in  the  present  vol- 
ume. All  muscles  are  either  striped  or 
unstriped  (as  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope) according  as  they  are  under  the 
immediate  control  of  the  will  or  not. 
The  heart  muscle  forms  an  exception 
for  it  is  striped  though  involuntary. 
The  essential  characteristic  of  muscle 
fibers  is  contractility  which  they  possess 
in  high  degree.  The  typical  striped 
muscles  are  concerned  in  locomotion, 
being  attached  at  either  end  to  a  bone 
and  extending  across  some  movable 
joint.  The  most  important  unstriped 
muscles  are  found  in  the  walls  of  the 
intestines  and  blood  vessels.  (See 
colored  plates  for  location  and  names  of 
muscles.) 

Similarly  with  the  nervous  system,  in 
so  far  as  our  present  purposes  are  con- 
cerned, it  may  be  disposed  of  in  a  few 
words.  The  central  nervous  system  con- 
sists of  a  brain  and  spinal  cord.  The 
microscopic  elements  of  this  tissue  are 
peculiarly  modified  cells  consisting  of  a 
central  body  from  which  fibers  run  in 
two  or  more  directions.  The  cell  bodies 
constitute  the  gray  matter,  and  the 
fibers  the  white  matter  of  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord.  The  gray  substance  is  in- 
side the  spinal  cord  and  on  the  surface 
of  the  brain,  constituting  the  cortex. 
The  most  important  parts  of  the  brain 
are  the  cerebrum,  optic  lobes,  cerebellum 
and  medulla.  There  are  twelve  pairs 
of  cranial  nerves  originating  in  the 
brain  and  controlling  the  special  senses, 
movements  of  the  face,  respiration  and 


18 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


pulse  rate.  From  each  segment  of  the 
spinal  cord  a  pair  of  spinal  nerves  arises, 
each  of  which  possesses  both  sensory  and 
motor  roots.  The  sympathetic  nervous 
system  consists  of  a  trunk  on  either 
side  running  from  the  base  of  the  skull 
to  the  pelvis,  furnished  with  ganglionic 
enlargements  and  connected  with  the 
spinal  nerves  by  small  fibers. 

The  teeth  show  great  differences  in 
form  and  arrangement  in  different 
farm  animals.  The  typical  full  denti- 
tion includes  incisors  in  front,  followed 
by  an  eyetooth  or  canine,  premolars  and 
molars  or  grinders.  Each  tooth  con- 
sists of  a  root,  neck  and  crown.  Nerves 
and  blood  vessels  enter  the  tooth  through 


below.  The  dog  has,  when  enumerated 
in  the  same  manner,  three  incisors,  one 
canine,  six  molars  above  and  seven  mo- 
lars below,  while  in  the  cat  the  dentition 
is  tbe  same  except  that  there  are  four 
molars  above  and  three  below. 

Colts'  teeth — Colts  are  born  with 
the  first  two  incisor  teeth;  the  middle 
incisors  appear  after  four  to  six  weeks 
and  the  corners  after  six  to  nine  months. 
The  central  incisors  are  shed  at  the  age 
of  21/2  to  3  years,  the  middle  incisors  at 
8^2  to  4  years  and  the  corners  at  4V&  to 
5  years.  The  horse  thus  has  a  full  set 
of  permanent  teeth  at  five  years  of  age. 
As  a  rule  cattle  keep  their  milk  incisors 
till    the    age    of    18    months    while    the 


Fig.  11 REPRESENTATIVE  OF   THE  WILD  CATTLE   OF   ENGLAND.      A   DESCEXDAN 

OF  THE  AUROCHS 


the  root  and  terminate  in  the  tooth  cav- 
ity. The  tooth  substance  consists  of  a 
dentine  base  covered  with  a  hard  enamel. 
Considerable  growth  takes  place  in  the 
tooth  to  offset  the  loss  from  wear. 

Horses''  teeth — Normally  the  horse 
has  forty  teeth  or  on  either  side  of  each 
jaw  three  incisors,  one  canine,  and  six 
molars.  Occasionally  a  so-called  wolf 
tooth  is  present,  which  is  a  premolar 
tooth.  In  cattle,  sheep  and  goats  there 
are  no  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  while 
there  are  four  on  either  side  below,  no 
canines  in  either  jaw  and  six  molars  on 
either  side  of  either  jaw.  The  hog  has 
three  incisors,  one  canine,  one  premolar 
and  six  molars  on  each  side,  above  and 


permanent  incisors  are  all  in  place  in 
the  lower  jaw  at  the  age  of  five  years. 

Lambs'  teeth — Lambs  are  born  with 
the  central  incisors  and  the  other  milk 
incisors  appear  within  four  weeks.  The 
shedding  of  the  incisors  begins  at  the 
age  of  12  to  18  months  and  is  finished 
at  the  age  of  four  years.  The  pig  is 
born  with  the  third  incisors  and  the 
others  appear  within  three  months. 
The  permanent  incisors  are  in  place  at 
the  age  of  18  months. 

The  essential  parts  of  the  alimentary 
canal  0f  farm  animals  are  mouth, 
pharynx,  oesophagus  or  gullet,  stomach 
and    intestines    with    connected    glands 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


19 


The  pharynx  and  gullet  are  much  alike 
in  all  farm  animals.  Great  differences, 
however,  are  observed  in  the  stomach 
and  intestines.  In  ruminants  the  first 
three  of  the  four  stomachs  are  really  en- 
largements and  appendages  of  the  gul- 
let. The  names  of  these  stomachs  in 
order  are  (1)  rumen  or  paunch, 
reticulum,  (3)  omasum,  (4)  abomasum. 
The  last  is  the  true  digestive  stomach, 
the  other  stomachs  being  reservoirs  or 
concerned  in  preparing  food  for  diges- 
tion. (See  colored  plates  showing  inter- 
nal organs.) 

Likewise  in  the  dog  and  horse  the 
anterior  end  of  the  stomach  is  essentially 
a  gullet  enlargement  or  fore  stomach. 


in  geese.  The  digestive  stomach  of  most 
birds  is  relatively  small,  while  the 
gizzard  is  larger  and  furnished  with  a 
thick  muscular  wall 

The  blood  system  consists  of  a  heart 
and  blood  vessels,  arteries  carrying  blood 
from  the  heart,  and  veins  back  to  the 
heart.  The  arteries  are  connected  with 
the  veins  by  means  of  minute  capilla- 
The  arteries  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  veins  by  their  thicker,  more 
elastic  coats  and  by  the  fact  that  the 
pulse  can  be  felt  in  them.  With  the 
blood  system  is  intimately  connected  the 
lymphatic  system,  which  consists  of 
tubes  and  glands  through  which  fluids 
circulate   and   finally   enter    the    blood 


Fig.    12 — TYPE    OF    A    HIGHLY    DEVELOPED    HOLSTEDJ-FEEESIAN    COW 

(Kathereen  Beets  and  her  three-hour  old  calf.    Under  the  supervision  of  Cornell  University,  this  cow 

made  a  seven-day  milk  record  of  479.6  pounds;  equivalent  to  19.613  pounds  of  butter.) 


The  first  portion  of  the  intestine  is 
the  duodenum  in  which  digestion  is  ac- 
tive, followed  by  the  ileum  which  ter- 
minates in  the  cseeum  or  blind  sac,  con- 
necting also  with  the  colon  which  in 
turn  passes  on  into  the  rectum.  In  the 
horse  the  length  of  the  small  intestines 
is  about  56  feet,  of  the  caecum  21'2  feet 
and  of  the  colon  21  feet.  The  impor- 
tant digestive  glands  are  the  salivary 
glands,  liver,  pancreas  or  stomach  sweet- 
bread and  smnll  glands  in  the  walls  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines. 

In  chickens  and  pigeons  the  gullet  is 
enlarged  into  a  crop  for  storing  food. 
In  pigeons  the  crop  is  double  while  in 
ducks  it  is  little  developed  and  absent 


through  the  right  lymphatic  vein  and 
thoracic  duct  near  the  heart.  Inciden- 
tally the  lymphatic  glands,  situated  in 
the  head,  trunk,  appendages  and  body 
cavity,  filter  out  the  bacteria  in  the  cir- 
culating fluid  and  are  therefore  often 
swollen  in  cases  of  infectious  diseases 
such  as  glanders,  tuberculosis  and  lym- 
phangitis. Three  other  organs  should  be 
mentioned  on  account  of  their  connec- 
tion with  the  blood  system ;  viz..  spleen, 
thymus  and  thyroid  gland.  The  spleen 
is  found  near  or  sometimes  attached  to, 
the  stomach.  It  is  a  rather  firm  organ 
of  dark  red  color  and  is  concerned  in  the 
manufacture  of  red  blood  corpuscles. 
The  thymus  or  neck  sweetbread  has  the 


20 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


same  function.  It  is  a  grayish  red  or- 
gan which  is  highly  developed  in  the 
fetus  and  young  animal  but  gradually 
disappears  before  adult  age.  The 
thyroid  also  lies  on  the  windpipe  and 
secretes  a  fluid  which  is  absorbed  by  the 
blood  and  seems  to  be  necessary  to 
the  proper  assimilation  of  food  and  to 
the  physical  and  mental  development  of 
the  animal. 

The  respiratory  organs  include  the 
nose,  larynx,  trachea  or  windpipe  and 
lungs.  The  trachea  forks  into  bronchi 
and  bronchioles  of  smaller  and  smaller 
size  ending  in  the  alveoli  or  blind  sacs 
of  the  lungs.  In  fowls  there  are  numer- 
ous  extensions   of    the    respiratory  sys- 


The  kidneys  of  sheep,  goats  and  swine 
are  bean  shaped  and  without  lobes. 

The  reproductive  apparatus  consists 
of  ovaries,  oviducts,  uterus  or  womb  and 
vagina  in  the  female;  and  testes,  sper- 
matic cords,  seminal  vesicle  and  penis 
together  with  various  connecting  glands, 
especially  prostate  gland  and  Cowper's 
gland,  in  the  male.  In  fowls  there  is  no 
urinary  bladder  but  the  ureters  open 
into  the  cloaca  or  posterior  part  of  the 
rectum.  The  vagina  and  uterus  are  also 
wanting  in  fowls,  the  oviducts  opening 
directly  into  the  rectum.  The  male 
copulating  organ  is  absent  except  in 
ducks,  geese,  swan  and  the  ostrich. 

The  skin  or  general  integument  pos- 


Fig.   13 MERIXO  SHEEP  60  YEARS  AGO 


tern,  known  as  air  sacs,  and  located  in 
the  body  cavity  and  also  in  the  hollow 
bones.  The  air  sacs  communicate  with 
the  lungs  but  not  with  one  another. 

The  urinary  organs  0f  farm  animals 
consist  of  kidneys  connecting  by  means 
of  ureters  with  a  bladder  from  which 
the  urethra  conducts  the  urine  to  the 
outside.  In  the  male  the  urethra  passes 
through  the  penis  and  in  the  female  it 
ends  just  above  the  opening  of  the  va- 
gina. The  kidneys  are  usually  enclosed 
in  a  capsule  of  fat.  The  right  kidney 
of  the  horse  is  heart  shaped,  the  left 
bean  shaped.  Each  kidney  of  the  ox 
shows  15  to  20  lobes  and  is  oval  in  form. 


sesses  two  layers,  the  cutis  and  the  sub- 
cutis,  the  first  of  which  is  further  sub- 
divided into  epidermis  and  corium. 
The  subcutis  may  carry  much  fat  tissue 
and  gradually  passes  into  the  dermal 
muscles  and  other  tissue.  The  skin 
musculature  is  extensively  developed  in 
farm  animals.  Hair,  wool,  feathers, 
claws,  hoofs  and  horns  are  the  most  im- 
portant epidermal  structures  developed 
in  the  skin.  The  bony  core  of  the  horn 
is  an  outgrowth  of  the  frontal  bone. 

Process  of  nutrition — The  farmer  is 
not  interested  in  all  the  problems  of  ani- 
mal physiology.  He  is  chiefly  concerned 
with  the  processes  of  nutrition,  growth 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


21 


and  fattening.  Nutrition  is  such  an  im- 
important  part  of  animal  life,  however, 
that  nearly  all  organs  of  the  body  are 
concerned  with  it.  A  considerable  part 
of  the  animal's  movements  are  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  food.  The  teeth, 
tongue  and  stomach  reduce  the  food  to 
small  particles.  The  digestive  juices 
dissolve  and  otherwise  modify  the  nutri- 
tive elements  so  that  they  may  be  ab- 
sorbed. The  stomach,  intestines,  sali- 
vary glands,  pancreas  and  liver  take  part 
in  this  work.  The  dissolved  food  mate- 
rials are  absorbed  directly  into  the  veins 
or  are  carried  by  the  lymphatic  vessels  to 
the  blood.  By  means  of  the  circulating 
blood  the  food  in  solution  is  distributed 
to  all  parts  of  the  body.     The  excess  of 


nutritive  substances;  viz.,  proteids,  car- 
bohydrates, and  oils  or  fats.  Protein  is 
an  essential  constituent  of  all  animal 
tissues  and  must  therefore  be  present  in 
the  ration  to  a  greater  or  less  degree. 
Carbohydrates  include  starches,  sugars 
and  their  derivatives. 

The  mechanical  work  of  reducing  the 
feed  stuffs  to  fine  particles  ready  for  the 
action  of  the  digestive  juices  is  natu- 
rally much  greater  with  farm  animals 
than  with  man.  For  much  of  the  food 
is  of  a  coarse  nature  and  contains  rela- 
tively large  amounts  of  cellulose  and 
crude  fiber.  Some  advantage,  there- 
fore, is  gained  by  cutting,  cracking, 
grinding,  soaking,  steaming  or  boiling 
feed.    The  animal  is  thereby  saved  some 


Fig.   14 A   GRAND   CHAMPION    MERINO   RAM   OF    PRESENT   DAY 


sugar  is  first  stored  tip  by  the  liver  in 
the  form  of  glycogen.  The  waste  prod- 
ucts arising  from  the  breaking  down  of 
tissues  are  carried  in  the  blood  to  the 
kidneys,  lungs  and  skin  where  they  are 
excreted  in  the  form  of  urine,  carbon 
dioxid  and  sweat.  The  whole  cycle 
which  the  food  undergoes  from  diges- 
tion to  excretion  in  the  form  of  a  waste 
product  is  known  as  metabolism.  For 
the  farmer's  purposes,  therefore,  animal 
physiology  is  practically  the  same  as  the 
general  subject  of  nutrition  and  may 
well  be  discussed  from  that  standpoint. 
Nutritive  substances  in  feeds — The 
feeds  which  we  give  our  farm  ani- 
mals contain   three   classes    of   organic, 


of  the  mechanical  work  of  preparing  the 
feed  for  digestion.  The  economy  of 
these  processes,  however,  cannot  be  de- 
termined by  viewing  them  from  this 
standpoint  alone.  They  may  cost  too 
much  in  proportion  to  the  advantage 
gained.  Moreover,  in  ruminants  there 
seems  to  be  a  natural  demand  for  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  coarse  feed. 

As  soon  as  the  feed  is  taken  into  the 
mouth  it  is  mixed  with  the  saliva  and 
becomes  thereby  somewhat  softened. 
This  helps  in  masticating  and  swallow- 
ing the  food.  The  saliva  also  contains 
ferments,  especially  ptyalin  which 
changes  a  part  of  the  starch  and  cane 
sugar   in  the   feed   stuffs   into    dextrin, 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


maltose  and  grape  sugar.  If  the  food 
is  in  fine  particles  or  has  been  cooked, 
the  sugar  appears  within  half  a  minute 
while  otherwise  the  change  from  Starch 
to  sugar  may  not  take  place  for  two  or 
three  minutes.  In  ruminants  the  sugar 
thus  produced  is  apparently  fermented 
in  the  paunch  giving  rise  to  lactic  acid. 
The  saliva  also  exercises  a  very  slight 
effect  in  changing  protein  into  soluble 
peptones.  Fats  and  oils  are  not  chemi- 
cally affected  by  the  saliva,  but  are 
partly  emulsified  and  thus  rendered  more 
susceptible  to  the  action  of  the  gastric 
and  pancreatic  juices. 

Action  of  saliva — In  ruminants  the 
action  of  the  saliva  continues  in  the 
first  three  stomachs  and  is  greatly  as- 
sisted by  the  innumerable  bacteria 
which  are  taken  in  the  feed  and  water. 
The  bacteria  find  in  the  moisture  and 
warmth  of  the  anterior  stomachs  ideal 
conditions  for  their  multiplication. 
They  set  up  active  fermentations  which 
affect  starches,  sugars,  crude  fiber  and 
protein.  In  fact  crude  fiber  is  more 
extensively  disintegrated  by  this  fermen- 
tation than  by  any  of  the  digestive 
juices. 

The  saliva  is  active,  however,  only  in 
alkaline  or  but  slightly  acid  solutions. 
The  digestion  of  starches  and  sugars, 
therefore,  is  interrupted  as  soon  as  the 
food  reaches  the  stomach  in  animals  like 
the  horse  and  pig.  The  gastric  juice  is 
decidedly  acid  and  checks  the  action  of 
the  saliva. 

The  gastric  juice  0f  all  farm  animals 
(in  the  stomach  of  the  pig  and  horse  and 
in  the  fourth  stomach  of  ruminants) 
contains  enzyms,  free  hydrochloric  acid 
and  free  lactic  acid.  These  acids  check 
also  the  fermenting  action  of  the  bacteria 
in  the  food.  Protein  is  changed  into 
albuminoses  and  peptones  by  the  pepsin 
ferment  of  the  gastric  juice  assisted  by 
the  hydrochloric  and  lactic  acids.  Some 
of  the  albuminous  feed  stuffs  also  pro- 
duce nucleins  during  digestion.  More- 
over, carbohydrates  and  coloring  matters 
which  are  held  in  some  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances may  be  set  free.  Certain  pro- 
teids,  like  casein  in  milk,  are  coagulated 
before  digestion  takes  place.  The  same 
process  occurs  in  milk  when  rennet  is 
added  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese. 
The  chief  digestion  products  of  proteids 
in  the  stomach  are  peptones  and  albu- 
minoses. The  gastric  juice  contains  also 
a  ferment  known  as  lipase  which  breaks 
up  the  food  fats  into  free  fatty  acids 


and  glycerin.  The  carbohydrates  are 
not  affected  by  the  gastric  juice. 

As  soon  as  the  partly  digested  food 
passes  into  the  intestines  the  whole  mass 
is  rendered  alkaline  by  the  addition  of 
bile  and  pancreatic  juice.  The  bile  con- 
tains also  bile  acids  which  unite  with  the 
proteids  and  pepsin  causing  precipita- 
tion of  the  latter.  The  bile  has  no 
effect  in  breaking  up  proteids,  but  acts 
slightly  on  carbohydrates  and  fats,  emul- 
sifying the  latter.  The  movements  and 
secretions  of  the  intestines  are  greatly 
stimulated  by  the  bile.  In  most  farm 
animals  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice  en- 
ter the  intestine  at  the  same  point.  In 
ruminants,  however,  the  pancreatic  juice 
enters  lower  down. 

The  pancreatic  juice  is  the  most  active 
of  all  digestive  fluids.  It  attacks  the 
proteids  actively  changing  them  to  pep- 
tones, albuminoses  and  other  soluble 
substances.  A  small  amount  of  insol- 
uble and,  therefore,  indigestible  nucleins 
appears  as  a  result  of  the  action  of  the 
trypsin  in  the  pancreatic  juice.  This 
fluid  also  has  the  power  of  rapidly  emul- 
sifying fats  which  are  further  dissolved 
and  saponified  by  mixture  with  the  bile. 
Finally  the  starch  which  failed  to  be  di- 
gested by  the  saliva  is  almost  instantly 
changed  into  dextrin,  maltose  and  grape 
sugar. 

As  the  food  mass  passes  on  through 
the  small  intestine  the  bile  and  pancre- 
atic juice  continue  to  act  upon  it  as 
also  the  juices  secreted  by  the  walls  of 
the  intestines.  At  the  same  time  the 
bacteria  in  the  food  are  also  active  and 
finally,  in  the  large  intestine,  gain  the 
ascendency  over  true  digestive  ferments 
and  stop  the  action  of  the  latter.  Under 
the  influence  of  bacteria,  especially  in 
the  large  intestines  of  ruminants,  pro- 
teids are  peptonized,  fats  split  up  and 
carbohydrates  changed  into  lactic, 
butyric  and  acetic  acids.  Even  cellu- 
lose and  crude  fiber  are  attacked  and 
partly  disintegrated. 

Where  the  food  constituents  are  di- 
gested— From  the  above  brief  discussion 
of  the  digestive  processes'  it  is  apparent 
that  protein  is  digested  in  the  stomach 
and  intestines.  Fats  are  digested  by  the 
action  of  gastric  juice,  bile,  pancreatic 
and  intestinal  juices;  and  carbohydrates 
by  the  saliva,  pancreatic  and  intestinal 
juices.  In  ruminants  cellulose  is  disin- 
tegrated partly  in  the  stomach  and 
partly  in  the  colon.  The  length  and 
capacity  of  the  digestive  organs  are 
adapted  to  the  size  and  feeding  habits  of 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


the  animal.  Thus  in  cattle  the  alimen- 
tary tract  is  twenty  times  as  long  as  the 
body,  in  sheep  and  goats  twenty-seven 
times,  in  the  hog  seventeen  times,  in  the 
horse  and  ass  eleven  or  twelve  times, 
and  in  the  dog  only  four  times. 
The  capacity  of  the  alimentary  tract  is 
800  pounds  in  cattle,  450  pounds  in  the 
horse,  65  pounds  in  the  hog,  and  25 
pounds  in  the  dog.  In  cattle  the  feed 
requires  three  or  four  days  to  pass 
through  the  alimentary  tract.  About 
the  same  length  of  time  is  occupied  by 
the  digestive  processes  in  the  horse, 
sheep  and  goat.  In  hogs,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  complete  process  does  not  ex- 
tend beyond  36  hours  and  in  dogs  not 
longer  than  15  hours.  The  time  re- 
quired for  digestion  naturally  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  character  and  condition 
of  the  feed.  Thus  in  cattle,  green,  suc- 
culent forage  may  pass  through  the  ali- 
mentary tract  in  two  days.  On  the  other 
hand,  dry  hay  may  occupy  14  days  or 
more  in  the  same  process.  In  feeding 
experiments  in  which  the  ration  is 
changed  during  the  course  of  the  experi- 
ment for  purposes  of  comparison,  it  is 
customary  to  allow  six  to  eight  days  for 
the  last  remains  of  the  previous  ration 
to  appear  in  the  manure. 

The  digested  and  dissolved  portion  of 
the  feed  together  with  the  water  is  ab- 
sorbed through  the  walls  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  chiefly  the  latter,  and 
carried  by  means  of  the  blood  and  lymph 
vessels  to  the  tissues.  A  curious  trans- 
formation takes  place  in  the  protein  of 
the  feed.  After  the  protein  has  been 
changed  into  albuminoses,  peptones  and 
crystalline  bodies,  it  is  retransformed 
in  the  walls  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines into  ordinary  protein  and  appears 
as  such  in  the  blood  vessels.  An  enzym 
in  the  wall  of  the  stomach,  probably 
identical  with  rennet,  has  the  power  of 
reuniting  the  peptones  and  albuminoses 
into  the  original  proteids.  The  restored 
protein  although  chemically  like  the 
original  is  physically  very  different.  It 
is  animal  protein  whereas  that  in  the 
food  is  vegetable  protein.  The  animal 
is  thus  capable  of  partly  disintegrating 
and  immediately  reconstructing  the  food 
protein  according  to  the  organic  require- 
ments of  the  particular  animal. 

The  fats—Likewise  the  fats  although 
at  first  split  up,  as  above  described,  into 
free  fatty  acids  and  glycerin,  and  later 
saponified  in  part,  are  largely  recon- 
structed from  their  digestive  products 
in  the  walls  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 


tines and  appear  in  the  chyle  as  a  neu- 
tral, animal  fat.  Some  of  the  food  fat, 
however,  may  pass  through  the  walls  of 
the  alimentary  tract  into  the  chyle  with- 
out change. 

The  carbohydrates  after  digestion  are 
absorbed  chiefly  by  the  blood  vessels  and 
only  to  a  very  slight  extent  in  the  chyle. 
When  absorbed  they  are  in  the  form  of 
grape  sugar,  galactose  or  lactic,  butyric 
and  acetic  acids  and  their  salts.  The 
pentosans  in  the  feed  apparently  go 
through  the  same  processes  as  the  carbo- 
hydrates. 

Water  and  mineral  salts  are  absorbed 
into  the  blood  chiefly  through  the  walls 
of  the  intestines  and  to  a  much  less  ex- 
tent through  the  stomach.  The  absorp- 
tion of  digested  food  products  follows  the 
ordinary  laws  of  capillarity,  filtration 
and  diffusion.  The  absorbent  surface  in 
horses  and  cattle  is  five  times  as  great 
as  in  the  hog. 

The  undigested  portion  0f  the  feed 
passes  on  into  the  large  intestines  where 
finally  the  process  of  digestion  is  super- 
seded by  that  of  decomposition  due  to 
bacteria.  The  material  which  is  ulti- 
mately discharged  as  feces  or  manure 
consists  of  actually  indigestible  mate- 
rial, more  or  less  digestible  material 
which  has  failed  to  be  digested,  some 
of  the  digestive  juices  and  bile, 
epithelial  cells  from  the  intestinal  walls, 
and  waste  products  from  the  tissues  of 
the  body.  The  manure  contains,  there- 
fore, considerable  nitrogenous  substance 
as  well  as  mineral  matter.  In  birds 
the  feces  contain  also  the  urinary  ex- 
cretion. 

Function    and    character    of   blood 

As  already  indicated  the  blood  car- 
ries all  of  the  absorbed  food  materials 
throughout  the  body  and  delivers  them 
to  the  tissues  where  they  are  needed.  It 
also  carries  back  the  waste  materials 
due  to  disintegration  of  tissue  and  dis- 
charges them  into  the  intestines,  kid- 
neys, lungs,  or  sweat  glands  of  the  skin. 
The  blood  also  carries  oxygen  from  the 
lungs  to  various  parts  of  the  body  where 
it  is  used  in  the  process  of  metabolism. 
The  blood  consists  of  a  fluid  or  serum 
containing  red  and  white  corpuscles. 
The  red  color  of  the  blood  is  due  to 
hemoglobin  in  the  red  corpuscles. 
Hemoglobin  is  scarlet  when  charged 
with  oxygen  but  becomes  brownish  red 
when  the  oxygen  is  replaced  by  carbon 
dioxid  in  the  tissues.  In  cases  of 
anemia  the  number  of  red  corpuscles  is 
below  the  normal  and  the  blood  is  there- 


24 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


fore  incapable  of  carrying  sufficient  ox- 
ygen to  the  tissues.  In  certain  diseases 
the  white  corpuscles  become  too  numer- 
ous and  give  the  blood  a  pinkish  color. 
The  function  of  the  white  corpuscles  or 
leucocytes  is  a  hotly  disputed  point,  but 
they  seem  to  have  the  power  of  protect- 
ing the  animal  against  disease  to  some 
extent  by  directly  destroying  bacteria 
or  by  secreting  antitoxic  substances 
which  check  the  action  of  disease  germs. 
When  blood  is  withdrawn  from  the 
blood  vessels  it  clots  as  a  result  of  the 
formation  of  fibrin  filaments.  The 
time  required  for  the  coagulation  of  the 
blood  varies  in  different  animals  from 
V/2  to  25  minutes,  being  shortest  in  the 
sheep  and  increasing  in  length  in  the 
goat,  hog,  ox,  dog,  cat  and  horse. 


and  the  prompt  removal  of  carbon  di- 
oxid.  This  interchange  of  gases  takes 
place  in  the  pulmonary  capillaries 
which  come  in  contact  with  the  walls  of 
the  alveoli  of  the  lungs.  The  change 
in  the  color  of  the  blood  from  scarlet 
to  brownish  red  takes  place  in  the  sys- 
temic capillaries  and  back  to  scarlet  in 
the  lungs. 

The  rate  of  respiration  as  well  as  the 
pulse  is  greatly  influenced  by  exercise, 
but  as  a  rule  in  farm  animals  there  are 
four  heart  beats  for  each  respiratory 
movement.  The  rate  is  somewhat  higher 
in  cows  than  in  bulls  and  steers.  In 
cows  asleep  it  is  about  22  per  minute, 
in  rumination  24  to  36.  In  bulls  and 
steers  it  is  about  20  per  minute.  In  the 
horse  at  rest  the  rate  is  about  10  but 


Fig.  15 — AB'RICAN  FRILLED  SHEEP 


Normal  heart  beat — The  normal  pulse 
or  rate  of  heart  beat  per  minute  in 
adult  animals  is  as  follows:  horse  36  to 
40,  cow  45  to  50,  mule  and  ass  46  to  50, 
pig,  sheep  and  goat  70  to  80,  dog  90  to 
100,  cat  and  hare  120  to  150,  chickens 
140,  geese  110,  pigeon  136  to  138.  In 
the  newborn  colt  the  pulse  rate  is  100 
to  120,  at  two  weeks  80  to  96,  at  three 
months  68  to  76,  at  six  months  64  to  72, 
at  one  year  48  to  56,  at  two  years  40  to 
48,  at  four  years  38  to  50,  in  old  age 
32  to  40. 

The  purpose  of  respiration  is  to  sup- 
ply oxygen  to  the  blood  and  remove  car- 
bon dioxid  from  the  blood.  The  vital 
activity  of  every  part  of  the  body  re- 
quires  an   adequate   supply   of   oxygen 


may  increase  to  50  or  more  in  active 
motion.  Similarly  sheep  at  rest  breathe 
about  15  times  per  minute,  but  when 
running  the  rate  of  respiration  may  be 
as  high  as  140.  In  the  cat  the  respira- 
tory rate  is  24,  in  the  dog  15  to  18,  in  the 
hare  55,  in  the  pigeon  30.  In  young 
animals  the  breathing  is  slightly  faster 
than  in  adults. 

The  kidneys_As  already  stated  the 
blood  not  only  carries  all  nutritive  sub- 
stances including  oxygen  to  the  tissues 
of  the  body,  but  carries  away  the  waste 
products  to  the  various  excretory  or- 
gans. The  kidneys  are  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  latter  and  excrete  the 
urine  containing  urea,  water  and  various 
mineral  salts,  as  well  as  uric  acid,  hip- 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


25 


puric  acid,  kreatin,  kreatinin,  combina- 
tions of  sulphuric  acid  with  indol  and 
phenol,  coloring  matters,  aromatic  sub- 
stances and  carbon  dioxid,  nitrogen  and 
oxygen  in  a  gaseous  state.  Urea  and 
uric  acid  are  the  final  products  of  de- 
composition of  nitrogenous  substances 
in  the  body.  Kreatin  is  largely  derived 
from  the  animal  matter  in  the  food. 
Many  of  the  constituents  of  urine  are 
accidentally  present  and  vary  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  food.  Thus  various 
aromatic  substances  and  drugs  are  ex- 
creted by  the  kidneys.  An  excess  of 
sugar  or  albumen  in  the  feed  may  lead 
to  the  appearance  of  these  substances  in 
the  urine.  The  amount  of  urine  depends 
on  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  food  and 
drink  and  on  the  extent  to  which  water 


perature  is  regulated  by  a  very  com- 
plex nervous  apparatus  through  the 
agency  of  the  blood  vessels  and  skin. 
The  regulating  apparatus  is  so  delicate 
that  the  body  temperature  does  not  vary 
more  than  one  degree  in  health  even  in 
the  greatest  extremes  of  external  tem- 
perature. The  normal  temperature  of 
different  farm  animals  is  as  follows: 
in  the  horse  100  to  101°  F. ;  in  the  cow. 
101  to  102°  F. ;  in  the  sheep,  103  to  104D 
F. ;  in  the  hog,  102  to  103°  F. ;  in  the  dog, 
101  to  102°  F.,  and  in  poultry,  105  to 
106°  F.  From  these  figures  it  appears 
that  the  body  temperature  of  farm  ani- 
mals is  higher  than  that  of  man,  which 
is  98.4°  F. 

Milk  secretion—The  whole  group  of 
mammals   is   characterized   by   the  pos- 


Fig.   16 — MODERN  TYPES  OF  CHEVIOT   SHEEP 
(Champions  at  the  Smithfield,  England,  Club  Fat  Stock  Show) 


is  excreted  through  the  lungs  and  skin. 
In  cattle,  sheep,  goats  and  horses  about 
20  per  cent  of  the  water  is  removed  in 
the  urine  and  80  per  cent  through  the 
lungs;  in  hogs  60  per  cent  in  the  urine 
and  40  per  cent  through  the  lungs;  and 
in  dogs  85  per  cent  in  the  urine  and  15 
per  cent  through  the  lungs. 

The  sweat  also  contains  water,  fats, 
urea,  mineral  salts  and  aromatic  sub- 
stances. The  sweat  glands  are  quite 
highly  developed  in  the  horse,  while 
ruminants  sweat  very  little  and  cats  not 
at  all. 

Body  temperature— The  oxidation  or 
partial  combustion  of  the  food  sub- 
stances in  the  body  results  in  the  pro- 
duction of  heat,  which  is  to  be  consid- 
ered as  one  of  the  forms  of  energy 
produced  by  the  food.     The  body  tem- 


session  of  a  mammary  gland  or  udder 
in  which  milk  is  secreted  for  the  sus- 
tenance of  the  young.  In  farm  stock 
the  amount  of  milk  secreted  has  been 
greatly  increased  by  breeding  especially 
in  cows  and  goats.  For  the  first  few 
days  after  the  birth  of  the  young  the 
mammary  secretion  is  known  as  colos- 
trum and  differs  considerably  from  the 
normal  milk  produced  later.  Colostrum 
contains  a  large  amount  of  cellular  tis- 
sue from  the  udder,  much  albumen  and 
casein  and  relatively  little  fat,  milk 
sugar  and  salts.  The  total  solids  in 
the  case  of  the  cow  may  amount  to  38.5 
per  cent  in  the  colostrum  but  within  a 
month  the  amount  falls  to  the  normal 
or  12.5  per  cent. 

The  fat  content  of  the  milk  0f  differ- 
ent animals  is  as  follows:  4  per  cent  in 


TABMEB'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  cow.  -i.4  per  cent  in  the  goat,  5.4  per 
cent  in  the  sheep,  1.3  per  cent  in  the  ass, 
1.2  per  cent  in  the  mare.  6.4  per  cent  in 
the  sow.  9.5  per  cent  in  the  dog,  3.3  per 
cent  in  the  cat,  10.5  per  cent  in  the  rab- 
bit, 10.5  per  cent  in  the  elephant,  7.6  per 
cent  in  the  buffalo.  48.5  per  cent  in  the 
porpoise.  In  women  it  is  3.3  per  cent. 
The  milk  oi'  the  cow.  goat,  ewe  and  buf- 
falo forms  curds  after  the  addition  of 
rennet  while  the  milk  of  woman  and 
that  of  ass  and  mare  do  not.  The  com- 
position of  the  milk  of  all  species  shows 
considerable  variation  in  the  amount  of 
its  different  elements  depending  upon 
The  individual,  time  of  day.  season,  feed 
and  other  factors.  The  average  cow's 
milk    contains    about    ST. 5   per    cent    of 


Neither  casein  nor  milk  sugar  are 
found  in  the  blood,  and  the  amount  of 
fat  in  the  blood  is  minute  as  compared 
with  that  in  the  inilk.  The  important 
constituents  of  the  milk  are  therefore 
not  transuded  from  the  blood  but  are 
special  products  resulting  from  cellular 
activity  in  the  udder.  The  milk  fat 
seems  to  arise  from  a  process  of  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  cells  of  the  udder. 
Casein  seems  to  develop  at  the  expense 
of  the  albuminous  cell  contents  and  the 
origin  of  milk  sugar  is  not  known.  It  is 
not  influenced  by  the  character  of  the 
ration. 

Rumination  and  vomiting — In  con- 
nection with  this  discussion  of  the 
physiology  of  farm   animals  two   other 


Fig.  17 — LEICESTER  SH 

water  and  12.5  per  cent  of  solids  includ- 
ing fat.  casein,  milk  sugar,  and  ash. 
The  milk  of  all  other  mammals  contains 
the  same  elements  in  varying  propor- 
tions. 

Milk  sugar  js  an  animal  sugar  found 
only  in  milk.  It  splits  up.  yielding  lac- 
tic acid  which  causes  the  spontaneous 
coagulation  of  milk.  The  lactic  acid 
ferment  is  destroyed  by  boiling.  Fat 
occurs  in  milk  in  the  form  of  minute 
globules.  The  most  important  fatty 
acids  in  milk  are  palmitic,  stearic  and 
oleic,  and  the  melting  point  of  butter 
depends  on  the  relative  proportion  of 
these  acids.  Milk  contains  other  albu- 
minoids besides  casein. 


:r  A  HALE  CEXTLRY  AGO 

special  processes  should  be  described; 
viz.  rumination  and  vomiting.  Rumi- 
nants swallow  their  coarse  food  into  the 
rumen  or  paunch  to  be  returned  to  the 
mouth  and  masticated.  Water  enters 
directly  into  the  paunch  and  reticulum, 
passing  on  into  the  other  two  stomachs 
almost  immediately.  The  opening  be- 
tween the  reticulum  and  third  stomach 
or  manyplies  (also  called  omasum  and 
psalter)  is  so  small  that  coarse  feed  can- 
not pass  through.  The  first  and  second 
stomachs,  therefore,  always  contain  food 
even  after  a  long  period  of  fasting. 

In  the  paunch  the  feed  stuffs  are 
partly  macerated  by  the  action  of  diges- 
tive  juices,   water   and   bacteria.      The 


DOMESTfC  ANIMALS 


27 


feed  may  remain  for  a  long  time  in  the 
paunch  and  is  then  more  easily  regur- 
gitated. In  forming  a  cud  from  the 
coarse  material  in  the  paunch  and  ele- 
vating it  to  the  mouth  the  first  two 
stomachs  seem  to  co-operate,  but  the  ab- 
dominal muscles  and  diaphragm  furnish 
the  necessary  force.  If  the  abdominal 
muscles  are  paralyzed,  rumination  is 
impossible.  When  the  cud  reaches  the 
mouth  it  is  prevented  by  the  soft  palate 
from  entering  the  nasal  chamber  in  the 
roof  of  the  mouth.  The  mastication  of 
a  cud  may  be  prolonged  for  fifteen  min- 
utes. The  cud  is  then  swallowed  and  an- 
other    ascends    to     the    mouth    within 


which  the  material  is  not  discharged 
from  the  mouth.  Owls  and  other  car- 
nivorous birds  voluntarily  vomit  up  the 
bones  and  hair  of  their  prey  after  the 
meat  is  digested.  Various  other  birds 
can  easily  reject  the  contents  of  their 
crop,  and  in  the  case  of  pigeons  partly 
digested  material  is  brought  up  from  the 
crop  to  feed  the  young  birds. 

Vomiting  as  ordinarily  understood, 
however,  is  an  involuntary  and  patho- 
logical process.  Dogs  and  cats  vomit 
very  readily,  pigs  with  difficulty,  and 
horses  very  rarely  or  not  at  all.  In  the 
horse  the  stomach  is  small  and  cannot 
be  easily  grasped  by  the  abdominal  mus- 


Fig.  18 CHAMPION  LEICESTEB  AT  RECENT  INTERNATIONAL  FA' 


:K  SHOW  AT  CHICAGO 


about  four  seconds.  The  masticated 
cud  after  being  swallowed  ] 
through  the  opening  between  the  second 
and  third  stomachs  and  thence  into  the 
fourth  or  true  digestive  stomach.  Ru- 
mination  is  impossible  if  the  paunch  is 
not  fairly  well  distended  with  food. 
The  process  appears  to  be  voluntary  but 
is  partly  a  reflex,  unconscious  action, 
performed  as  a  rule  while  lying  down. 
Rumination  is  interrupted  by  fright, 
pain  or  disease,  and  this  well  known  fact 
has  given  rise  to  the  fallacy  that  such 
animals  have  'lost  their  cud." 

Rumination  may  be  regarded  as  a  reg- 
ulated, voluntary  process  of  vomiting  in 


cles  so  as  to  force  its  contents  upward. 
Reproduction  _  The  physiological 
processes  thus  far  discussed  are  con- 
cerned with  the  preservation  of  the  in- 
dividual. "VTe  may  now  refer  briefly  to 
the  essential  features  of  reproduction 
or  preservation  of  the  race.  In  all 
birds  and  mammals  the  female  repro- 
ductive elements  are  eggs  produced  in 
ovaries  while  the  male  elements  are 
spermatozoa  produced  in  testicles.  The 
egg  is  fertilized  by  the  union  of  a  sper- 
matozoon with  it  and  at  once  begins  to 
develop.  In  birds  the  egg  is  fertilized 
at  or  near  the  ovary  after  which  the 
white  of  the  egg,  shell  membrane  and 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


shell  are  formed,  and  further  develop- 
ment within  the  egg  ceases  until  the  egg 
is  incubated  by  natural  or  artificial  heat. 
In  mammals  likewise  the  egg  is  ferti- 
lized at  the  surface  of  the  ovary  or  in 
the  oviduct  after  which  it  passes  into 
the  uterus.  ;Here  it  becomes  attached, 
surrounded  with  membranes  and  under- 
goes its  development.  The  necessary 
sustenance  for  the  developing  bird  is 
furnished  in  the  large  yolk  and  white  of 
the  egg.  In  mammals  the  nutriment  for 
the  fetus  comes  directly  from  the  blood 
of  the  motber  through  the  uterine  walls, 
and  by  means  of  an  interlacing  network 
of  maternal  and  fetal  blood  vessels. 

The  duration  of  pregnancy  0r  gesta- 
tion is  four  weeks  in  the  hare,  eight 
weeks  in  the  cat,  nine  weeks  in  the  dog, 
XI  weeks  in  the  sow  21  weeks  in  the 
sheep,  22  weeks  in  the  goat,  41  weeks 
in  the  cow,  47  weeks  in  the  mare,  12 
months  in  the  ass. 

The  number  of  young  born  by  mam- 
mals has  been  considerably  increased  by 
domestication,  breeding  and  selection. 
The  tendency  to  produce  twins  in  the 
case  of  sheep  and  large  litters  in  the 
case  of  the  sow  is  hereditary  as  is  also 
the  tendency  to  come  into  heat  at  fre- 
quent intervals.  The  mare  comes  into 
heat  about  10  or  12  days  after  parturi- 
tion and  the  cow  after  20  days.  In  gen- 
eral the  number  of  young  born  at  one 
time  varies  with  the  size  of  the  species 
and  the  length  of  the  period  of  preg- 
nancy. The  number  of  young  is  great- 
est in  small  mammals  and  those  with  a 
short  period  of  gestation. 

Barrenness  or  sterility  y?\\\  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  chapter  on  animal  diseases. 
BREEDING  FARM  ANIMALS 

In  breeding  farm  animals  the  purpose 
is  not  merely  to  increase  the  number  of 
individual  animals  and  thus  perpetu- 
ate the  race,  but  also  to  improve  the 
quality  of  the  individual.  Intelligent 
breeding  is  done  with  some  definite  ob- 
ject in  view.  The  breeder  has  a  pur- 
pose in  mind  and  wishes  to  obtain  an- 
imals which  conform  to  some  standard 
in  respect  to  size,  weight,  form,  color, 
proportion  of  parts,  quality  of  meat,  pro- 
ductiveness of  milk,  wool,  mohair  or 
other  products,  speed,  action,  disposition, 
fertility,  early  breeding  habits,  vigor, 
constitution,  ability  to  transmit  good 
characters  to  offspring,  and  numberless 
other  points  which  may  be  considered 
the  legitimate  aims  of  breeders.  Some 
matters  recorded  in  the  literature  of  this 
field  of  study  are  of  too  theoretical  or 


controversial  nature  to  suit  the  purposes 
of  the  present  volume.  An  intelligent 
discussion  of  the  subject,  however,  is  im- 
possible without  considering  the  impor- 
tant basis  of  theory  upon  which  practi- 
cal breeding  proceeds.  To  be  sure  these 
theories,  in  so  far  as  they  have  any  real 
value,  are  themselves  based  on  actual 
practice  or  experiments  in  breeding.  The 
results  of  practice  and  experiments,  for- 
mulated more  or  less  wisely  into  hypoth- 
eses or  theories,  serve  to  guide  breeders 
in  subsequent  experiments  which  in  turn 
may  substantiate  or  discredit  the  theo- 
retical propositions  thus  far  maintained 
by  breeders. 

Artificial  selection—Breeding  is  es- 
sentially a  process  of  artificial  evolution 
in  which  man  attempts  to  regulate 
and  develop  natural  tendencies  in  a 
definite  direction.  In  natural  evolu- 
tion the  fit  and  the  unfit  live  together 
and  interbreed,  at  least  so  long  as  the 
unfit  are  able  to  exist.  Progress  in  any 
given  direction  is  therefore  slow,  being 
greatly  retarded  by  the  intermixing  of 
incongruous  tendencies.  In  the  origi- 
nation and  improvement  of  breeds  of 
live  stock,  on  the  other  hand,  artificial 
selection  is  rigidly  enforced  and  only 
those  animals  which  show  the  desired 
characters  in  the  highest  degree  are 
used  for  breeding  purposes.  In  this  way 
undesirable  tendencies  are  eliminated 
and  the  process  of  evolution  greatly 
hastened. 

Heredity — In  general  the  young  of 
animals  resemble  their  parents  more  or 
less  closely.  In  the  language  of  the 
breeder  like  produces  like.  This  ten- 
dency on  the  part  of  offspring  to  resem- 
ble their  parents  is  called  heredity  and 
is  necessarily  an  important  factor  in 
all  breeding  work.  But  if  offspring 
were  exactly  like  their  parents  that 
would  be  the  end  of  the  matter  and 
there  would  be  neither  a  science  nor 
an  art  of  breeding.  Fortunately  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact  no  two  animals  are  exactly 
alike.  If  a  number  of  sheep,  hogs,  cattle 
or  other  farm  stock  of  the  the  same  breed 
and  closest  relationship  be  examined, 
they  will  be  found  to  show  differences 
in  form,  size,  color,  disposition,  etc.  This 
tendency  of  animals  to  differ  from  one 
another  and  from  their  parents  is  called 
variation  and  is  the  corner  stone  of  the 
whole  science  and  art  of  breeding. 

Variation — Darwin  in  his  "Origin  of 
Species"  and  "Plants  and  Animals 
under  Domestication"  recorded  an  enor- 
mous number  of  facts  regarding  the  de- 
tails of  variation  in  domesticated  ani- 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


29 


mals.  Other  investigators  have  recorded 
further  facts  of  variation  until  we  now 
have  available  a  great  mass  of  such 
material.  Eecently  a  tendency  has  de- 
veloped to  measure  these  variations  and 
to  express  them  in  mathematical  terms 
and  formulae.  We  may  proceed  first  to 
a  discussion  of  the  causes  of  variation. 
At  the  very  outset  we  must  admit  that 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  conceive 
of  the  absolute  identity  of  two  such  com- 
plicated structures  as  farm  animals. 
No  two  eggs  from  the  same  female  can 
be  identical.  They  are  matured  at 
slightly  different  times  and  are  formed 
of  different  particles  of  organic  sub- 
stances which  in  turn  were  received 
from  the  blood  at  different  times,  and 
from  different  sources.  It  is  impossible, 
therefore,  for  a  female  animal  to  produce 
two  identical  offspring  from  different 
eggs  even  if  both  eggs  could  be  ferti- 
lized by  one  and  the  same  spermatozoon 
— 'another  impossibility.  For  the  same 
reason  no  two  spermatozoa  can  be  ex- 
actly the  same.  This  hereditary  varia- 
tion is  ascribed  by  Weismann  to  the  di- 
rect action  of  external  influences  on  the 
biophors  or  "life  bearers"  of  the  egg  and 
spermatozoon. 

Sex  influenced  by  feed — Now,  with- 
out entering  as  yet  into  the  subject  of 
determination  of  sex  in  animals,  it  may 
be  remarked  that  according  to  numer- 
ous experiments  the  quality  of  nutri- 
tion exercises  some  influence  in  deter- 
mining the  sexuality  of  the  germ  cell 
both  before  and  after  fertilization.  That 
inequalities  in  nutrition  exercise  an  in- 
fluence on  the  germ  cells  must  be  as- 
sumed to  be  true,  but  the  exact  nature 
of  the  influence  is  not  exactly  known. 
According  to  Vernon  it  appears  that  a 
highly  nourished  egg  as  compared  with 
one  receiving  less  nutriment  is  more 
likely  to  develop  into  a  female.  The 
general  nutritive  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal exercises  a  favorable  or  unfavorable 
influence  on  the  germ  cells  according  as 
the  animal  is  excessively  poor  or  fat. 
Undue  accumulation  of  fat  about  the 
ovaries  and  testes  is  unfavorable  to  the 
best  development  of  the  eggs  and  sper- 
matozoa. 

Vigor  of  offspring — Considerable 
seasonal  variation  occurs  in  the  size 
and  vigor  of  offspring.  Thus  for  exam- 
ple it  seems  undesirable  to  breed  sheep 
during  the  hot  weather  of  summer, 
even  where  it  is  possible  as  is  the  case 
with  Dorsets.  The  unfavorable  influ- 
ence of  hot  weather  may  be  exercised 
throughout    the    period    of    pregnancy 


but  it  is  doubtless  active  to  some  ex- 
tent at  the  time  of  impregnation  and 
just  previously.  Professor  Ewart  has 
observed  that  rabbits  fertilized  before 
the  eggs  are  mature  are  likely  to  pro- 
duce young  which  resemble  the  male, 
while,  if  fertilization  takes  place  late  in 
the  period  of  heat,  the  offspring  partake 
more  of  the  characters  of  the  mother. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  charac- 
ters of  the  progeny  are  in  some  degree 
related  to  the  condition  of  the  germ  cells 
at  the  time  of  fertilization. 

Parental  tendencies— In  animals 
like  swine  and  hare  which  bear  several 
young  at  each  birth,  the  individuals  of 
the  same  litter  may  differ  as  greatly 
as  those  of  different  litters  from  the 
same  parents.  During  gestation  all  the 
fetuses  of  a  given  litter  are  presum- 
ably subjected  to  as  nearly  identical 
conditions  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain. 
The  differences  which  appear  in  the 
young  at  the  time  of  birth  are  hence 
largely  predetermined  in  the  germ  cells. 
According  to  Weismann  the  characters 
of  the  offspring  are  almost  entirely  de- 
termined at  the  time  of  union  of  the 
germ  cells.  The  great  variation  observed 
m  offspring  of  the  same  parents  would 
thus  be  due  to  unlimited  possible  per- 
mutations in  the  mixing  of  ancestral 
tendencies  from  both  parents. 

Size  influenced  by  feed — The  only 
instance  in  which  the  offspring  do  not 
differ  considerably  is  in  the  case  of 
identical  twins  which  have  been  studied 
by  Galton  and  Weismann  and  are  prob- 
ably developed  from  a  single  egg  and 
sperm  cell.  But  even  identical  twins 
differ  slightly  in  some  points  and  this 
indicates  clearly  that  differences  in 
feed  and  environment  are  not  without 
effect  during  the  development  of  the 
animal.  Convincing  evidences  of  this 
fact  are  familiar  to  every  observing 
stockman.  If  the  milk  of  the  mother  is 
defective  in  quantity  or  quality,  pigs 
and  lambs  may  be  so  stunted  in  early  life 
that  they  never  attain  their  normal  de- 
velopment. Chickens  improperly  or  in- 
sufficiently fed  during  the  first  week  may 
never  reach  more  than  half  their  normal 
size.  The  size  and  character  of  the  vital 
organs,  strength  of  the  bones  and  even 
the  quality  of  the  meat  are  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  kind  of  ration.  Excess- 
ive infestation  of  cbickens  with  lice  and 
cattle  with  ticks  stunts  growth.  Tick 
infested  cattle  at  maturity  are  200 
pounds  lighter  than  other  cattle  of  the 
same  breed  which  are  free  from  ticks. 
Moreover,  infestation  with  ticks  may  de- 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


lay  the  sexual  maturity  of  cows  so  that 
they  will  not  breed  until  four  years  of 
age.  But  it  is  not  necessary  further  to 
multiply  examples  of  the  influence  of 
environment  on  farm  animals.  It  is 
evident  that  not  all  the  characters  of 
the  adult  animal  are  predetermined  at 
the  time  of  its  conception.  In  other 
words  it  is  desirable  for  the  breeder  to 
give  close  heed  to  the  selection  of  the 
parents  and  to  the  care  and  feed  of  the 
offspring  until  maturity. 

The  influence  of  the  maternal  fluids 
upon  the  young  during  pregnancy  are 
apparently  of  less  importance.  Such  in- 
fluence, whatever  it  may  be,  cannot  be 
determined  with  any  certainty.     Ferti- 


and  firmly  fixed  while  those  of  the 
mother  are  of  a  more  mixed  and  inde- 
terminate nature.  On  the  basis  of 
equal  inheritance  from  both  parents 
Galton  formulated  his  law  of  ancestral 
heredity.  According  to  this  law  the 
characters  of  the  progeny  are  determined 
by  the  whole  line  of  ancestors,  being  a 
mixture  of  all  their  tendencies.  The  im- 
mediate parents  contribute  half  of  the 
characters  and  all  the  other  ancestors  to- 
gether contribute  the  other  half,  the  four 
grandparents  furnishing  one-fourth,  the 
eight  great-grandparents  one-eighth,  etc. 
In  other  words  each  parent  contributes 
one-fourth,  each  grandparent  one-six- 
teenth, etc. 


Fig.   19 — NEAPOLITAN    SWINE   FORMERLY   MUCH   USED   IN    THE   IMPROVEMENT    OF 
ENGLISH    BREEDS 


lized  rabbits'  eggs  of  one  breed  have  been 
transferred  to  the  oviduct  of  a  female  of 
another  breed  and  at  birth  show  no  in- 
fluence of  the  latter. 

Equality  of  parents— All  practical 
experience  as  well  as  theoretical  consid- 
erations forces  us  to  conclude  that  each 
parent  contributes  equally  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  offspring.  There  are  many 
apparent  exceptions  to  this  statement, 
but  they  are  more  apparent  than  real. 
In  crossing  a  thoroughbred  male  upon 
a  mongrel  female  the  father's  charac- 
teristics may  be  more  conspicuous  in 
the  offspring,  but  this  is  largely  due  to 
the  fact  that  his  characters  are  definite 


Atavism — The  phenomenon  known  as 
"throwing  back,"  atavism  or  reversion 
has  always  been  familiar  to  farmers  and 
breeders.  This  consists  in  a  tendency 
of  the  characters  of  the  grandparents  or 
earlier  ancestors  to  appear  more  con- 
spicuously than  is  usually  the  case  in 
the  offspring,  so  that  the  latter  seem 
to  resemble  their  earlier  ancestors 
rather  than  their  parents.  The  strik- 
ing resemblance  is  sometimes  to  a 
grandparent  and  sometimes  to  a  re- 
mote ancestor.  Darwin  accumulated 
more  conspicuous  instances  of  atavism 
than  any  other  investigator.  In  one  case 
a   dog   inherited   a  peculiar   color  from 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


si 


an  ancestor  which  according  to  Galton's 
law  contributed  only  1-256  of  its  char- 
acters. In  another  instance  a  calf  re- 
verted in  its  color  to  a  great-great-great- 
great-grandfather.  Atavistic  charac- 
ters appear  most  frequently  when  two 
distinct  breeds  are  crossed.  Thus  if  two 
races  of  pigeons  are  crossed,  the  blue 
color  of  the  original  wild  pigeon  appears 
in  the  progeny.  In  an  experiment  in 
which  Japanese  waltzing  mice  were 
crossed  with  white  mice  the  offspring 
could  hardly  be  distinguished  from  the 
common  gray  house  mouse.  Moreover, 
the  occasional  appearance  of  stripes  on 
colts  is  supposed  to  be  a  reversion  to 
some  striped  wild  ancestor. 

Prepotency  is  another  phenomenon 
which  deserves  consideration  as  a  factor 
in   variation.      The   progeny   of    unlike 


ature  of  animal  breeding.  The  assump- 
tion that  one  parent  ever  contributes 
more  than  one-half  to  the  sum  total  of 
characters  in  the  offspring  has  never 
been  proved.  If  such  an  assumption  is 
implied  in  the  use  of  prepotency,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  any  such  phenomenon 
occurs  in  nature. 

As  ordinarily  used  in  popular  jour- 
nals and  agricultural  literature  prepo- 
tency means  nothing  more  than  the  abil- 
ity of  a  pure-bred  animal  (usually  the 
male)  to  transmit  several  of  his  char- 
acters to  his  offspring  from  mongrel  or 
grade  females.  Now  pure  breeds  are 
established  by  a  long  series  of  matings 
in  which  both  parents  are  selected  on  ac- 
count of  their  possession  of  certain 
definite  characters.  These  characters  be- 
come fixed,  and  no  disturbing  tendencies 


Fig.   20 — MODERN   TYPES   OF   YOUNG  ESSEX   SWINE 


parents  may  be  intermediate  in  appear- 
ance between  the  parents,  may  resemble 
one  parent  in  one  point  and  the  other  in 
another  feature,  or  may  show  none  of 
the  characteristic  features  of  one  parent 
while  closely  resembling  the  other.  As 
shown  by  Vernon  and  others  these  may 
be  cases  of  prepotency  or  may  be  merely 
cases  in  which  the  characters  of  the  par- 
ents do  not  blend  in  the  progeny. 

The  term  prepotency  as  applied  to  the 
apparently  unequal  inheritance  of  char- 
acters presupposes  the  existence  of  a 
greater  power  in  one  parent  than  in  the 
other  to  impress  its  features  upon  the 
offspring.  Such  a  parent  is  said  to  be 
prepotent  or  to  have  superior  power  in 
transmitting  qualities.  The  term  pre- 
potency is  used  very  loosely  in  the  liter- 


are  allowed  to  creep  in  by  admixture  of 
other  blood.  In  other  words  all  hered- 
itary forces  are  directed  along  definite 
lines.  In  a  mongrel  or  scrub  animal,  on 
the  other  hand,  all  sorts  of  miscellaneous 
and  more  or  less  antagonistic  tendencies 
are  mixed.  There  is  no  dominant  set  of 
characters  and  no  definite  direction  of 
the  heredity  forces. 

Pure  bred  sires — Now  when  a  pure 
bred  male  is  crossed  on  a  mongrel 
female  his  fixed  and  definite  tenden- 
cies give  a  certain  amount  of  definite- 
ness  to  the  characters  of  the  offspring. 
The  young  are  said  to  resemble  the 
father  more  than  the  mother.  But 
there  is  nothing  strange  about  this  phe- 
nomenon, in  fact  it  would  be  highly 
remarkable  if  it  should  fail  to  occur. 
Prepotency  is  a  useful  term,  however, 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


for   denoting   the    apparent   superiority 
of  the  sire  over  the  dam. 

We  may  now  mention  a  few  cases 
which  have  been  considered  instances 
of  prepotency.  Darwin  refers  to  a 
black  greyhound  which  gave  his  color  to 
the  puppies  whatever  the  color  of  the 
bitch.  The  male  Manx  cat  usually  trans- 
mits the  tailless  character.  Prepotency 
does  not  belong  exclusively  to  the  sire. 
It  is  equally  conspicuous  in  the  dam  if 
she  be  pure  bred  and  the  sire  a  cross. 
When  sire  and  dam  are  both  pure  bred 
but  of  different  breeds  the  young  inherit 
their  qualities  about  equally  from  both. 
The  blending  of  characters  can  never  be 
predicted  in  such  cases  and  the  results 
are  seldom  satisfactory. 


ing  propensity  when  crossed  with  ewes 
of  other  breeds.  The  Angus  bull  may 
produce  polled  calves  from  the  first  cross 
with  horned  breeds.  Likewise  the  black 
and  white  patches  of  the  Holsteins  seem 
to  be  dominant  characters  and  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  breed  them  out  after  they  have 
once  been  mixed  in  the  blood.  But  it 
is  not  necessary  to  multiply  examples 
for  they  must  be  familiar  to  every 
breeder. 

Hybridization  may  also  at  timer  be- 
come an  important  factor  in  variation. 
It  is  quite  impossible  to  predict  the 
characters  which  will  appear  in  hybrids. 
Sometimes  the  characters  of  the  ances 
tors,  even  remote  ones,  appear.  In  othej 
cases  the  characters  of  the  parents  blend, 


Fig.   21 — BERKSHIRE   OF    60   YEARS  AGO   BEFORE    PURE    STOCK   WAS   REQUIRED 


Prepotency  of  breeds —  Prepotency 
may  be  an  individual  or  a  racial  trait. 
Certain  individuals  of  a  given  breed 
may  be  especially  prepotent.  The  char- 
acters of  certain  breeds  may  be  more 
firmly  fixed  than  those  of  another  breed 
so  that  in  a  cross  the  one  breed  pre- 
dominates over  the  other.  The  so- 
called  Apalousa  horse  of  Oregon  and 
Washington  transmits  circular  spots  to 
the  foal  and  these  spots  reappear  for 
many  generations  without  the  further 
admixture  of  the  original  blood.  Short- 
horn bulls  are  quite  prepotent  in  trans- 
mitting their  racial  characters.  The 
Dorset  ram  transmits  the  early  breed- 


thus  producing  progeny  intermediate  be- 
tween them  or  something  quite  new  and 
not  resembling  either  parent.  When  the 
characters  of  the  sire  and  dam  do  not 
blend,  but  are  inherited  side  by  side  in 
varying  proportions,  then  the  young  will 
resemble  the  sire  or  dam  according  as 
one  or  the  other  set  of  characters  proves 
to  be  dominant.  Hybrids  between  zebus 
and  cattle  and  between  the  bison  and  cat- 
tle partake  almost  equally  of  the  char- 
acters of  both  parents.  In  the  numer- 
ous crosses  which  Professor  Ewart  pro- 
duced between  the  mare  and  zebra 
stallion,  and  zebra  mares  and  male  ass 
"some  of  the  hybrids  in  make  and  dis- 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


33 


position  strongly  suggest  their  zebra 
sire,  others  their  respective  dams;  but 
even  the  most  zebra-like  in  form  are 
utterly  unlike  their  sire  in  their  mark- 
ings." A  "curious  blending  of  charac- 
ters, derived  apparently  partly  from  their 
actual  and  partly  from  their  remote  an- 
cestors" was  observed. 

Mendel's  law — At  present  the  most 
widely  exploited  theory  regarding  the 
behavior  of  hybrids  is  that  of  Mendel, 
originally  published  in  1865,  and  re- 
cently applied  by  many  observers  to  ex- 
plain the  facts  of  plant  and  animal 
hybridization.  According  to  Mendel's 
law  one-fourth  of  the  hybrids  after  two 
generations  resemble  one  parent,  one- 
fourth  the?  other  parent  while  one-half 


encies  are  intermixed  the  mixture  is 
only  temporary  and  not  stable.  In  other 
words,  if  these  animals  are  used  for 
breeding  purposes,  their  offspring  are 
likely  to  revert  to  the  pure  form  of  one 
or  the  other  breeds  from  which  they  de- 
scended. Again,  when  the  sire  and  dam 
are  of  very  different  character,  the  pro- 
geny may  revert  to  the  original  wild 
form  and  thus  all  the  advantages  of  pre- 
vious breeding  be  lost. 

Sports — Variation  in  farm  stock  is 
usually  a  slow  process  due  to  the  accu- 
mulation of  minute  differences.  Occa- 
sionally a  great  leap  or  mutation  occurs 
giving  rise  to  what  is  known  as  a  sport. 
Striking  examples  of  this  are  to  be  found 
in  the  ancon  sheep  which  suddenly  orig- 


Fig.  22 — MODERN  TYPE  BERKSHIRE  SOW 
(Weight  45<;  pounds  at  13  months) 


are  of  mixed  nature  and  are  constantly 
separating  into  the  pure  parent  forms 
during  subsequent  generations.  Mendel 
first  worked  on  the  common  garden  pea 
and  his  law  has  not  been  found  to  hold 
good  in  all  cases  of  the  hybridization  of 
plants,  much  less  in  all  animal  hybrids. 
Crossing — Enough  is  known  concern- 
ing the  behavior  of  offspring  of  very 
dissimilar  parents  to  show  that  crossing 
of  different  breeds  is  of  little  value  in 
the  hands  of  the  average  farmer.  The 
results  cannot  be  predicted.  Two  sets 
of  tendencies  are  mixed  together,  but 
there  is  no  likelihood  that  the  offspring 
will  show  any  advance  on  either  parent. 
Moreover,  it  appears  that  when  very  un- 
like and  more  or  less  antagonistic  tend- 


inated  in  Massachusetts  in  1791,  and  in 
the  black-shouldered  peacock.  In  these 
two  instances  the  sports  bred  true  and 
reproduced  their  characters  perfectly  in 
their  offspring.  Sports  are  usually  more 
prepotent  and  stable  than  mere  varia- 
tions which  closely  resemble  the  parent 
form  but  they  are  not  always  transmis- 
sible. 

Telegony  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the 
supposed  influence  of  a  previous  sire  on 
the  offspring  of  the  same  dam  by  an- 
other sire.  It  has  also  been  called  in- 
fluence of  a  previous  impregnation  or 
infection  and  numerous  examples  of  its 
supposed  occurrence  are  reported  in  the 
literature  of  the  subject.  Many  cases 
have  been  reported  of  children  from  a 


34 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


second  husband  who  resembled  the 
first  but  not  the  second  husband.  Such 
cases  come  largely  from  tbe  time  of  slav- 
ery in  this  country  and  there  is  no  good 
evidence  for  any  of  them.  An  Arabian 
mare  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Morton 
and  once  covered  by  a  quagga  is  said  to 
have  shown  unmistakable  markings  of 
the  quagga  in  all  of  her  subsequent  colts 
by  Arabian  stallions.  Goodwin  reports 
that  in  the  royal  stud  in  Hampton  court 
mares  had  colts  with  the  markings  of  a 
previous  stallion  by  which  they  had  been 
served.  Many  similar  cases  have  been 
collected  relating  to  horses.  From 
Massachusetts,  Michigan  and  Tennessee 
come  stories  of  mares  once  served  by 
jacks  and  which  have  subsequently  pro- 
duced colts  with  long  ears  and  marks 
of  jacks  even  when  served  by  pure  bred 
stallions.  Tbe  literature  of  the  subject 
teems  with  such  cases  in  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  swine,  dogs,  rabbits  and  guinea 
pigs  as  well  as  in  fowls.  The  idea  in- 
volved in  the  notion  of  telegony  is  that 
the  female  becomes  contaminated  or  in- 
fected by  the  first  male  by  which  she  is 
served  and  that  this  influence  is  never 
or  at  least  not  quickly  eradicated.  If 
such  a  condition  were  true,  a  pure  bred 
dam  once  impregnated  by  a  mongrel 
sire  could  never  afterwards  be  depended 
upon  to  produce  pure  offspring  even 
from  pure  bred  sires. 

Many  distinguished  scientists  have 
lent  the  influence  of  their  name  to  this 
popular  belief,  but  without  performing 
any  actual  experiments  to  test  the  mat- 
ter. Darwin  reported  numerous  in- 
stances apparently  with  approval  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  Agassiz,  Law,  Har- 
vey and  others.  Several  elaborate  ex- 
planations have  been  proposed  for  the 
phenomenon,  the  most  ingenious  being 
the  theory  first  suggested  by  Newport 
and  later  worked  out  by  Weismann. 
This  was  to  the  effect  that  the  sperma- 
tozoa of  the  male  not  only  fertilize  the 
mature  egg  which  has  left  the  ovary,  but 
also  enter  and  partly  fertilize  many  or 
all  of  the  immature  eggs  in  the  ovary. 
These  eggs  when  subsequently  fertilized 
at  maturity  by  another  male  would  con- 
tain some  of  the  hereditary  tendencies 
of  the  former  male.  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  say  that  no  evidence  for  such  a 
process  has  ever  been  produced. 

Ewart's  experiments — After  cases 
of  telegony  had  been  collected  for  many 
years  and  a  quite  general  belief  in 
the  phenomenon  established,  Professor 
Ewart  subjected  the  matter  to  a  care- 
ful test  by  crossing  horses  and  zebras. 


Ewart  examined  in  a  critical  manner 
a  number  of  cases  usually  mentioned 
as  supporting  the  hypothesis  of  telegony 
in  horses.  In  all  cases  other  simpler  ex- 
planations were  found  for  the  actual 
phenomena  without  resorting  to  any 
theory  of  infection,  corruption  or  influ- 
ence of  a  previous  sire.  The  experi- 
ments conducted  by  Ewart  were  chiefly 
confined  to  the  production  of  crosses  be- 
tween horses  and  zebras  and  the  raising 
of  colts  from  tbe  same  mares  after  pro- 
duction of  the  hybrids.  In  these  experi- 
ments chestnut,  brown  and  black  mares 
were  employed  and  in  some  cases  the 
mare  was  bred  alternately  to  horse  and 
zebra  stallions  in  order  to  give  the  best 
possible  opportunity  for  judging  any 
influence  of  the  zebra  upon  the  appear- 
ance or  conformation  of  the  colts.  No 
evidence  whatever  was  obtained  in  sup- 
port of  the  theory  of  telegony.  The  colts 
obtained  from  mares  which  had  previ- 
ously been  bred  to  zebras  were  true  to 
their  parents  in  every  respect  and  exhib- 
ited no  mental  or  physical  traits  of  the 
zebra.  Experiments  of  Baron  de  Parana 
in  Brazil  also  gave  results  distinctly  op- 
posed to  the  theory  of  influence  of  a 
previous  sire.  Ewart  also  conducted  ex- 
periments for  the  purpose  of  determin- 
ing whether  any  support  for  the  hypothe- 
sis of  telegony  could  be  obtained  from 
breeding  mares  to  different  breeds  of 
stallions  in  succession.  The  results  from 
these  tests  were  also  unfavorable  to  the 
theory  of  telegony,  as  were  similar  ex- 
periments in  breeding  mares  to  different 
stallions  of  the  same  breed.  Ewart  states, 
therefore,  that  although  at  the  beginning 
of  his  experiments  he  "hoped  to  prove 
the  fact  of  telegony,"  his  experiments 
and  observations  thoroughly  convinced 
him  that  there  never  has  been  an  un- 
doubted case  of  telegony,  at  least  in  dogs, 
rabbits  and  horses. 

This  is  the  testimony  of  an  unwilling 
witness  and  is  therefore  quite  convinc- 
ing. Breeders  generally  believe  that  if 
a  mongrel  male  or  one  of  another  breed 
accidentally  impregnates  a  pure  bred 
female  she  is  forever  ruined  for  purposes 
of  pure  breeding.  It  is  now  evident  that 
no  such  fears  need  be  entertained. 

Occasionally  one  hears  the  fear  ex- 
pressed that  pure  bred  males  may  be- 
come contaminated  by  serving  mongrel 
females.  There  is  no  evidence  whatever 
to  support  such  an  idea. 

Prenatal  influences — The  subject  of 
intra-uterine  or  prenatal  influences  has 
received  perhaps  an  undue  amount  of 
consideration.     It  has  long  been  popu- 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


35 


larly  supposed  that  the  imagination  of 
the  mother,  especially  when  stimulated 
by  fright  or  unusual  experiences,  may 
exercise  some  mysterious  effect  on  the 
developing  fetus.  Innumerable  sup- 
posed cases  of  this  kind  have  been  re- 
ported in  man,  farm  mammals  and 
even  in  fowls.  Children  are  said  to 
have  been  born  with  marks  resem- 
bling mice,  goats,  cows  and  other  ani- 
mals in  consequence  of  their  mothers 
having  been  frightened  by  such  animals 
during  their  pregnancy.  All  sorts  of  mon- 
strosities in  offspring  have  been  attrib- 
uted to  the  influence  of  the  imagination 
of  the  female.  One  case  is  reported 
where  an  Angus  cow  produced  a  black 
and  white  calf  with  horns  after  having 
seen  a  black  and  white  horned  steer. 

Perhaps  the  most  astonishing  case 
ever  reported  was  obtained  by  Miles  from 
a  Kentucky  Jersey  breeder.  Jersey 
cows,  pastured  near  some  horses  branded 
on  the  left  shoulder  with  the  letters 
U.  S.,  produced  calves  with  the  letters 
IT.  S.  in  white  hairs  on  the  left  shoulder. 
Even  the  second  generation  is  said  to 
have  shown  the  same  marks!  In  fact 
some  of  the  related  examples  of  supposed 
prenatal  influence  are  so  ridiculous  as 
to  suggest  that  they  were  originally  told 
merely  as  jokes.  At  any  rate  there  is 
no  evidence  to  support  the  theory  that 
malformation  or  peculiar  marks  can  be 
impressed  on  the  offspring  through  the 
medium  of  the  imagination  of  the  dam. 

Determination  of  sex — The  dairyman 
desires  heifer  calves,  the  beef  raiser  bull 
calves,  the  dog  raiser  male  pups,  etc. 
The  possibility  of  predetermining  the 
sex  of  offspring  has  always  been  an  al- 
luring subject.  Almost  every  imagin- 
able scheme  has  been  tested  in  deter- 
mining sex  in  the  human  race  and  in 
farm  animals.  The  subject  has  at- 
tracted so  much  attention  that  it 
seems  necessary  to  state,  as  briefly  as 
may  be,  the  most  important  theories 
which  have  been  proposed.  At  first  it 
was  supposed  that  one  ovary  and  testis 
(the  right)  produced  only  male  offspring 
and  the  other  only  female.  This,  how- 
ever, has  been  proved  not  to  be  the  case 
as  tested  in  man  and  swine.  Thury 
proposed  the  theory  that  eggs  fertilized 
as  soon  as  mature  produce  females  while 
males  result  if  fertilization  is  somewhat 
delayed.  Miles  states  that  in  Michigan 
in  ewes  and  cows  served  as  soon  as  they 
were  in  heat  the  female  offspring  were 
twice  as  numerous  as  male  in  some 
years  while  in  other  years  the  reverse 


was  true.  On  most  farms  the  male  ani- 
mals are  allowed  to  run  with  the  females 
for  a  considerable  period  and  presumably 
the  females  are  impregnated  as  soon  as 
in  heat.  Nevertheless  the  proportion  of 
male  and  female  offspring  is  about  equal 
and  this  is  unfavorable  to  the  theory  of 
Thury.  Moreover,  the  actual  union  of 
the  spermatozoon  with  the  egg  may  not 
take  place  for  two  weeks  after  service, 
in  fact  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  say 
when  it  occurs.  The  union  of  the  male 
and  female  germ  cells  may  take  place 
more  promptly  at  the  end  than  at  the 
beginning  of  the  period  of  heat. 

Eelative  age  of  parents — It' has  been 
claimed  by  Hofacker  and  Sadler  that 
female  offspring  predominate  when  the 
sire  is  younger  than  the  dam  and  male 
when  the  sire  is  the  older.  The  results 
thus  far  obtained  in  testing  this  theory 
are  by  no  means  uniform  and  do  not 
prove  the  point  of  contention.  In  the 
case  of  man  there  are  about  106  boys 
born  to  every  100  girls  without  regard 
to  the  relative  age  of  the  parents. 
Martegoute  states  that  the  larger  ewes 
are  more  likely  to  bear  female  lambs, 
but  this  is  not  in  accordance  with  practi- 
cal experience.  Tegetmeier  collected 
statistics  on  the  sex  of  colts  from  rac- 
ing mares  during  a  period  of  21  years. 
The  total  number  of  colts  was  25,560,  of 
which  12,797  were  female  and  12,763 
male.  The  males  are  in  excess  at  birth 
in  many  species  of  animals,  as  well  as  in 
man,  but  there  is  a  higher  mortality 
among  males  in  early  life  so  that  the  in- 
equality may  disappear  or  the  females 
may  ultimately  predominate. 

Some  evidence  has  been  accumulated 
to  show  that  as  a  result  of  oppressive 
heat,  overwork,  defective  nutrition  or 
the  prevalence  of  disease  the  excess  of 
male  offspring  may  be  reduced.  Baker 
claims  that  "causes  tending  to  increase 
the  birth  rate  tend  also  to  increase  the 
proportion  of  female  offspring."  It  does 
not  appear,  however,  that  there  is  a  pre- 
ponderance of  female  offspring  in  races 
of  animals  of  unusual  fecundity. 

Influence  of  sire  and  dam — It  has 
sometimes  been  assumed  that  the  dam 
exercises  a  greater  influence  than  the 
sire  in  determining  the  sex  of  the 
progeny.  Statistics  adduced  in  support 
of  this  assumption  are  not  conclu- 
sive. Wright  maintains  that  "  if  a  vig- 
orous cockerel  is  mated  with  not  more 
than  three  adult  hens,  the  cocks  almost 
always  largely  predominate  in  at  least 
the  early  broods;  later  this  becomes  un- 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


certain.  If  an  adult  cock  be  mated  with 
not  more  than  three  pullets,  the  result 
is  very  uncertain.  If  an  adult  cock  be 
mated  with  five  or  more  pullets,  the  pul- 
lets are  generally  in  excess.  The  fewer 
hens  and  the  more  vigorous  the  stock, 
the  greater  is  the  proportion  of  cockerels 
which  are  always  more  numerous  in  the 
earlier  eggs  of  a  season  than  the  later." 
But,  as  argued  by  Miles,  Wright  ad- 
mits that  "there  will  be  numerous  and 
startling  exceptions  to  these  rules." 
They,  therefore,  fail  to  have  the  value 
of  a  general  law. 

Food  and  sex — Many  writers  have 
maintained  that  sex  is  determined  by 
nutritive  conditions.     According  to  this 


of  heat  to  pass  after  the  birth  of  a 
heifer  calf  before  the  bull  is  admitted 
for  service.  This  hypothesis  in  turn 
does  not  agree  with  actual  experience  in 
breeding.  Schenk's  theory  of  the  deter- 
mination of  sex  is  that  each  sex  has  a 
tendency  to  produce  the  opposite  sex. 
The  stronger,  more  vigorous  or  better 
nourished  parent  should  therefore  pro- 
duce the  opposite  sex  in  the  offspring. 
The  facts  are  not  in  harmony  with  this 
theory. 

No      SATISFACTORY      THEORY Although 

much  speculation  has  been  indulged 
in  regarding  the  factors  which  deter- 
mine sex,  none  of  the  theories  proposed 
is  perfectly  satisfactory,  and  no  scheme 


Fig.   23 — OLD   ENGLISH   HOG  THE  BASIS   OF  MANY   MODERN  BREEDS 


idea  the  sex  is  not  determined  at  the 
time  of  union  of  the  germ  cells.  This 
notion  receives  some  support  from  the 
phenomena  observed  in  bees.  Ordinary 
bee  larva?  which,  if  fed  in  the  usual 
way,  develop  into  sexless  working  bees, 
may  be  made  to  develop  into  queens  by 
feeding  on  "royal  jelly."  This  would 
indicate  that  the  sex  is  not  determined 
until  the  embryo  has  undergone  some 
development. 

Stuyvesant  proposes  a  theory  based  on 
the  assumption  that  the  dam  entirely 
controls  the  sex  of  the  progeny,  and  that 
every  alternate  egg  is  of  the  same  sex. 
If  heifer  calves  are  desired,  it  would 
merely  be  necessary  to  allow  one  period 


has  worked  out  successfully  in  practice. 
Statistics  compiled  at  the  Maine  experi- 
ment station  on  3614  calves  do  not  tend 
to  substantiate  any  theory  of  sex  deter- 
mination. Some  cows  show  a  tendency 
to  produce  bull  calves,  others  heifer 
calves.  The  same  is  true  of  ewes,  mares 
and  sows.  It  seems  to  be  an  individual 
matter  and  is  not  under  the  control  of 
man. 

Having  discussed  the  various  factors 
of  variation  which  may  be  brought  to 
bear  on  the  germ  cells  before  and  at  the 
time  of  their  union  we  may  proceed  to  a 
consideration  of  influences  which  affect 
the  developing  embryo  and  the  growing 
young  animal.     The  importance  of  the 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


37 


effect  of  environment  upon  the  animal  di- 
minishes rapidly  from  the  time  of  its 
conception.  The  condition  of  the  dam 
at  the  time  of  impregnation  is  of  great 
importance,  as  is  also  her  state  of  health 
and  nutrition  during  the  period  of  preg- 
nancy. 

Domestication  and  variation — The 
amount  of  variation  in  growing  ani- 
mals is  increased  as  the  complexity  of 
the  environment  increases.  Domesti- 
cated animals  vary  more  rapidly  than 
wild  species  for  the  reason  that  the  feed 
is  more  varied,  other  external  conditions 
change  more  frequently,  many  new  con- 
ditions arise  and  variations  in  the  animal 
are  quickly  noted  and  utilized  by 
the  breeder.  Domestication  has  brought 
about    important    changes    in    animals. 


domestication  animals  apparently  be- 
come more  plastic  and  subject  to  varia- 
tion. But  the  difference  in  this  respect 
is  not  great  and  is  perhaps  partly  due  to 
the  fact  that  we  can  readily  note  the 
changes  in  domesticated  animals  on  ac- 
count of  having  them  under  constant 
observation. 

Temperature  exercises  a  direct  effect 
on  the  growth,  size  and  temperament  of 
animals  as  well  as  upon  the  nature  of 
their  coat  of  hair.  For  most  animals 
there  is  an  optimum  temperature  at 
which  they  thrive  best  and  a  minimum 
and  maximum  beyond  which  they  cannot 
live.  The  change  to  a  white  coat  in 
winter  noted  in  ptarmigan,  hares,  etc.,  is 
the  direct  effect  of  cold.  The  change 
takes  place  first   on  those  parts  of  the 


Fig.  24 CHESHIRE  SOW  OF   MODERN   TYPE 

(Sweepstakes  at  Pan  American  Exposition.    Age  six  years,  weight  594  pounds.) 


In  some  instances  the  digestive  tract 
has  been  greatly  enlarged  and  the  food 
consuming  capacity  correspondingly  in- 
creased. Moreover,  the  fecundity  has 
been  increased  and  the  breeding  period 
has  become  extended  over  a  much  longer 
season  than  in  the  wild  relatives.  In 
some  animals  all  periodicity  in  breeding 
has  disappeared  and  they  will  breed  at 
any  time.  Again  the  polygamous  rela- 
tion is  much  more  common  in  domesti- 
cated than  in  wild  animals.  Rabbits  in- 
crease in  size  under  domestication,  the 
weight  of  the  wing  and  leg  bones  of 
fowls  decreases.  These  changes  make 
the  animals  in  question  better  suited  to 
man's  purposes  and  are  direct  adapta- 
tions to  the  domesticated  state.     Under 


body  in  which  the  blood  circulation  is 
least  active. 

One  of  the  effects  of  intense  light  is 
the  development  of  more  pigment  in  the 
skin.  In  the  tropics  the  skin  even  of 
the  white  races  becomes  brown.  In  the 
southern  states  white  hogs  suffer  from 
sun  blisters.  Black  or  red  breeds  are 
not  thus  affected. 

Influence  of  feed — The  quality  and 
amount  of  feed  is  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  the  variation  of 
animals.  Many  instances  of  the  in- 
fluence of  food  have  been  collected 
by  Vernon.  Hemp  seed  gives  some 
birds  a  black  plumage.  Cayenne  pep- 
per in  the  food  changes  the  color  of 
the  feathers  from  yellow  to  orange  red, 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


especially  in  young  birds.  White  Italian 
fowls  fed  cayenne  pepper  show  orange 
stripes  on  the  breast  within  10  days,  and 
later  all  over  the  body.  The  natives 
along  the  Amazon  have  found  that  feed- 
ing the  green  parrot  on  a  certain  fish 
will  cause  the  development  of  yellow  and 
red  feathers  among  the  green.  In  the 
wild  boar  the  intestines  are  nine  times  as 
long  as  the  body,  in  the  domestic  hog 
13.5  as  long.  According  to  careful 
determinations  made  by  Krocker,  sheep 
may  produce  wool  twice  as  fast  on  a 
heavy  as  on  a  very  scant  ration.  Hun- 
dreds of  instances  of  this  sort  are  known 
to  feeders. 

Geographical  races_The  combined 
action  of  the  soil,  light,  rainfall,  tem- 
perature, feed  stuffs  and  other  condi- 
tions of  different  localities  results  in 
the  production  of  geographical  races 
suited  by  a  direct  process  of  adap- 
tation to  the  conditions  which  prevail  in 
the  respective  localities.  It  is  not  as- 
serted that  local,  natural  conditions  en- 
tirely determine  the  origin  and  charac- 
ter of  local  races  of  farm  stock.  Market 
requirements  and  the  possible  profits  to 
be  derived  are  also  factors.  Allen  has 
found  that  birds  and  mammals  in  this 
country  increase  in  size  as  we  go  north, 
while  the  color  becomes  more  intense 
towards  the  south,  and  also  towards  areas 
of  large  rainfall.  In  Angora,  according 
to  Falconer,  goats,  sheepdogs  and  cats 
have  fine,  silky  hair.  In  England  and 
Scotland  every  little  district  has  breeds 
or  races  of  sheep  peculiar  to  it,  and,  ap- 
parently, best  adapted  to  its  conditions. 
The  character  of  the  soil  indirectly 
through  its  effect  on  the  forage  plants 
of  a  given  locality  is  of  much  impor- 
tance in  determining  local  races  of  farm 
stock,  for  example  the  blue  grass  horses 
of  Kentucky.  This  matter  has  not  re- 
ceived the  attention  which  it  deserves. 

Variation  of  parts  of  body — In 
studying  variations  in  farm  animals  it 
appears  that  certain  characters  or  parts 
of  the  body  may  vary  quite  inde- 
pendently of  all  other  features.  This 
makes  it  possible  to  select  animals  for 
breeding  purposes  without  regard  to  any 
other  point  than  the  one  in  which  we 
are  producing  variation.  Usually,  how- 
ever, several  parts  vary  at  the  same  time, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  variations  are  to 
some  extent  correlated.  Bulldogs  have 
short  heads  and  short  legs,  while  grey- 
hounds have  long  heads  and  long  legs. 
Similarly  the  legs  and  snout  are  long  in 
the    razorback   and    short   in   improved 


breeds  of  swine.  In  fact  it  is  almost 
impossible  for  one  part  of  the  body  to 
vary  without  affecting  some  other  part. 
Some  of  these  correlations  are  easily  un- 
derstood and  others  are  quite  peculiar. 
Thus  fowls  with  tufts  of  feathers  on  the 
head  have  perforations  in  the  cranium. 
Pigeons  with  white,  yellow  or  silver 
plumage  are  hatched  naked.  Blondes 
seem  to  be  slightly  more  susceptible  to 
disease.  White  horses  are  most  likely  to 
be  worried  by  gnats.  White  dogs  are 
most  susceptible  to  distemper,  and  white 
chickens  to  gapeworm.  In  some  local- 
ities cats  with  a  reddish  coat  are  im- 
mune to  distemper.  Every  organ  of  the 
body  is  related  in  one  or  more  ways  to 
every  other  organ.  The  removal  of  the 
thyroid  gland  or  its  non-development 
from  any  cause  renders  the  normal  growth 
and  the  attainment  of  normal  mental  de- 
velopment impossible  in  the  individual 
in  question.  It  is  a  well  known  fact 
that  sterility  may  be  brought  about  by 
in-and-in  breeding  or  by  close  con- 
finement or  other  unfavorable  condi- 
tions. In  all  animals  the  reproductive 
organs  are  very  sensitive  to  changes  in 
environment,  but  more  so  in  certain  in- 
dividuals than  others.  Hence  a  number 
of  animals  in  each  herd  may  be  sterile. 
Conversely  the  reproductive  organs  ex- 
ercise a  powerful  influence  upon  the 
rest  of  the  body  as  shown  in  part  by  the 
extensive  changes  produced  by  castra- 
tion of  the  bull,  ram,  stallion  or  cock. 

Practical  methods  of  breeding — Jn 
the  above  paragraphs  we  have  at- 
tempted to  review  the  main  scientific 
facts  and  theories  upon  which  practical 
breeding  is  based.  There  remain  for  dis- 
cussion the  practical  methods  of  breed- 
ing. The  fundamental  idea  of  breeding, 
aside  from  the  mere  perpetuation  of  the 
breed,  is  to  produce  variation  in  a  defi- 
nite direction.  The  corner  stone  of  the 
breeder's  work  is  not  heredity,  as  some- 
times asserted,  but  variation,  for  if  there 
were  no  variations  there  could  be  no  im- 
provement of  the  breed.  By  means  of 
heredity  the  desirable  variations  are 
given  stability  and  permanency.  Conse- 
quently, after  a  breed  has  been  estab- 
lished, heredity  is  the  important  force, 
since  by  virtue  of  it  the  herd  "breeds 
true"  and  a  guaranty  is  given  of  fixed- 
ness of  type.  A  long  pedigree,  therefore, 
gives  assurance  that  variation  will  not  be 
irregular  but  in  a  fixed  direction. 

The  breeding  methods  in  common  use 
by  means  of  which  our  modern  improved 
stock  has  been  produced  are  in-breeding, 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


39 


cross-breeding,  line-breeding,  natural- 
breeding  and  grade-breeding.  Quite 
extensive  data  on  inbreeding  have  been 
collected  by  Miles  and  bis  discussion  is 
followed  in  part  in  tbe  present  account. 
Inbreeding — In  tbe  first  place  mucb 
difference  of  opinion  prevails  as  to  the 
closeness  of  relationship  necessary  to  es- 
tablish a  case  of  inbreeding.  Inbreeding 
has  been  variously  defined  as  "breeding 
between  relatives  without  reference  to 
the  degree  of  consanguinity,"  "breed- 
ing from  close  relations,"  "breeding 
from  the  same  family"  and  "pairing  of 
relations  within  the  second  degree  of 
cousins  twice  or  more  in  succession." 
In  general  inbreeding  is  used  to  mean 
breeding  between  close  relatives  with- 
out defining  the  exact  relation.  Inbreed- 
ing may  mean  a  single  pairing  of 
relations,  or  several,  or  even  the  contin- 
uation of  the  process. 

Since  the  days  of  Bakewell,  who  be- 
gan his  work  in  1760,  all  noted  breeders 
have  practiced  inbreeding  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent.  It  seems  to  be  necessary, 
in  fact,  in  establishing  a  breed.  Cer- 
tain desirable  characters  appear  in  one 
or  two  members  of  a  family  and  form  the 
basis  of  a  breed.  Some  of  the  families 
of  Herefords  were  inbred  for  80  years 
or  more  without  the  infusion  of  outside 
blood.  In  the  practice  of  inbreeding 
many  of  the  closest  possible  pairings 
have  been  allowed,  for  example  brother 
and  sister,  father  and  daughter,  etc. 
Atwood  developed  a  fine  flock  of  Meri- 
nos from  one  ewe  without  any  outside 
blood.  Hundreds  of  other  examples  of 
close  and  continued  inbreeding  are  on 
record.  In  all  cases,  however,  inbreed- 
ing has  been  practiced  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  admixture  of  other  tendencies 
in  the  preservation  of  desirable  ones. 
In  other  words,  breeders  have  selected 
their  breeding  animals  for  their  posses- 
sion of  the  required  characters  and  with- 
out reference  to  the  relationship  be- 
tween the  animals.  Inbreeding  is  a 
merely  accidental  process  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  breed;  it  is  a  means  to  an  end. 
Inbreeding  insures  the  fixing  of  tenden- 
cies more  quickly  than  by  any  other 
method  of  breeding.  If  great  care  is  not 
exercised,  however,  defects  are  likely  to  be 
established  and  perpetuated.  Moreover, 
inbreeding  may  result  in  a  loss  of  vigor 
and  fecundity.  It  should,  therefore, 
never  be  practiced  without  a  definite  ob- 
ject in  view.  In  fact  it  is  almost  never 
to  be  recommended  in  ordinary  farm 
practice. 


So  called  "line  breeding"  is  a  modified 
form  of  inbreeding,  the  main  difference 
being  that  in  line  breeding  a  little  more 
latitude  is  given  to  the  closeness  of  re- 
lationship. Interbreeding  is  allowed  be- 
tween members  of  a  few  families  which 
have  descended  from  a  common  ancestry. 
In  other  words  the  animals  selected  for 
breeding  purposes  must  be  in  the  same 
line  of  descent.  It  is  obvious  that  if  a 
breed  of  animals  be  originated  by  in- 
breeding, the  large  number  of  animals 
ultimately  produced  will  allow  breeding 
between  animals  of  quite  wide  relation- 
ship. They  will,  however,  all  be  in  the 
same  "line"  of  ancestry.  Consequently 
line  breeding  is  essentially  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  the  logical  extension 
of  inbreeding  after  a  large  number  of 
breeding  animals  in  one  line  have  be- 
come available.  Both  inbreeding  and 
line  breeding  suffer  from  the  defects  of 
exclusiveness.  All  animals  from  out- 
crosses  are  excluded.  As  suggested  by 
Warfield,  if  the  family  should  become 
too  large  it  would  get  out  of  control,  and 
the  feature  of  exclusiveness  would  be 
lost.  The  purpose  of  inbreeding  and 
line  breeding  is  to  secure  as  nearly  as 
possible  an  absolute  indentity  of  blood. 
It  may  be  desirable  to  have  only  one 
type  in  a  herd,  but  this  is  true  only 
when  the  type  is  perfect  and  without 
defect.  Since  such  an  attainment  has 
thus  far  been  impossible,  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  a  slight  variation  in  the 
herd  in  order  that  selection  may  be  made 
of  those  animals  which  most  closely  ap- 
proach the  ideal  in  the  mind  of  the 
breeder.  Exclusive  inbreeding  or  line 
breeding  leads  ultimately  to  loss  of 
vigor  and  size  as  shown  by  the  white 
park  cattle  of  England  which  weigh 
only  550  to  700  pounds. 

Natural  breeding  aS  defined  by  War- 
field,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  out- 
crossing or  mixed  breeding,  is  breeding 
with  the  object  of  securing  the  best 
progeny  by  all  means  at  the  disposal  of 
the  breeder.  This  is  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  artificial  selection.  Natural 
selection  tends  to  the  perpetuation  of 
the  average  individual  of  the  species. 
In  the  case  of  cattle,  for  example,  cows 
which  give  too  little  milk  for  the  proper 
sustenance  of  the  calf  would  be  gradu- 
ally eliminated  by  natural  selection. 
Cows  which  give  much  more  milk  than 
required  by  the  calf  would  be  weeded 
out  for  the  reason  that  the  udder  would 
be  too  large  and  clumsy  and  might  im- 
pede the  progress  of  the  cow  in  escaping 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  ZIVE  STOCK 


from  enemies.  Then  too  the  production 
of  more  milk  than  is  used  would  put  an 
unnecessary  strain  on  the  cow  and 
would  be  speedily  corrected.  In  nature, 
therefore,  while  the  species  tends  to  vary 
in  several  directions  from  the  average, 
the  average  individual  has  best  chance 
in  the  struggle  for  existence. 


Fig.    25 — OLD-FASHIONED    GAME    COCK 

To  the  breeder,  however,  the  average 
is  not  good  enough.  He  seeks  to  secure 
variation  to  the  extreme  in  large  pro 
duction  of  milk,  beef,  wool,  speed  or 
other  qualities.  Individual  merit  is  the 
basis  upon  which  the  breeder  must 
build.  According  to  this  system  if  any 
advantage  is  to  be  gained  by  occasional 
inbreeding,  the  breeder  avails  himself  of 
it.  If  just  the  right  breeding  animal 
cannot  be  obtained  inside  the  line  or 
family,  then  outside  blood  is  mixed  with 
the  family,  provided  the  outside  animal 
has  the  right  qualities.  As  has  been  so 
well  stated  by  Warfield,  in  natural  breed- 
ing the  breeder  seeks  to  prevent  the  im- 
pairment of  the  constitution  of  his  stock 
or  any  decrease  in  fecundity.  Moreover, 
he  breeds  for  quality,  practical  value 
and  usefulness  rather  than  for  pedigree 
or  exhibition  standards.  In  working 
toward  these  ends  he  does  not  disregard 
the  achievements  of  his  predecessors^  but 
strives  to  save  all  the  advantages  gained 
by  them  while  he  forges  somewhat  ahead. 
The  purpose  of  the  breeder  should  be  not 


to  devise  methods  of  breeding,  but  to 
achieve  results.  The  method  is  only  a 
means  to  an  end.  The  breeder  therefore 
takes  whatever  there  is  of  good  from  all 
known  methods. 

Inbreeding  and  outcrossing  have  been 
very  aptly  compared  as  follows:  "There 
is  no  one  point  on  which  practical  breed- 
ers as  well  as  scientists  are  more  perfectly 
agreed  than  that  the  ultimate  tendency 
of  breeding  in-and-in  is  injurious;  that 
when  carried  to  excess  it  will  always  re- 
sult in  a  loss  of  constitutional  vigor  in 
the  produce ;  that  while  its  tendency  may 
be  in  the  direction  of  fineness  of  texture 
lightness  of  bone,  smoothness,  evenness, 
and  polish,  it  is  invariably  at  the  ex- 
pense of  robustness,  strength,  vigor  and 
power.  On  the  other  hand  scientists  as 
well  as  practical  breeders,  with  perhaps 
equal  unanimity,  concur  in  the  belief 
that  a  cross  in  the  blood  usually  gives 
increased  size  and  vigor  to  the  produce, 
and  that  cross  breeding  or  pairing  of  an- 
imals  of   distinct   varieties   usually    re- 


Fig.    26 — MODERN    GAME    COCK 

suits  in  increased  fertility."  Again,  pre- 
potency, which  is  often  claimed  as  a 
characteristic  result  of  inbreeding,  is  fre- 
quently secured  by  outcrosses  to  just  as 
great  a  degree. 

Cross  breeding  means  mating  animals 
of  two  distinct  breeds.    A  common  modi- 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


41 


fication  of  this  method  is  seen  in  cross- 
ing a  pure  bred  male  on  a  scrub  or  un- 
improved female.  The  latter  process  is 
known  as  grading  up  or  grade  breeding. 
Cross  breeding  has  been  a  quite  common 
practice  among  sheep  raisers.  The 
Hampshires  were  improved  by  crossing 


Fig.    27 WILD    TURKEY    GOBBLER,    SOURCE 

OF    OUR    DOMESTIC    BREEDS 

with  the  Southdowns;  the  Shropshires 
have  been  crossed  with  the  Cotswold, 
Leicester  and  Southdown,  and  many- 
other  crosses  have  occurred  in  sheep, 
cattle  and  horses.  All  who  have  prac- 
ticed cross  breeding  insist  upon  the 
great  importance  of  using  only  males  of 
the  best  possible  character.  Many  fail- 
ures in  cross  breeding  have  been  due  to 
the  use  of  inferior  males.  However  im- 
portant the  infusion  of  new  blood  may 
be,  the  breeder  cannot  secure  any  useful 
result  by  merely  mixing  the  blood  of 
different  breeds  indiscriminately.  Cross- 
ing must  be  done  with  intelligence  and 
with  some  purpose  in  view.  Otherwise 
the  good  points  of  both  breeds  may  be 
lost  in  a  worthless  ha  If  breed.  As  indi- 
cated in  the  discussion  of  variation, 
widely  unlike  characters  may  not  blend 
and  it  is  often  impossible  to  predict 
what  the  results  will  be.  One  breed  may 
be  used  sometimes  to  supplement  an- 
other breed  in  some  weak  point.  Cross 
breeding,  however,  is  little  practiced  at 


the  present  day  and  there  seems  to  be 
comparatively  little  occasion  for  it. 

Grade  breeding — Finally  we  come  to 
grade  breeding  or  grading  up,  the  only 
method  of  breeding  with  which  the  aver- 
age farmer  is  likely  to  be  occupied.  It 
is  the  method  which  promises  the  best, 
quickest  and  most  economic  results  in 
his  hands.  Considering  the  great  num- 
bers of  native  or  unimproved  stock 
which  must  be  utilized,  grading  up   is 


1 
MEnBED 

.,•'./<_■.%  I 

Fig.   28 BRONZE  TURKEY  OF  MODERN  TYPE 


the  only  method  of  breeding  which 
can  be  conscientiously  recommended  to 
the  farmer.  Grade  breeding  consists 
in  the  continued  breeding  of  pure 
bred  sires  to  unimproved  or  grade 
stock.  The  result  is  the  constant  im- 
provement   of    native     stock     and    the 


42 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


constant  elevation  of  the  quality  of 
grades.  Crossing  pure  breeds  to  obtain 
a  new  breed  is  hardly  to  be  thought  of 
at  present  in  ordinary  farm  practice. 
Again,  most  farmers  cannot  afford  the 
loss  of  time  necessary  to  establish  a  new 
breed  even  by  the  method  of  natural 
breeding.  Even  if  he  has  the  time  why 
should  he  wish  to  form  a  new  breed? 
We  already  have  good  pure  breeds  for  all 
purposes — for  quantity  of  milk,  for  rich- 
ness of  milk,  for  excellence  of  beef,  for 
vigor  in  beef  animals,  for  coarse  and 
fine  wool,  for  mutton,  for  speed,  for 
draft,  for  bacon,  for  lard,  for  eggs,  for 
chicken  meat,  etc.  To  be  sure  there  is 
room  for  improvement.  But  why  not 
build  on  the  basis  of  the  great  advan- 
tages furnished  by  existing  breeds  ?  The 
only  sensible  way  to  improve  upon 
our  present  conditions  is  to  go  ahead 
from  the  most  advanced  point  yet 
reached,  rather  than  go  back  and  begin 
anew. 

The  average  farmer  raises  stock  for 
quality  and  usefulness,  not  for  pedi- 
gree; and  since  such  a  large  proportion 
of  farm  animals  consist  of  native  stock, 
the  only  reasonable  course  for  the  farmer 
to  pursue  is  to  use  pure  bred  males  for 
improving  this  stock  in  definite  direc- 
tions. This  system  is  simple,  easy  to 
understand  and  brings  rapid  results. 
Even  the  first  cross  shows  decided  im- 
provement, and  within  three  to  five  gen- 
erations the  grades  are  for  all  practical 
purposes  as  good  as  pure  breeds.     The 


choice  of  breed  in  the  sire  will  depend 
on  the  product  which  is  desired.  For 
the  production  of  heavy  draft  horses 
use  Percheron  or  Clydesdale  stallions; 
for  quantity  of  milk,  Holstein  bulls;  for 
rich  milk,  Guernsey  or  Jersey  bulls;  for 
dual  purpose  cows,  Shorthorn  bulls;  for 
beef,  Hereford,  Shorthorn  or  Angus 
bulls,  etc.  The  individual  farmer  will 
have  his  preference  in  the  choice  of 
breeds,  but  when  a  given  course  has  been 
adopted,  stick  to  it  and  do  not  change 
from  one  breed  to  another  without  rea- 
son, for  the  tendencies  of  the  herd  will 
become  mixed  and  indefinite  unless  a 
uniform  plan  is  followed. 

In  order  to  get  satisfactory  results  by 
this  method  the  males  must  be  pure  bred. 
Never  use  a  grade  sire  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. All  such  animals  should  be  cas- 
trated. It  is  not  necessary  for  the  farmer 
to  import  his  sires  from  Europe,  in  fact 
this  practice  is  often  to  be  deprecated. 
American  stock  for  American  conditions 
should  be  the  slogan  of  the  breeder,  and 
the  farmer  will  usually  get  better  results 
from  the  use  of  American  sires. 

In  farm  stock,  pedigree  is  merely  a 
record  of  ancestry  and  does  not  insure 
quality  in  an  individual  animal.  Pedi- 
gree is  a  good  thing  as  far  as  it  goes,  and 
should  be  insisted  upon  in  the  choice 
of  sires  to  head  a  herd.  Even  the  best 
line  of  descent,  however,  shows  poor  in- 
dividuals here  and  there.  Consequently 
individual  merit  should  be  insisted  upon 
as  well  as  pedigree. 


PART   II 

Principles 
of  Stock  Feeding 


SI 


II 


°  2 


FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


Man's  first  flocks  and  herds  lived  by 
grazing.  No  grain  was  fed  them  and 
no  forage  was  stored  for  their  use  in 
winter.  Their  grazing  ground  changed 
with  necessity  and  they  were  fat  or  lean 
according  to  the  season  and  the  abun- 
dance of  herbage.  This  method  of  stock- 
raising  is  limited  to  regions  of  favorable 
climate.  Land  also  must  be  cheap  and 
thinly  settled.  Such  conditions  prevail 
in  the  United  States  today  in  some  states 
of  the  West.  The  principles  of  feeding 
under  such  conditions  are  limited  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  best  feeding  grounds 
and  watering  pools.  Where  the  winters 
are  so  severe  that  stock  cannot  secure 
forage,  and  in  thickly  settled  communi- 
ties where  land  is  too  expensive  to  be 
kept  in  pasture,  or  where  it  is  desired 
to  increase  beyond  the  normal  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  or  wool  or  eggs  or  meat 
or  work,  then  feeding  becomes  necessary 
and  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of 
feeding  of  great  importance. 

For  centuries  our  domestic  animals 
have  been  cared  for  by  man.  Stock  has 
been  fattened,  cows  fed  for  their  milk 
and  beasts  of  burden  made  to  work,  and 
men  have  come  to  know  in  a  general  way 
the  food  requirements  for  these  different 
purposes.  Yet  the  facts  thus  learned  by 
observation  were  particular  facts  and  ap- 
plied to  particular  foods.  Each  feeder 
had  his  theories  and  each  theory  differed 
from  every  other  theory.  No  man  knew 
the  reasons — the  why  of  it  all. 

Studying  animal  nutrition — It  was 
not  until  about  60  years  ago  that  the 
subject  of  animal  nutrition  began  to  be 
studied  seriously.  The  pioneers  in  this 
work  were  Boussinganlt  in  France,  Lie- 
big  in  Germany  and  Lawes  and  Gilbert 
in  England.  The  voluminous  results  of 
German  investigators  were  first  made 
available  to  American  and  English 
readers  in  1880  by  Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby  in 
his  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding. 

This  work  presented  a  comprehensive 
digest  of  the  experiments  in  animal  nu- 


trition made  up  to  that  time  and  served 
as  a  direct  stimulus  to  the  extensive  in- 
vestigations which  have  since  been  made 
along  similar  lines  in  America  at  our 
experiment  stations.  At  the  present 
time  we  have  a  comparatively  full  un- 
derstanding of  the  very  complicated  sub- 
ject of  animal  nutrition. 

Principles  of  nutrition — In  our  pres- 
entation of  the  subject  we  will  discuss 
the  principles  of  nutrition  in  so  far  as 
they  may  be  necessary  to  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  subject  by  the  feeder. 
Under  principles  of  feeding  will  be 
taken  up  for  consideration  such  matters 
as  the  composition  of  animals  and  plants, 
defining  such  terms  as  are  commonly 
employed  in  this  connection;  the  diges- 
tion of  food  and  factors  influencing  di- 
gestibility; the  function  of  the  various 
food  constituents  in  the  body,  such  as 
protein,  carbohydrates,  fat,  mineral  mat- 
ter, salt  and  water;  the  compounding  of 
rations;  feeding  standard;  calculating 
balanced  rations ;  and  tables  showing  the 
composition  of  American  feeding  stuffs 
and  their  percentage  digestibility,  etc. 

COMPOSITION  OF  ANIMALS 

A  clear  understanding  of  animal  feed- 
ing begins  with  a  knowledge  of  what  the 
animal  is — what  it  is  made  of,  what 
changes  in  composition  take  place  during 
growth  and  during  fattening,  and  the 
like.  This  information  has  been  well 
supplied  by  the  work  of  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert in  England,  who  analyzed  the  en- 
tire bodies  of  ten  animals,  and  by  the 
Maine  experiment  station  in  this  coun- 
try, which  analyzed  the  entire  bodies,  ex- 
clusive of  the  skins,  of  four  steers.  The 
results  of  .these  analyses  are  shown  in 
the  table  below: 

COMPOSITION    OF    FARM    ANIMALS 

Water     Ash     Pro-  Fat 
tein 

p  ct    p  ct    p  ct  p  ct 

Fat  calf 62.3     4.48     16.6  16.6 

Half  fat  ox 54.0     5.56     17.8  22.6 

Fat   ox    45.6      4.56      15.0  34.8 

Steer  17   months  old..  59.4     4.40     17.4  18.8 


40 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


COMPOSITION  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  —  Con. 

Water    Ash  Pro-  Fat 

tein 

p  ct  p  ct  p  ct  p  ct 

Steer  17  months  old.  .57.1  5.20  17.5  20.2 

Steer  24   months  old.. 53.1  5.10  16.6  25.2 

Steer  24  months  old..  53. 4  5.20  16.8  24.6 

Fat  lamb 48.6  3.63  10.9  36.9 

Store    sheep    57.3  4.36  14.5  23.8 

Half  fat  old  sheep   ...49.7  4.13  14.9  31.3 

Fat  sheep    39.7  3.45  11.5  45.4 

Very  fat  sheep    33.0  2.77  9.1  55.1 

Store  pig 55.3  2.57  14.0  28.1 

Fat  pig 38.6  1.40  10.5  49.5 

Average   50.7     4.1       14.5     30.9 

Water  in  animals— A  striking  feature 
of  this  table  is  the  large  amount  of  water 
shown  to  exist  in  the  animal  body.  Ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  fat  animals,  over  50 
per  cent  of  the  bodies  of  cattle,  sheep 
and  swine  consists  of  water.  The  body 
of  the  calf,  even  though  fat,  is  shown  to 


percentage  of  fat.  On  the  average  we  see 
that  over  half  the  dry  matter  of  the  ani- 
mal body  consists  of  fat.  Even  in  the 
case  of  lean  animals,  as  the  store  pig 
and  store  sheep,  the  fat  constitutes  the 
largest  part  of  the  dry  matter,  while  in 
the  case  of  the  very  fat  sheep  and  the 
fat  pig,  practically  half  the  whole  body 
is  composed  of  fat. 

Lawes  and  Gilbert  have  shown  that  in 
fattening  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  from 
65  per  cent  of  the  increase  in  weight  in 
the  case  of  cattle  to  as  high  as  75  per 
cent  in  the  case  of  sheep  may  be  com- 
posed of  fat.  The  nitrogenous  sub- 
stance may  constitute  7  to  8  per  cent  of 
the  gain  in  weight  and  the  ash  from  less 
than  1  to  more  than  2  per  cent,  the 
rest  of  the  increase  being  water.     With 


Fig.  30 — FIRST  CUTTING  OP  ALFALFA,  MAY  24,  ON  AN  OHIO  FARM 


consist  of  a  still  larger  percentage  of 
water.  As  animals  increase  in  fatness 
the  percentage  of  water  decreases.  This 
does  not  mean  that  fat  is  substituted  for 
the  water  already  existing  in  the  body 
but  that  the  increased  growth  in  fatten- 
ing contains  a  less  proportionate  amount 
of  water  than  the  original  body.  In  the 
case  of  mature  cattle,  sheep  and  swine 
the  increase  in  growth  during  fattening 
contains  only  about  25  per  cent  of  water 
and  in  some  cases  even  less. 

This  explains  why  animals  ready  for 
market  contain  less  water  than  lean  ani- 
mals and  why  the  meat  of  young  pork  or 
lean  hogs  fries  away  so  much  more  than 
pork  from  well  fattened  swine. 

Fat  in  animals— The  next  important 
column  in  the  table  is  that  showing  the 


young  fattening  animals  these  propor- 
tions will  be  slightly  changed,  there  be- 
ing a  slight  increase  in  the  ash,  nitrog- 
enous substance,  and  water. 

Protein  in  animals — In  the  column 
marked  protein  it  will  be  noted  that  on 
the  average  the  bodies  of  the  animals 
examined  were  made  up  of  14.5  per  cent 
of  this  material.  Protein  is  a  word 
used  for  a  group  of  substances  in 
both  plants  (see  page  48)  and  ani- 
mals which  contain  the  element,  nitro- 
gen. Lean  meat  is  a  characteristic  ex- 
ample of  protein  and  the  albumen  or 
white  of  an  egg  is  another  important 
nitrogenous  compound  belonging  to  this 
group.  The  calf  is  seen  to  contain  as 
much  protein  as  fat.  All  the  other  ani- 
mals contain  much  more  fat  than  pro- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


47 


tein.    In  lean  animals  the  percentage  of  per  cent,  and  a  lean  hog  73  per  cent  of 

protein  is  greater  than  in  fat  animals.  dressed  carcass,  while  a  fat  ox  gave  60 

The   ash   of   animals    constitutes   the  Per  cent  °f  dressed  carcass,  a  fat  sheep 

residue  that  is  left  after  the  whole  body  53  Per  cent,  and  a  fat  hog  82  per  cent, 

is  burned.     The  ash  is  made  up  chiefly  From  tne  butcher's  standpoint,  therefore, 

of  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  sodium  fat  animals  are  worth  more  pound  for 

and  magnesia,  with  smaller  amounts  of  pound    live   weight   than    lean    animals, 

other    materials,    such    as    silicon,    iron  first  because  they  do  not  dress  away  so 

chlorine  and  sulphur.  much  and  second  because  of  the  better 

From  the  above  table  it  can  be  calcu-  quality  of  the  meat  of  well  fattened  ani- 

lated  that  a  half  fat  ox  weighing  1000  mals- 

pounds  would  contain,  exclusive  of  con-  Having  now  considered  the  composi- 

tents  of  stomach  and   intestines,   about  tion  of  animals  and  the  proportions  in 

55.6  pounds  of  ash.      A  half  fat  ox  weigh-  which    the   various    substances   exist   in 

ing  1000  pounds,  inclusive  of  contents  of  thj   body   let   us    next   examine   plants, 

stomach   and   intestines,  was  found  by  study   their   composition,   and   see   how 

Lawes    and    Gilbert    to    contain    18.39  they   are  fitted  to   nourish   the   animal 

pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  21.11  pounds  body, 
of  lime,  2.5  pounds  of  potash  and  0.85 

pounds  of  magnesia.     The  ash  of  sheep  COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS 

and  hogs  was  found  to  exist  in  these  ani-  An  animalg  deriye  ^  nourisWnt 

mals  in  proportions  very  similar  to  those  directly  or  indirectly  from  pljmt8      At 

m  tie  ox*  one  time  they  feed  on  the  green  plants, 

Greater  value  of  fat  animals—There  at  another  on  the  cured  forage  or  hay, 

is  another  marked  difference  in  the  char-  and  again  on  the  grain  or  by-products 

acter  of  the  carcasses  of  lean  and  fat  of  the  plant.    The  composition  of  several 

animals    and   that    is    the   much    larger  important    forage    plants     at    different 

proportion    of    butcher's    meat    in    fat  stages  of  growth  is  shown  in  the  table 

than  in  lean  animals.     Lawes  and  Gil-  below,  together  with  the  analyses  of  sev- 

bert  found  that  a  lean  ox  gave  47  per  eral     grains     for     comparison.       Other 

cent  of  dressed  carcass,  a  lean  sheep  45  analyses  may  be  found  on  another  page. 

COMPOSITION   OF  PLANTS. 

Nitrogen 

Water  Ash  Protein  Fiber  free  extract  Fat 

Per  ct  per  ct  per  ct  per  ct  per  ct  per  ct 
Green  plants: 

Red   clover    70.8  2.1  4.4  8.1  13  5  11 

Corn    79.8  1.1  2.0  4  3  12 1  0  7 

Timothy     61.6  2.1  3.1  11  8  20<>  12 

Cowpea     83.6  1.7  2.4  4.8  71  04 

Blue   grass    49.4  3.9  5.2  15.4  24.9  13 

Cured  plants: 

Clover  hay    20.8  6.6  12.4  21.9  33  8  4  5 

Timothy    hay     15.0  4.5  6.0  29.6  419  3  0 

Cowpea  hay   10.7  7.5  16.6  201  42  2  2  9 

Blue  grass   hay 9.4  7.7  10.4  19.6  50.4  2.5 

Grains: 

Corn    10.9  1.5  10.5  2.1  69.6  5  4 

Oats     11.0  3.0  11.8  9.5  59.7  5.0 

Cotton   seed    9.1  4.0  19.6  18.9  28.3  20.1 

The  table  shows  that  plants  contain  contain  most  water  and  the  percentage 

water,  ash,  protein  and  fat  the  same  as  decreases  as  the  plant  approaches  matu- 

animals  do   and  in   addition  two  other  rity.    All  farmers  have  noticed  how  much 

classes   of   substances    designated   under  more  quick]y  h       cureg  towapd  the       d 

^headings  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  ex-  of  ^  haying  geason  ^  at  ^  begin_ 

"water    in    plants-Water    constitutes  J™*       A\    ^     ?e^Wa     station 

*-  nn«si    wuBinuic  timothy  cut  when  j ust  beginning  to  head 

a  very  large  part  of  green  plants,  aver-  ,       hf,  /  ?         .  . 

.  i       ,   %r.  .    •      +1        i      .„  lost  75  per  cent  of  water  in  curing;  when 

aging  about  70  per  cent  in  the  plants  L  *       .      .      .  „    .      , _  6 ' 

mentioned.     There  is  a  less  amount  in  cut  at  the  beginning  of  the  blossoming 

the  cured  plants  and  still  less  in  grains.  season  the  loss  was  66  per  cent,  and  when 

The  percentage  of  water  in  plants  is  cut  a  little  later  or  at  about  the  usual 

not    constant.      Young    growing   plants  time  the  loss  was  only  57  per  cent. 


48 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Even  when  hay  appears  perfectly  well 
cured  and  dry  it  contains  a  large  amount 
of  water,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  analyses 
above.  From  the  time  hay  is  put  in  the 
barn  until  it  is  baled  or  used  in  winter 
there  is  usually  a  shrinkage  in  weight  of 
15  to  20  per  cent,  due  to  further  loss  of 
moisture.  Grain  also  shrinks  from  10 
to  20  per  cent  in  weight  in  storage  from 
loss  of  moisture. 

The  water  in  plants  or  feeding  stuffs 
is  of  no  greater  value  for  animals  than 
water  obtained  from  other  sources,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  pure  and  may  add  palata- 
bility  to  the  food.  Feeds  are  valuable  in 
proportion  to  the  dry  matter  they  con- 
tain, not  in  proportion  to  the  water. 

Ash  in  plants — The  ash  in  green 
plants  and  of  grains,  as  shown  by  the 
table,  is  comparatively  low,  being  rela- 
tively much  lower  than  the  ash  in  ani- 
mals. The  ash  content  of  the  cured  hay 
is  somewhat  greater.  Different  plants 
vary  greatly  as  regards  their  ash  content 


and  even  different  parts  of  the  same 
plant.  Thus  the  dry  matter  of  beet 
leaves  contains  about  15  per  cent  of  ash, 
while  the  dry  matter  of  the  roots  con- 
tains but  about  3.8  per  cent  of  ash.  The 
dry  matter  in  the  straw  of  wheat,  oats 
and  peas  contains  from  5  to  7  per  cent 
of  ash,  while  the  grain  of  these  plants 
contains  only  2  to  3  per  cent.  Different 
parts  of  a  kernel  of  grain  also  store  up 
different  amounts  of  ash,  thus  the  outer 
coating  or  bran  of  wheat  contains  about 
6  per  cent  of  ash,  while  the  wheat  flour 
contains  only  about  one-half  of  1  per 
cent  of  ash. 

The  ash  of  plants  contains  the  same 
elements  as  the  ash  of  animals,  though 
in  somewhat  different  proportions.  Pot- 
ash is  much  more  prominent  in  the  ash 
of  plants  than  in  animals,  while  phos- 
phoric acid  and  lime  is  much  less  so. 
These  differences  are  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing comparison: 


COMPOSITION   OF  ASH  IN   PLANTS   AND  ANIMALS    (per  Cent). 


Total  ash  Potash        Soda 

Timothy   hay    (dry   matter) G.8  2.4  .12 

Fat  ox  (fresh  body) 3.9  .14  .12 


Lime  Phos  acid  Magnesia 

.55  .80  .22 

1.74  1.56  .05 


The  protein  of  plants  is  essentially 
the  same  material  as  that  found  in  an- 
imals. As  before  noted  it  is  a  short 
term  used  to  signify  a  group  of  com- 
pounds in  both  plants  and  animals  that 
contain  nitrogen.  The  proteids  are  all 
very  highly  organized  organic  com- 
pounds. They  have  been  found  to  con- 
tain on  the  average  about  52  per  cent 
carbon,  23  per  cent  oxygen,  16  per  cent 
nitrogen,  7  per  cent  hydrogen  and  2  per 
cent  sulphur  and  sometimes  small 
amounts  of  phosphorus  or  iron  in  addi- 
tion. It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
proteid  molecule  contains  at  least  5000 
atoms,  while  that  of  water  contains 
but  3  atoms,  sugar  24  to  45  and  fat  165 
atoms  or  thereabouts.  This  gives  an 
idea  of  the  highly  organized  and  complex 
form  of  the  proteid  compounds.  The 
gluten  of  the  wheat  kernel  is  an  exam- 
ple of  vegetable  protein. 

All  plants  contain  some  protein,  but 
it  is  most  abundant  in  leguminous  plants 
and  seeds,  like  clover,  alfalfa,  peas,  beans, 
etc.  The  table  on  page  47  shows  that 
cotton  seed  is  very  rich  in  protein.  Feed- 
stuffs  rich  in  protein  are  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  as  "flesh  formers"  on  account  of 
their  importance  in  the  formation  of  lean 


flesh.  Protein  is  the  only  constituent 
in  feeding  stuffs  that  contains  nitrogen. 
The  nitrogen  is  the  same  as  that  found 
in  fertilizers  and  that  constitutes  four- 
fifths  of  the  air  Ave  breathe. 

The  protein  group  is  usually  divided 
into  the  proteids  and  non-proteids,  the 
former  of  which  is  the  more  abundant 
and  has  the  greater  feeding  value.  Of 
the  non-proteids  the  amides,  gelatine, 
creatin,  etc,  are  prominent  members. 
The  non-proteids  are  simpler  in  struc- 
ture than  the  proteids,  are  soluble  and 
transferable  throughout  the  tissues  and 
are  not  believed  to  be  muscle  formers 
like  the  albuminoids,  but  perform,  rather, 
functions  similar  to  the  other  organic 
constituents  of  the  food. 

The  source  of  protein  in  the  animal 
body  is  the  protein  of  the  food.  It  is 
believed  also  that  the  animal  body  is  not 
capable  of  building  up  protein  from 
simpler  substances,  but  that  the  protein 
must  enter  the  body  fully  organized. 
Protein  is  essential  in  the  building  and 
repair  of  all  animal  tissue  and  is  a 
prominent  constituent  of  the  muscles, 
brain,  nerves,  blood,  hair,  nails,  skin,  etc. 
Animals  cannot  build  up  their  bodies, 
cows  produce  milk,  poultry  eggs,  or  sheep 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


49 


wool  unless  the  food  they  receive  con- 
tains protein  in  sufficient  quantities. 
In  addition  to  these  functions,  protein 
serves  also  as  a  source  of  energy  to  ani- 
mals and  may  also  be  used  in  the  build- 
ing of  fat  for  storage  in  the  body. 

Fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract — 
The  next  two  columns  in  the  table  of 
analyses  on  page  47  show  constituents 
not  found  as  such  in  the  animal  body. 
These  are  fiber  or  crude  fiber  as  it  is  gen- 
erally given  in  tables  of  analyses  and  ni- 
trogen-free extract.  Crude  fiber  or  cellu- 
lose constitutes  the  essential  part  of  the 
cell  structure  or  framework  of  plants  and 
seeds  and  gives  to  them  their  rigidity. 
Under  nitrogen-free  extract  is  included 


Fig.    31 LUPINE.      A    WILD    FORM 

COMMON  IN   THE   WEST 

the  starches,  sugars,  gum  and  like  sub- 
stances. Crude  fiber  and  nitrogen-free 
extract  are  referred  to  as  a  whole  as  car- 
hohydraies.  This  term  is  very  fre- 
quently used  in  connection  with  feeding 
stuffs  and  includes  the  whole  group  of 
starches,  sugars,  fibers,  cellulose  and 
gums,  everything  in  fact  except  the  pro- 
tein, ash,  crude  fat  and  water. 

The  carbohydrates  are  composed  of 
three  elements  only,  carbon,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen.  The  plants  get  all  the  car- 
bon they  need  from  the  air  and  all  the 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  necessary  from 
water.  They  are,  therefore,  the  cheapest 
constituents  of  feeding  stuffs.     Under 


the  influence  of  the  digestive  fluids  the 
starches  and  crude  fiber  are  converted 
into  sugar  which  is  soluble  and  can  be 
readily  absorbed  into  the  animal  system. 

Both  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract 
serve  as  a  source  of  energy  and  heat  in 
the  animal  body  and  for  the  production 
of  fat.  The  largest  part  of  all  farm  crops 
consists  of  these  carbohydrates.  Crude 
fiber  is  especially  abundant  in  the  hays 
and  straws  as  will  be  seen  by  reference 
to  the  table  on  another  page,  while  the 
starches  predominate  in  such  feeds  as 
corn,  potatoes  and  cassava.  Sugar  is  es- 
pecially abundant  in  sugar  beets  and  in 
cane  and  sorghum.  Digestible  crude 
fiber  or  cellulose  is  regarded  at  the  pres- 
ent time  as  being  practically  as  valuable 
for  productive  purposes  as  either  starch 
or  sugar,  leaving  out  of  consideration 
the  work  expended  in  preparing  it  for 
use  by  the  body.  The  work  of  chewing 
and  digesting  crude  fiber  is,  however, 
very  considerable.  Kellner  found  that  if 
tarch  be  rated  at  100,  wheat  straw  would 
have  a  value  of  27,  or  practically  be  only 
one-fourth  as  valuable  as  a  food. 

Fat  or  ether  extract — The  last  col- 
umn of  the  table  is  designated  as  "fat." 
In  some  tables  of  analyses  of  feeding 
stuffs,  it  is  called  "crude  fat"  or  "ether 
extract."  In  analyzing  feeding  stuffs 
they  are  extracted  for  a  long  time  with 
ether.  The  ether  dissolves  out  not  only 
the  vegetable  oil  or  fat  proper,  but  also 
certain  waxes,  the  green  coloring  mate- 
rial of  the  plant,  etc.  This  crude  fat, 
therefore,  is  a  mixture  of  a  number  cf 
different  substances. 

The  fat  of  foods  serves  for  the  pro- 
duction of  energy  and  heat  in  animals 
the  same  as  the  carbohydrates  do,  and 
may  also  be  modified  and  deposited  as 
animal  fat.  For  these  purposes  fat  is 
considered  to  be  about  2.25  times  as  val- 
uable as  carbohydrates.  Like  the  car- 
bohydrates the  fats  contain  just  the 
three  elements — carbon,  oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen. The  fat  molecule,  however,  is 
much  more  complex  than  the  carbohy- 
drate molecule. 

The  fat  content  of  green  plants 
is  usually  very  low,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  table,  and  consists  very  largely  of  the 
waxes  and  green  coloring  material  which 
have  a  lower  feeding  value  than  the 
true  fats.  True  fat  is  found  mostly  in 
the  seeds  of  plants.  Corn  and  oats  con- 
tain about  5  per  cent  of  fat,  while  cot- 
ton seed  contains  as  much  as  20  per 
cent. 


50 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


NECESSITY  FOR  FOOD 

Without  food  the  animal  dies.  No 
matter  whether  animals  work  or  rest, 
whether  awake  or  asleep,  certain  internal 
work  and  changes  are  constantly  going 
on  as  long  as  life  lasts.  The  heart  beats, 
respiration  goes  on,  the  body  is  kept 
warm.  To  maintain  these  vital  proc- 
esses, food  is  necessary.  The  body  re- 
quires the  tissue  building  material  and 
the  latent  energy  and  heat  which  is 
stored  in  food  to  maintain  it. 

Use  of  food — After  foods  have  been 
eaten  and  acted  upon  by  the  digestive 
juices,  the  various  nutrients  which  they 


DIGESTIBILITY       OF       FEEDING 
STUFFS 

Most  of  the  compounds  contained  in 
feeding  stuffs  must  undergo  certain 
chemical  changes  and  modifications  be- 
fore they  can  be  made  use  of  by  the  ani- 
mal body.  These  chemical  changes  are 
brought  about  during  the  processes  of 
digestion,  as  was  shown  in  the  discussion 
of  the  physiology  of  animals  in  Part  I 
of  this  work.  Not  all  the  constituents 
of  a  feeding  stuff,  as  shown  by  analyses, 
are  digested.  A  part  passes  through  the 
animal  undigested. 

In    order,    therefore,    to    estimate   the 


Fig.  32 — CRIMSON   CLOVER  AS   GROWN  IN  DELAWARE 


contain  are  absorbed  from  the  digestive 
tract  and  carried  by  the  blood  to  every 
portion  of  the  body.  Every  cell  is 
reached  and  supplied  with  the  nutriment 
necessary  for  its  maintenance  while  the 
material  which  the  cell  has  already 
used  is  carried  away  in  the  blood  and  ex- 
creted from  the  body.  The  broken  down 
protein  is  excreted  partially  in  the  form 
of  urea  from  the  kidneys  through  the 
urine,  while  the  carbon  is  excreted  from 
the  lungs,  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid 
through  the  breath. 


feeding  value  of  any  material  it  is  nec- 
essary to  know  what  portion  of  the  pro- 
tein, the  carbohydates,  the  fats,  etc,  con- 
tained in  the  feeding  stuff  is  actually 
digestible.  Experiments  to  determine 
this  matter  have  been  carried  on  now  for 
many  years  with  different  kinds  of  ani- 
mals and  with  all  the  more  usual  feed- 
ing stuffs.  The  results  secured  for  all  the 
more  usual  American  feeding  stuffs  are 
shown  in  the  table  on  another  page,  en- 
titled, The  average  digestibility  of  Amer- 
ican  feeding   stuffs.     Attention  will  be 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


51 


called  to  this  table  again  when  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  compounding  of  rations 
for  animals  is  taken  up. 

Determination  of  digestibility — The 
digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs  is  deter- 
mined by  feeding  animals  regularly  for 
a  considerable  period  food  which  has 
been  carefully  analyzed.  The  feces  are 
collected  during  this  period  and  ana- 
lyzed. The  difference  between  the 
amount  of  food  fed  and  the  amount  of 
undigested  matter  found  in  the  feces  is 
taken  to  represent  the  amount  digested 
by  the  animal.  The  digestibility  of  the 
different  feeding  stuffs  as  given  in  tables 
of  digestibilifr0,  has  been  determined  in 
this  manner. 

The  greatest  number  of  digestion  ex- 
periments has  been  made  with  rumi- 
nants, a  less  number  with  swine  and 
horses,  and  a  few  with  poultry.  The 
coefficients  of  digestion,  i.  e.,  the  percent- 
age digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs,  for 
these  different  classes  of  animals,  are 
shown  separately  in  the  tables  above  re- 
ferred to. 

Digestion  by  different  animals — As 
regards  different  kinds  of  animals, 
cattle,  sheep  and  goats  appear  to  digest 
the  same  foods  equally  well.  This  is 
especially  true  of  the  more  easily  di- 
gested foods.  In  the  case  of  woody,  dif- 
ficultly digested  foods,  cattle  digest  a 
larger  percentage  than  sheep.  Horses, 
probably  on  account  of  the  simpler  or- 
ganization of  the  stomach,  do  not  digest 
most  feeding  stuffs  as  well  as  the  ru- 
minants do.  They  digest  oats  and  corn 
and  in  general  the  protein  constituents 
of  feeds  practically  as  well  as  sheep,  but 
not  the  crude  fiber  or  crude  fat.  Swine 
digest  corn,  barley  and  some  other 
grains  as  well  or  better  than  ruminants. 
They  do  not  digest  the  crude  fiber  and 
fat  of  most  feeding  stuffs  as  well  as 
ruminants  do  nor  the  protein  of  green 
forage  as  well. 

Different  breeds  of  the  same  species 
of  animal  digest  feeds  apparently 
equally  well,  and  young  animals  appear 
to  digest  the  better  grades  of  coarse 
feeds  and  grains  equally  as  well  as  older 
animals  of  the  same  kind. 

Factors  affecting  digestion — There 
are  a  number  of  factors  affecting  the 
digestion  of  feeding  stuffs  which  are 
within  the  control  of  the  feeder  and 
these  he  should  know. 

Palatability — A  palatable  ration  fa- 
vors digestion  probably  because  of  a 
greater  flow  of  the  digestive  juices  which 


occurs  when  foods  are  eaten  with  a  rel- 
ish. It  is  believed  that  the  success  of 
many  feeders  is  due,  in  a  large  measure, 
to  their  great  care  in  the  preparation 
of  rations  to  have  them  appetizing  and 
palatable.  The  more  palatable  the  ra- 
tion the  more  within  limits  will  the  ani- 
mal eat,  and  the  more  the  animal  eats 
and  digests  the  greater  will  be  the 
amount  of  flesh  or  other  animal  products 
produced. 

The  stage  of  growth  at  which  fod- 
ders are  harvested  have  a  marked  in- 
fluence on  their  digestibility.  Young 
growing  plants  contain  relatively  more 
protein  and  less  woody  fiber  than  older 
plants  and  are  more  easily  digested.  As 
plants  approach  maturity  there  is  gen- 
erally a  translocation  of  a  large  portion 
of  the  protein,  starch  and  fat  to  the 
seeds,  leaving  the  hard,  woody  portion, 
or  crude  fibers,  in  the  stems.  This  is 
why  straw  made  from  crops  cut  when 
the  grain  is  ripe  is  so  greatly  inferior 
in  feeding  value  to  the  hay  made  from 
the  same  grains  if  cut  when  the  grain 
is  in  the  early  dough  stage.  Hay  made 
from  ripe  grasses  is  no  better  than  straw. 

The  yield  of  early  cut  plants  is  very 
much  less  than  from  mature  plants,  so 
that  the  total  amount  of  digestible  nu- 
trients is  greater  as  the  plants  approach 
maturity.  The  greatest  amount  of  di- 
gestible food  in  the  grasses  is  obtained 
about  the  time,  or  soon  after,  they  come 
into  bloom  and  this  is  the  time  they 
should  be  cut  for  hay. 

Cured  hay  appears  to  be  as  easily  di- 
gested as  the  fresh  grass  from  which  it 
is  made.  In  curing,  however,  there  is 
usually  considarable  loss  from  the  dry- 
ing up  and  rattling  off  of  the  leaves  and 
finer  parts  of  the  plants  thus  leaving  a 
larger  proportion  of  woody  fiber.  Prac- 
tically, therefore,  cured  fodder  is  not 
quite  so  digestible  as  green  fodder. 

Cured  or  partially  cured  hay  that  has 
been  exposed  to  rain  is  decreased  in  di- 
gestibility. The  rain  leeches  out  some 
of  the  more  soluble  constituents  of  the 
hay  leaving  the  more  undigestible  parts. 
The  fermentation  of  hay  in  the  mow, 
corn  in  the  shock,  or  grain  in  the  bin, 
also  decreases  digestibility.  Silage  is 
not  as  digestible  or  as  nutritious  as  the 
green  fodder  from  which  it  is  made. 
Long  stored  hay  also  is  slightly  less  di- 
gestible than  fresh  hay. 

Special  practices,  as  wetting  feeds, 
cooking,  steaming,  etc,  have  been  shown 
by  many  American  and  German  experi- 


52 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


ments  not  to  increase  their  digestibility 
with  the  possible  exception  of  potatoes 
and  some  other  roots  for  hogs.  If,  how- 
ever, any  of  these  practices  make  the 
rations  more  palatable  and  thus  induce 
the  animals  to  eat  larger  amounts,  then 
they  have  their  place  in  the  preparation 
of  feeds,  but  not  because  they  favor  di- 
gestibility. 

Grinding  grains  appears  to  increase 
their  digestibility  from  3  to  10  per  cent. 
It  is  of  most  value  with  horses  and 
swine  and  of  least  importance  with 
sheep.  Of  course  old  animals  with  such 
poor  teeth  that  they  cannot  grind  up 
the  grain  efficiently  should  be  fed  ground 
grains.  Grinding,  however,  adds  to  the 
cost  of  the  grain.  If  the  cost  is  in- 
creased 10  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the 


are  fed  with  a  highly  nitrogenous  feed, 
amounts  even  greater  than  15  per  cent 
may  be  fed  without  injuriously  affecting 
the  digestibility  of  the  ration. 

Kindness  must  be  mentioned  as  a 
factor  of  importance  in  influencing  di- 
gestion favorably.  Fright  of  any  kind 
checks  the  flow  of  juices  of  the  salivary 
and  other  glands  supplying  digestive 
juices.  The  milk  flow  of  cows  is  uni- 
formly decreased  by  fright  as  has  been 
proved  by  trials  at  a  number  of  the  ex- 
periment stations.  The  contented  ani- 
mal eats  more  food  and  makes  better 
use  of  it  in  the  production  of  meat  and 
other  animal  products  than  the  animal 
that  eats  in  fear.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  the  success  of  many  feeders  is  due 
in  a  large  measure  to  the  confidence  they 


grain,  the  practice  is  of  doubtful  econ- 
omy. All  grains  and  grain  by-products 
are  more  easily  digested  than  roughages. 
Miscellaneous  factors,  such  as  work ; 
amount  of  food  eaten,  whether  great  or 
small ;  f requency  of  feeding ;  watering, 
whether  before  or  after  feeding;  or  the 
consumption  of  large  quantities  of  salt, 
in  experiments  thus  far  reported  do  not 
show  any  marked  effect  on  digestion  and 
may  be  assumed  for  practical  purposes 
to  be  without  influence  on  this  factor. 
When  pure  starch  or  sugar  constitutes 
as  much  as  10  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter 
of  the  ration,  they  have  a  depressing  in- 
fluence on  digestibility,  especially  of  the 
protein  and  fiber.  When  the  dry  matter 
of  roots  and  potatoes  constitutes  more 
than  15  per  cent  of  the  ration,  digesti- 
bility is  decreased.     If,  however,  they 


inspire  in  their  flocks  and  herds  by  their 
uniform  gentleness  and  kindness  in 
handling  and  caring  for  them. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  FLESH 

Animals  fed  normally  grow  from  birth 
to  maturity  increasing  in  weight  and 
developing  their  bones  and  muscles. 
What  constituents  of  feeding  stuffs  are 
essential  to  this  growth?  We  know  that 
the  muscles,  blood,  tendons,  hair,  skin, 
nerves,  brain  and  all  the  tisues  of  the 
body  contain  nitrogen.  The  only  con- 
stituent of  feeding  stuffs  that  contains 
nitrogen  is  the  protein.  Protein  is, 
therefore,  absolutely  essential  to  grow- 
ing animals.  Is  protein  also  necessary 
for  mature  animals  that  have  made  their 
full  growth  ? 

When  the  urine  of  animals  is  ana- 
lyzed  nitrogen   is   always   found   in   it. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


53 


This  is  true  even  when  the  foods  fed 
contain  no  nitrogen  whatever.  Even 
when  animals  receive  no  food  at  all  and 
are  starving,  nitrogen  is  found  in  the 
urine.  In  these  cases  the  only  possible 
source  of  the  nitrogen  found  in  the  urine 
is  the  protein  previously  stored  in  the 
body.  The  nitrogen  in  the  urine  repre- 
sents the  protein  that  was  used  in  the 
body  in  carrying  on  its  vital  functions. 

In  the  living  animal  of  whatever  age, 
a  certain  amount  of  protein  or  flesh  is 
constantly  destroyed  in  the  life  processes 
and  is  removed  from  the  body  through 
the  urine,  while  new  tissue  is  constantly 
built  up  out  of  the  protein  obtained 
from  the  digested  food  to  replace  that 
broken  down  and  destroyed.  Protein  is 
used  constantly  in  the  body  of  all  ani- 
mals. This  is  true  whether  the  animals 
are  young  or  old  and  whether  they  are 
at  work  or  at  rest.  If  the  protein  in  the 
foods  supplied  is  more  than  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  vital  activities  of  the  ani- 
mal, the  excess,  within  limits,  may  be 
stored  as  flesh. 

Forms  of  protein— On  the  basis  of 
careful  experiments,  it  is  believed  that 
protein  exists  in  the  body  in  two  forms. 
In  one  form  it  is  unstable  and  rapidly 
destroyed.  In  the  other  form  it  is  com- 
paratively stable  and  only  slowly  de- 
stroyed. It  Las  been  suggested  that  in 
the  first  instance  the  protein  destroyed 
may  be  that  which  has  been  carried  to 
the  cells  of  the  body,  but  which  has  not 
yet  become  organized,  while  in  the 
latter  case  the  protein  has  become  organ- 
ized into  the  tissues  of  the  different 
organs. 

Organized  protein  or  flesh  constitutes 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  protein  of 
the  body,  and  in  mature  animals  re- 
mains nearly  constant,  the  amount  de- 
stroyed each  day  being  practically  less 
than  one  per  cent.  The  quantity  of  pro- 
tein not  organized  into  flesh,  or  "circu- 
latory protein"  as  it  has  been  called,  on 
the  other  hand  may  vary  greatly.  In 
starving  animals  the  circulatory  protein 
may  be  practically  nothing,  while  in  an- 
imals well  fed  on  foods  containing  a 
large  amount  of  digestible  protein  it 
may  equal  as  much  as  5  per  cent  of  the 
organized  protein.  But  while  less  than 
1  per  cent  of  the  organized  protein  is 
destroyed  each  day  in  the  vital  processes, 
70  to  80  per  cent  of  the  circulatory  pro- 
tein may  be  destroyed. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  bodily  func- 
tions are  maintained  largely  at  the  ex- 


pense of  the  circulatory  protein  which 
varies  in  amount  from  day  to  day  with 
the  amount  of  digestible  protein  in  the 
food. 

A  certain  amount  of  protein  in  the 
food  is  essential  to  life.  If  the  protein 
supply  in  the  food  is  increased  above 
this  amount,  a  temporary  gain  in  flesh 
occurs  and  a  rapid  increase  in  the  cir- 
culatory protein.  With  every  increase, 
however,  in  the  amount  of  protein  sup- 
plied in  the  food  there  is  a  correspond- 
ing proportionate  increase  in  the  amount 
of  protein  consumed  in  the  body  and 
excreted  in  the  urine.  No  matter,  there- 
fore, how  great  the  amount  of  protein 
supplied  in  the  food  any  excess  beyond 
the  normal  amount  required  to  keep  the 
animal  in  good  condition  will  not  be 
formed  into  flesh,  but  will  be  consumed 
in  the  body  and  excreted  in  the  urine. 

On  this  point  Armsby  states  that  the 
"Animal  body  puts  itself  very  promptly 
into  equilibrium  with  its  nitrogen  sup- 


Fig.  34 — beet  pulp  silos:  A,  open 
silo;  B,  trench  silo 

ply,  and  no  considerable  or  long  contin- 
ued gain  .of  proteid  tissue  can  be  pro- 
duced in  the  mature  animal  by  even  the 
most  liberal  supply  of  proteid  food." 
This  means  that  in  fattening  mature 
animals  there  is  practically  no  increase 
in  lean  meat.  The  gain  is  largely  due 
to  deposits  of  fat  which  contains  no  ni- 
trogen. 

Other  constituents — Thus  far  we  have 
spoken  only  of  the  protein  constituent 
of  the  ration  in  flesh  formation.  Pro- 
tein, however,  is  seldom  fed  alone.  It  is 
usually  combined  in  feeding  stuffs  with 
either  fats  or  carbohydrates  and  usually 
with  both.  Especially  is  this  true  with 
all  vegetable  feeding  stuffs  like  the  hays 
and  grains.  What  effect  do  carbohy- 
drates and  fats  have  on  flesh  formation 
when  they  are  fed  with  protein? 

Less  Protein  Required — Experiments 
have  shown  that  when  either  carbohy- 
drates or  fats  are  fed  in  the  ration  with 


54 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


protein  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  pro- 
tein is  required  for  the  vital  functions, 
and  that  the  gain  in  flesh  may  extend 
over  a  longer  period  than  when  protein 
is  fed  alone. 

Armsby  illustrates  this  in  the  case  of 
a  dog  that,  when  fed  on  lean  meat,  re- 
quired 1500  grams  to  maintain  himself 
in  good  condition.  When  fed  only  500 
grams  the  dog  lost  flesh  and  was  starv- 
ing. "When,  however,  200  grams  of  fat 
was  fed  with  the  500  grams  of  lean  meat 
the  dog  not  only  kept  in  good  condition, 
but  actually  gained  in  weight.  The  an- 
imal was  actually  better  nourished  on 
500  grams  of  protein  and  200  grams  of 
fat  than  on  1500  grams  of  protein. 
The  use  of  the  200  grams  of  fat  saved 
1000  grams  of  protein.  It  is  probable 
that  had  the  dog  been  able  to  have  eaten 
the  200  grams  of  fat  in  addition  to  the 
1500  grams  of  protein  he  would  not  have 


The  best  proportions  of  protein,  fat 
and  carbohydrates  to  feed  different  ani- 
mals at  different  stages  of  growth,  for 
the  different  purposes  of  growth,  fatten- 
ing, work,  milk,  egg  and  wool  produc- 
tion have  been  studied  very  extensively 
and  have  been  formulated  into  feeding 
standards  which  will  be  taken  up  and 
discussed  farther  along  in  this  acccount. 

In  summing  up  this  phase  of  the  ques- 
tion it  may  be  said  that  animals  can  live 
and  form  flesh  on  protein  alone.  But 
by  the  addition  of  carbohydrates  or  fat 
to  the  ration  they  can  live  and  form 
flesh  for  a  longer  period  on  a  much  small- 
er quantity  of  protein.  Lean  meat  is 
formed  entirely  from  the  protein  sup- 
plied in  the  food.  In  the  next  section 
we  will  see  how  fat  is  formed. 

PRODUCTION  OF  FAT 

Lean  meat  is  made  from  the  protein 


Fig.   35 — HARVESTING   SILAGE  CORN   OX  A   PENNSYLVANIA  FARM 


made  any  better  gain  than  when  fed 
simply  the  500  grams  of  protein.  The 
excess  protein  would  simply  have  been 
consumed  in  the  body  and  excreted  with- 
out tbe  production  of  any  additional 
flesh,  in  other  words,  would  have  been 
fed  at  a  loss. 

The  carbohydrates  appear  to  be 
equally  as  efficient  as  the  fats  in  pro- 
tecting protein  from  consumption  in  the 
body.  This  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance  since  nearly  all  the  feeding 
stuffs  grown  on  the  farm  are  much 
richer  in  carbohydrates  than  in  fat. 

The  question  now  arises  if  fats  and 
carbohydrates  protect  protein  from  con- 
sumption to  what  extent  may  they  be 
supplied  in  the  ration?  May  the  ration 
consist  almost  entirely  of  fats  and  car- 
bohydrates or  must  the  greater  part  be 
made  up  of  protein? 


in  the  food.  Can  fat  also  be  produced 
from  protein?  Dogs  exhausted  of  fat 
by  starvation  have  been  fed  on  lean  meat 
from  which  the  fat  had  been  extracted 
They  not  only  gained  in  flesh  but 
also  in  fat,  showing  that  fat  can  be  pro- 
duced from  protein.  The  extent,  however, 
to  which  protein  may  actually  be  used 
for  the  production  of  fat  is  not  well 
known. 

The  fats  contained  in  foods  may  be 
converted  into  the  body  fat  of  animals. 
This  has  been  proved  experimentally. 
Often  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  fats 
fed  are  retained  in  the  body.  Vegetable 
fats  are  quite  similar  to  animal  fats  and 
are  readily  converted  by  animals  into 
body  fat. 

Fat  may  also  be  produced  from  car- 
bohydrates. That  is,  such  materials  as 
starch,   sugar   and   crude  fibre   may  be 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


55 


built  up  by  tbe  animal  body  and  depos- 
ited as  fat.  This  was  conclusively  proven 
by  Lawes  and  Gilbert  in  experiments 
with  swine  and  sheep  in  which  the 
amount  of  fat  gained  in  the  case  of 
swine  was  40  to  80  per  cent  greater  than 
could  have  been  obtained  from  the  pro- 
tein and  fat  contained  in  the  ration. 
Jordan  has  also  shown  that  milk  fat 
may  be  largely  derived  from  the  car- 
bohydrates of  the  blood.  It  is  thor- 
oughly well  settled  at  this  time  that  the 
carbohydrates  are  a  very  prominent 
source  of  all  animal  fats. 

Fats  then  may  be  derived  from  the 
protein  in  the  food,  from  the  fat  in  the 
food  or  from  the  carbohydrates  in  the 
food.  It  is  probable  that  in  fattening 
animals  a  very  large  proportion  of  the 
gain  in  body  fat  is  derived  from  the 
carbohydrates. 

When  carbohydrates  or  fat  are  fed 
to  animals  in  excess  of  their  daily  re- 
quirements, it  is  within  limit  stored 
in  the  body  as  fat.  The  fat  serves  as  a 
reserve  source  of  energy  and  fuel  which 
can  be  used  by  the  body  in  time  of  need 
or  when  the  food  supply  is  insufficient. 
Starvation  and  death  do  not  usually 
occur  until  all  the  stored  fat  of  the  body 
has  been  used  up. 

PRODUCTION   OF   ENERGY   AND 
HEAT 

Energy  may  be  defined  as  the  capacity 
to  do  work.  Whether  the  work  consists 
in  drawing  a  load,  digesting  the  food 
eaten  or  in  keeping  the  body  warm  en- 
ergy is  expended.  Not  a  muscle  is  moved 
without  the  expenditure  of  energy.  The 
energy  of  the  body  is  derived  entirely 
from  the  energy  stored  up  in  the  food 
eaten.  The  energy  of  the  food  was  de- 
rived from  the  sun  while  the  plant  was 
growing  in  the  field.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  sunlight  the  carbon  of  the  air 
was  made  to  unite  in  the  plant  with 
water,  producing  sugar,  starch,  fiber,  fat, 
etc.  In  the  building  up  of  these  com- 
pound substances  work  was  expended  by 
the  sun.  This  work  was  stored  up  in  the 
newly  formed  compounds  in  the  form  of 
potential  energy,  and  it  is  this  energy 
which  the  body  uses  in  doing  work  and 
keeping  itself  warm. 

Potential  energy  raay  be  defined  as 
the  energy  of  position.  Work  must  be 
expended  on  the  hammer  of  a  pile  driver 
to  raise  it  into  position.  By  virtue  of 
its  position  it  is  able  in  falling  to  do  an 
amount    of    work    in    driving    the    pile 


equal  in  amount  to  that  done  in  raising 
it  into  position.  The  energy  stored  in 
the  hammer  when  it  has  reached  its 
position  at  the  top  of  the  pile  driver  is 
known  as  potential  energy.  Likewise 
food  compounds  contain  potential  en- 
ergy by  virtue  of  the  work  expended  by 
the  sun  in  making  them. 

When  these  food  compounds  are  de- 
composed or  broken  down  in  the  body  by 
oxidation  or  cleavage,  the  potential  en- 
ergy they  contained  is  released  and  be- 
comes active  or  "kinetic"  energy  (en- 
ergy of  motion).  It  is  this  energy  which 
is  the  source  of  muscular  exertion,  elec- 
tricity, heat,  etc,  in  the  animal  body. 

Before  growth  or  fattening  or  mi]k 
production  is  possible  there  must  be  food 
sufficient  to  supply  first  the  energy  and 
heat  requirements  of  the  body.  Only 
the  food  in  excess  of  the  requirements 
for  these  purposes  can  be  used  for 
growth  and  production. 

The  energy  set  free  by  the  breaking 
down  in  the  body  of  the  constituents 
supplied  in  the  digested  food  ultimately 
takes  the  form  of  heat.  The  conversion 
of  the  energy  of  motion  as  in  work  into 
heat  is  well  illustrated  by  pounding  a 
piece  of  iron  on  the  blacksmith's  anvil. 
As  the  hammer  strikes  the  iron  the  en- 
ergy of  motion  of  the  hammer  is  sud- 
denly checked  and  the  iron  becomes  hot, 
the  energy  of  motion  being  converted  in- 
to heat.  When  work  is  done  by  the  ani- 
mal either  externally  or  internally,  heat 
is  produced. 

Production  of  energy_What  constit- 
uents of  the  food  are  most  concerned  in 
the  production  of  energy  in  the  body? 
At  first  it  was  thought  that  the  protein 
compounds  were  the  most  important 
factors.  Experiments,  however,  do  not 
show  that  more  of  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds are  broken  down  during  work 
when  large  amounts  of  energy  are  re- 
quired than  during  rest.  On  the  other 
hand  there  is  a  marked  increase  in  the 
carbon  excretion  due  to  the  breaking 
down  of  carbon  compounds  with  each 
increase  in  the  amount  of  work  done. 
There  appears  to  be  an  intimate  connec- 
tion between  work  and  the  carbon 
compounds  as  the  fats  and  carbohydrates 
as  well  probably  as  the  carbon  portion  of 
the  protein  compounds ;  while  the  rela- 
tion between  work  and  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds is  not  so  obvious. 

Chief  function  of  food — While  food 
serves  to  build  up  tissue  and  keep  the 
body  in  repair  its  chief  function  is  to 


50 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


supply  the  body  with  energy.  The  most 
convenient  measure  of  the  potential  en- 
ergy of  a  food  is  the  amount  of  heat 
evolved  from  it  when  it  is  completely 
oxidized    or   burned. 

The  unit  of  heat  measurement  is  the 
calorie.  A  calorie  of  heat  is  the  amount 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  a 
pound  of  water  4°  F.  The  energy  value 
of  a  feeding  stuff  is  based  on  the  amount 
of  the  ration  that  is  digestible.  A 
pound  of  digestible  protein  is  estimated 
to  have  a  fuel  or  heat  value  of  I860 
calories.  A  pound  of  digestible  fat  has 
a  heat  value  of  4220  calories;  while  a 
pound  of  digestible  carbohydrates  has 
the  same  heat  value  as  a  pound  of  di- 
gestible protein,  1860  calories.  The  total 


plied  is  available  for  other  work  such  as 
chewing  and  digestion  of  food,  drawing 
a  load,   etc. 

The  energy  of  food  is  first  employed 
in  carrying  out  these  functions,  after 
which  it  appears  as  heat,  just  as  when  the 
energy  of  the  hammer  in  motion  is 
converted  and  appears  as  heat  in  the 
iron.  The  food  nutrients  are  not  first 
converted  into  heat  and  then  into  other 
forms  of  energy  as  fuel  is  in  the  engine. 
The  heat  is  the  final  result  of  the  va- 
rious forms  of  energy  exercised  in  the 
body.  It  is  a  waste  or  excretory  product 
and  is  eliminated  from  the  body  in  sev- 
eral different  ways.  It  is  only  when  this 
source  of  heat  is  not  sufficient  to  meet 
the  demands  of  the  body  for  heat  that 


. 

<;f 

Jit,      ■      r         •.■' 

Fig.  36 — IN  THE  MIDST  OF  THE  OATS  HARVEST 


fuel  value  of  a  feeding  stuff  is  found  by 
using  all  these  factors. 

This  heat  unit  of  measurement,  the 
calorie,  is  employed  as  a  matter  of  con- 
venience and  not  because  the  primary 
function  of  food  is  to  supply  heat.  This 
is  not  the  case.  The  food  is  used  pri- 
marily to  supply  energy.  The  energy  is 
used  first  of  all  in  the  necessary  muscu- 
lar and  other  work  of  the  internal  or- 
gans, as  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
respiration,  maintenance  of  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  muscles,  the  processes  of  se- 
cretion, absorption,  excretion,  osmosis, 
nerve  and  brain  work,  etc.  The  surplus 
energy  existing  after  these  requirements 
for  the  vital  activities  have  been  sup- 


food  materials  are  oxidized  for  the 
special  purpose  of  keeping  the  body 
warm. 

Net  energy—Work  of  any  kind  uses 
up  energy  and  results  in  the  production 
of  heat.  In  eating  and  digesting  food 
much  more  heat  is  evolved  from  the 
body  than  when  the  animal  is  at  rest. 
The  more  difficult  the  food  is  to  masti- 
cate and  digest  the  greater  is  the  amount 
of  energy  expended. 

Coarse  foods  are  not  nearly  so  well 
adapted  to  rapid  gains  as  concentrates 
because  of  the  greater  energy  required 
to  eat  and  digest  them ;  even  though  they 
contain  an  equal  quantity  of  nutrients. 
Armsby  found  that  a  steer  fed  timothy 
hay  utilized  37  per  cent  of  the  energy 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


57 


of  the  digestible  matter  in  the  hay  in 
mastication,  digestion  and  assimilation. 
When  corn  meal  was  fed  about  20  per 
cent  of  the  digestible  nutrients  were  so 
used.  In  the  case  of  horses  Zuntz  found 
that  48  per  cent  of  the  digestible  nutri- 
ents of  the  hay  and  19.7  per  cent  of  the 
oats  fed  were  used  up  in  the  mastication 
and  digestion  of  these  foods. 

The  difference  between  the  amount  of 
energy  which  a  food  contains  and  the 
amount  required  to  masticate,  digest 
and  absorb  it  is  spoken  of  as  the  "net 
energy"  of  the  food.  Zuntz  states  that 
in  general  the  coarse  foods  have  about 
20  per  cent  less  "net  energy"  value  than 
the  grains. 

It  is  plain  that  the  feeding  value  of 
any  material  should  be  reckoned  in  terms 


Fig.  37 — STEER  WITH  APPARATUS  USED 
IX   DIGESTION   EXPERIMENTS  BY  ARMSBY 

of  "net  energy"  rather  than  in  terms  of 
total  digestible  nutrients;  for,  while 
some  feeds  like  the  hay  may  show  a  com- 
paratively large  proportion  of  digestible 
nutrients,  the  energy  required  to  chew 
and  digest  such  food  may  be  so  great 
as  to  leave  but  little  of  the  original  en- 
ergy of  the  food  remaining  for  produc- 
tive purposes.  Feeding  standards  should 
therefore  be  based  on  the  "net  energy" 
value  of  food  rather  than  on  the  total 
digestible  nutrients.  Unfortunately  the 
"net  energy"  value  of  American  feed- 
ing stuffs  has  not  yet  been  worked 
out,  and  so  we  continue  to  make  our 
calculations  on  the  basis  of  the  total 
digestible  nutrients  in  each  feed.  It  is 
probable  that  the  next  step  in  the  scien- 


tific feeding  of  animals  will  be  along  the 
line  of  the  determination  of  the  "net 
energy"  of  our  feeding  stuffs. 

In  the  animal  body  all  the  nutrients 
of  the  food,  i.  e.,  the  digestible  protein, 
the  digestible  carbohydrates  and  the  di- 
gestible fat  may  serve  as  sources  of  en- 
ergy and  heat.  If  the  daily  food  supply 
is  sufficient  to  furnish  all  the  energy  the 
body  requires  this  is  the  source  first 
drawn  upon.  If  the  food  supply  is  not 
sufficient  the  fat  which  may  be  stored 
in  the  body  is  drawn  upon,  and  finally 
if  this  source  is  not  sufficient,  the  pro- 
tein of  the  body  itself  is  drawn  upon. 

In  all  rations  usually  fed  to  farm  ani- 
mals there  is  4  to  10  times  as  much  car- 
bohydrates and  fat  as  protein.  Much 
of  the  protein  fed  is  used  in  tissue 
building  and  repair  and  in  the  produc- 
tion of  milk,  eggs,  etc.  Hence  much  the 
larger  part  of  the  energy  of  the  body  is 
derived  from  the  carbohydrates  and  fat. 
Of  these  two  constituents  the  fat  we  have 
seen  is  about  2.25  times  as  valuable  as 
the  carbohydrates.  But  usually  there  is 
15  to  20  times  as  much  carbohydrates 
in  a  normal  ration  as  of  fat.  The  chief 
source  of  energy  and  ability  to  do  work, 
then,  is  the  carbohydrates. 

PRODUCTION  OF  MILK,  EGGS,  ETC 

The  average  of  more  than  5000  analy- 
ses of  samples  of  cow's  milk  show  the 
following  percentage  composition: 

Total  solids  Ash  Proteid 

12.9  .7  3.2 

Fats  Sugar  Water 

3-9  5.1  87.1 

The  milk  of  other  farm  animals  con- 
tains the  same  constituents  as  cow's 
milk,  but  in  little  different  proportions. 
Milk  does  not  exist  in  feeding  stuffs 
ready  formed,  but  must  be  manufac- 
tured by  the  animal.  This  is  done  by 
special  glands  in  the  udder.  Animals  giv- 
ing milk  must  have  enough  food  to  sup- 
ply not  only  their  normal  wants  but 
enough  in  addition  to  supply  the  re- 
quirements of  milk  production. 

The  only  source  of  the  protein  in 
milk  is  the  protein  of  the  food.  Should 
this  source  not  be  sufficient  the  animal 
draws  on  its  own  body  for  the  supply. 
The  protein  of  the  food  may  possibly 
serve  as  a  source  of  milk  fat.  It  is  not 
definitely  known  whether  it  is  so  used 
or  not.  Eecently  Jordan  has  definitely 
proved  that  milk  fat  is  formed  from  the 
carbohydrates  in  the  ration.    It  is  prob- 


58 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


able  that  the  carbohydrates  are  usually 
the  chief  source  of  fat  in  cow's  milk. 
Nevertheless,  an  amount  of  protein  con- 
siderably larger  than  that  which  calcu- 
lation shows  ought  to  be  sufficient  is  re- 
quired if  the  largest  flow  of  milk  is  se- 
cured. In  other  words  protein  seems  to 
have  two  functions  in  milk  production : 
It  forms  a  constituent  part  of  the  casein 
of  the  milk,  and  it  serves  to  stimulate 
the  flow  of  milk. 

Animals  giving  milk  require  much 
heavier  feeding  aIK]  the  proportion  of 
protein  in  the  ration  must  be  much 
greater  than  for  animals  not  giving  milk. 
Some    animals    normally    give    a    large 


Breeding  animals  when  pregnant  re- 
quire more  nitrogenous  foods  than  other- 
wise for  the  nourishment  of  the  grow- 
ing foetus.  The  proportion  of  protein 
in  the  ration  must  be  increased. 

In  egg  production  also  a  larger 
amount  of  protein  is  required  in  the  ra- 
tion than  for  the  simple  maintenance 
of  the  fowls.  Rations  suitable  for  these 
different  purposes  will  be  discussed  un- 
der each  of  the  different  animals  af- 
fected. 

WATER  FOR  ANIMALS 

The  bodies  of  animals,  as  we  have 
learned,  are  more  than  half  water.     This 


Fig.  38. — GENERAL  VIEW  OF  ARMSBY's  RESPIRATION    APPARATUS    FOR    DETERMINING    THE 
"NET    ENERGY"    OF   FEEDING   STUFFS 


quantity  of  milk  but  of  low  quality, 
while  others  give  a  smaller  amount  of 
milk  but  of  high  quality.  From  the 
standpoint  of  the  feeder  it  is  not  so 
much  the  quantity  of  milk  that  must  be 
considered  as  it  is  the  quality.  It  is  the 
amount  of  dry  matter  produced  in  the 
milk  which  must  be  made  the  basis  of 
calculation.  The  water  in  the  milk  is 
of  minor  importance  from  the  feeder's 
standpoint.  The  various  matters  per- 
taining to  the  selection  of  rations  for 
dairy  cows,  the  effect  of  foods  on  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  milk,  etc,  belong  to 
the  subject  of  dairy  farming  and  will 
be  found  discussed  there. 


water  is  distributed  in  every  portion  of 
the  body  including  the  bones.  The  soft 
tissues  of  the  body  contain  45  to  75  per 
cent  of  water,  while  the  blood  is  at  least 
SO  per  cent  water. 

"Water  serves  many  different  func- 
tions in  the  body.  As  a  diluent  of  the 
digestive  fluids  it  permits  them  to  act 
more  efficiently  in  softening  and  chemi- 
cally changing  the  food  constituents 
into  soluble  forms.  Concentrated  food 
solutions  must  be  diluted  before  they 
can  be  absorbed  into  the  circulation. 
In  the  blood  and  lymph  the  water  serves 
as    a    means    or    transporting    the   food 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


59 


nutrients  to  every  part  of  the  body.  In 
the  urine,  perspiration  and  breath  it 
carries  away  waste  material. 

It  plays  a  highly  important  role  in 
controlling  the  temperature  of  the  body. 
By  evaporation  from  the  skin  it  absorbs 
the  body  heat  and  thus  reduces  the  tem- 
perature. During  hard  work  and  with 
liberal  feeding  the  abundant  heat  lib- 
erated would  raise  the  temperature  of 
the  body  to  a  dangerously  high  degree 
were  it  not  for  the  increased  evapora- 
tion of  water  which  takes  place  from  the 
body  and  thus  maintains  the  normal 
body  temperature.  Heavy  work  in  the 
heated  days  of  haying  and  harvesting 
is  made  possible  only  by  the  abundant 
perspiration  of  the  body  which  accom- 
panies it. 

Any  failure  in  the  water  supply  to 
animals  causes  serious  functional  de- 
rangements. Both  digestion  and  absorp- 
tion are  delayed,  the  nitrogenous  waste 
materials  are  only  slowly  washed  out  of 
the  tissues,  the  blood  gradually  thick- 
ens, the  temperature  is  raised  and  the 
body  becomes  feverish.  There  is  an  in- 
crease in  the  consumption  of  the  nitrog- 
enous and  fat  tissues  of  the  body  which 
continues  until  death  or  until  water  is 
supplied  in  sufficient  amount  to  restore 
the  water  content  of  the  body  to  its 
normal   state. 

Need  of  water  for  young  animals — 
Kellner  states  that  young  growing  ani- 
mals may  be  seriously  injured  in  growth 
and  development  by  a  deficiency  in  the 
amount  of  water  supplied  them.  A  long 
continued,  insufficient  amount  of  water 
causes  a  loss  of  appetite  for  solid  food, 
a  prominent  breaking  out  and  diarrhea 
— the  latter  when  after  a  long  period  of 
thirst  water  is  again  given.  For  all 
these  reasons  animals  can  live  longer 
without    food    than    without    water. 

Amount  of  water  animals  require — 
Animals  secure  a  large  part  of  the  water 
they  need  in  the  food  supplied  them. 
Additional  amounts  are  usually  required, 
especially  if  dry  feeds  are  given,  and 
this  is  supplied  as  free  water.  The 
amount  of  water  that  animals  require  is 
usually  left  to  the  animals  themselves, 
i.  e.,  they  are  allowed  to  drink  until 
their  thirst  is  satisfied.  There  is  no 
danger  from  over  watering  unless  the 
animals  are  compelled  to  eat  watery 
feeds  or  are  given  excessive  quantities  of 
salt.  It  has  been  found  that  the  actual 
water  requirements  of  animals  for  each 


pound  of  dry  matter  eaten  is  about  7 
to  8  pounds  for  swine,  4  to  6  pounds 
for  cattle,  2  to  3  pounds  for  horses  and  2 
to  3  pounds  for  sheep.  More  is  required 
in  hot  weather  or  hard  work,  when  per- 
spiration is  abundant,  than  in  cooler 
weather  or  rest.  The  above  figures  in- 
clude the  amount  of  Avatcr  given  in  the 
food. 


Fig.  39 ONE  WAY  OF  SECURING  A  CON- 
STANT   SUPPLY    OF    GOOD    WATER 

Temperature  of  water — Much  has  been 
said  regarding  the  temperature  at  which 
water  should  be  drunk.  Water  when 
taken  into  the  body  must  be  warmed 
by  the  animal  to  the  temperature  of 
the  body.  If  the  water  is  very  cold,  more 
heat  is  required  than  if  it  is  drunk 
at    a   higher    temperature.        Ordinarily 


60 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


there  is  abundant  heat  in  the  body  to 
warm  up  the  water  drunk  if  taken  in 
small  amounts  and  the  animal  can  do  it 
more  cheaply  than  it  can  be  warmed  in 
a  boiler  with  coal  or  wood.  When  given 
large  draughts  of  water  at  one  time  or 
fed  large  quantities  of  cold  fodder  like 
frozen  silage  or  beet  pulp,  there  is  re- 
quired a  larger  amount  of  heat  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  material  to  the 
temperature  of  the  body.  In  such  cases 
the  energy  may  be  drawn  from  that  used 
for  productive  purposes  in  which  case  it 
is  a  direct  expense  in  food  materials  be- 
sides being  dangerous  to  health.  Fresh 
water  at  a  temperature  of  60  to  70°  F. 
is  likely  to  prove  most  satisfactory  for 
all  stock. 

Pure  water — The  drinking  water  of 
animals  should  be  as  pure  as  that  used 
by  man.  It  should  be  colorless  and  odor- 
less with  a  fresh  agreeable  flavor, 
Brooks,  wells  or  ponds  which  receive  the 
drainage  water  of  the  barnyard  or  other 
surface  drainage  should  not  be  used  as 
the  source  of  the  drinking  water  of  farm 
stock.  The  presence  in  water  of  any 
such  material  as  ammonia,  table  salt, 
nitric  acid,  etc,  indicates  contamination 
and  impure  water. 

Farm  animals  prefer  soft  running  or 
standing  water  to  hard  water,  acccord- 
ing  to  Kellner.  They  can  accustom 
themselves  however,  to  unusually  hard 
water  without  serious  digestive  disturb- 
ances. Horses  and  sheep  are  more  easily 
injured  by  impure  water  than  other 
animals.  Cattle  and  swine  are  less 
demanding  in  this  respect.  Since,  how- 
ever, impure  water  is  a  carrier  of  dis- 
ease, every  effort  should  be  made  to  place 
before  all  farm  animals  a  permanent 
supply  of  soft,  pure,  fresh,  agreeable 
water  at  all  times. 

MINERAL  MATTER  FOR  ANIMALS 
As  we  have  seen  when  the  bodies  of  an- 
imals are  burned  a  small  quantity  of  ash 
remains.  The  amount  of  ash  is  greatest 
in  old  lean  animals  and  least  in  young 
animals.  About  80  per  cent  of  the  ash 
is  made  up  of  lime  and  phosphoric  acid, 
in  nearly  equal  proportions,  the  re- 
mainder consists  of  small  amounts  of 
potash,  soda  magnesia,  chlorine,  iron, 
sulphuric  acid,  etc.  The  soda  and  chlo- 
rine are  usually  combined  in  the  form 
of  common  salt. 

Ash  in  bones — The  greater  part  of  the 
ash   exists   in    the  bones,   but   a  small 


amount,  scarce  1  per  cent,  is  found  in 
all  the  softer  tissues  of  the  body.  This 
amount  though  small  is  absolutely  es- 
sential to  the  carrying  on  of  the  vital 
functions  of  the  body. 

Fortunately,  practically  all  normal 
feeding  stuffs  contain  sufficient  min- 
eral matter  to  supply  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  animal,  and  the  feeder  need 
pay  little  attention  to  this  matter 
with  one  or  two  important  exceptions. 
Some  of  the  grains  and  some  of  their  by- 
products normally  contain  a  smaller  per- 
centage of  ash  than  cured  forage  plants, 
and  when  they  are  fed  alone  must  often 
be  supplemented  with  feeds  containing 
ash  material,  especially  in  the  case  of 
growing  animals.  This  fact  is  well  illus- 
trated by  the  work  of  Henry  in  feeding 
corn  to  pigs. 

In  Henry's  work,  growing  pigs  were 
fed  liberally  on  corn  meal  with  only  salt 
and  water  in  addition.  As  a  result  these 
pigs  were  very  much  dwarfed  and  their 
bones  contained  only  about  one-half  as 
much  ash  and  were  only  about  half  as 
strong  as  those  of  pigs  fed  hardwood 
ashes  or  bone  meal  in  addition  to  the 
corn  and  salt.  Of  the  different  cheap 
forms  of  lime  that  supplied  in  ground 
bones  or  bone  ash  has  been  found  the 
most  satisfactory  for  feeding  to  animals 
to  supply  any  lack  of  lime  in  the  food. 
Ground  bone  and  bone  ash  also  contain 
large  proportions  of  phosphoric  acid 
which  might  supply  any  possible  defi- 
ciency of  this  element. 

A  lack  of  lime  in  the  food  can  some- 
times be  met  through  the  water  supply. 
Kasparek  notes  a  case  in  which  a  herd 
of  130  cattle  continually  met  mishap 
from  the  breaking  of  bones  until  they 
were  given  hard  water  to  drink.  It  has 
often  been  observed  that  the  bones  of 
horses  in  regions  well  supplied  with  lime- 
stone and  hard  water  are  much  stronger 
than  those  of  horses  reared  in  regions 
of  little  limestone  and  soft  water.  Good 
drinking  water,  however,  should  not,  it 
is  claimed  by  German  writers,  contain 
over  3  grains  of  lime  per  quart  of  water 
or  there  is  danger  of  internal  disorders, 
particularly  of  the  bladder. 

Poultry  are  exceptional  among  the 
animals  in  their  demand  for  ash  mate- 
rial, supplementary  to  that  supplied  in 
the  food.  Young  chickens  seem  to  be 
greatly  benefited  by  the  addition  of 
sand  to  the  rations  even  when  allowed 
an   abundance   of   sand   for   scratching 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


81 


purposes,  and  laying  fowls  of  all  kinds 
must  be  supplied  with  sufficient  mate- 
rial, like  crushed  shells  or  lime,  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  egg  production. 

Salt  for  stock — Common  salt  is  the 
only  mineral  which  ordinarily  needs  to 
be  supplied  to  animals  in  amounts  addi- 
tional to  that  supplied  in  the  food,  ex- 
cept as  noted  above  for  poultry  and  oc- 
casionally lime  for  other  animals.  Salt 
is  not  only   absolutely  essential   to   the 


render  the  fodder  savory  and  is  de- 
manded for  the  normal  nourishment  of 
the  animal." 

When  salt  is  fed  in  excess  large  quan- 
tities of  water  are  required  for  washing 
it  out  of  the  system.  If  this  is  not  sup- 
plied in  the  food,  the  water  is  withdrawn 
first  from  that  normally  evaporated 
from  the  lungs  and  skin,  and  secondly 
from  the  tissues  of  the  body  itself. 
The   water    thus   lost   from   the   tissues 


Fig.  40 — CORN  AND  COWPEAS  AS  GROWN  IN  KANSAS 


vital  processes,  but  it  has  several  addi- 
tional functions.  It  aids  in  the  passage 
of  the  albuminoids  of  the  foods  from  the 
digestive  tract  into  the  blood  vessels  and 
facilitates  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
Armsby  states  that  the  feeding  of  salt  is 
especially  in  place  "when  a  greater  en- 
ergy of  all  the  vital  functions  is  desired 
as  in  horses  and  well  fed  working  oxen, 
in  young  animals,  and  in  male  breeding 
animals,  etc,  while  in  fattening  only  so 
much  should  be  given  as  is  necessary  to 


is  replaced  when  the  animal  is  again 
given  water  to  drink.  When  animals 
are  oversalted  an  excessive  thirst  is 
created  which  if  satisfied  xesultis  in 
the  introduction  of  excessive  quantities 
of  water  into  the  system.  This  may  re- 
sult in  the  utilization  of  food  materials 
for  warming  up  the  water  and  eliminat- 
ing the  excess  from  the  body  which 
would  otherwise  have  been  used  for  pro- 
ductive purposes. 


62 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Quantity  of  salt  for  different  ani- 
mals— The  following  quantities  of  salt 
are  generally  considered  sufficient  to 
meet  the  daily  needs  of  different  farm 
animals:  Medium  sized  cattle  %  ounce 
to  2  ounces;  horse  V2  to  1  ounce;  slurp 
or  swine  1-6  to  1-3  ounce;  chickens  not 
to  exceed  1  ounce  for  100  fowls  per  day 
or  5  ounces  in  every  100  pounds  of  food. 

A  convenient  and  satisfactory  way  of 
supplying  salt  is  in  the  lump  form  as 
rock  salt.  If  left  under  cover  where  the 
animals  can  get  at  it  at  will,  they  will 
eat  only  the  amount  they  require.  If, 
however,  they  are  deprived  of  salt  for  a 
long  period  and  then  allowed  to  eat  at 
will  they  may  take  an  excess. 

Besides  the  actual  physiological  value 
of  salt  in  the  animal  system  it  plays  an 
important  role  in  the  preparation  of 
fodders,  often  making  them  palatable 
where  otherwise  animals  might  refuse 
to  eat  them. 

SUMMARY    OF    THE    LAWS    OF   NU- 
TRITION 

In  order  to  get  a  clear  insight  into  the 
principles  of  animal  nutrition  it  will  be 
desirable  to  summarize  briefly  in  one 
place  what  has  been  treated  in  preced- 
ing pages  more  at  length,  together  with 
a  further  statement  of  the  laws  govern- 
ing animal  nutrition.  We  have  seen 
that  animals  and  plants  are  made  up  of 
like  elements  and  that  animals  grow,  fat- 
ten, work  and  produce  milk,  eggs  and 
other  products  as  a  result  of  the  food 
(including  salt  and  water)  they  con- 
sume and  the  air  they  breathe. 

Foods  taken  into  the  body  in  the  form 
of  grass,  hay,  and  grain  are  not  entirely 
digested.  It  is  only  the  digested  food 
that  is  of  value  to  the  animal.  The  re- 
mainder is  excreted  as  waste. 

Practically  all  normal  feeds  contain 
sufficient  mineral  matter  to  meet  all  the 
demands  of  animals  and  if  the  animals 
are  allowed  free  access  to  salt  and  water 
they  will  attend  to  their  needs  in  these 
respects  without  further  attention  from 
the   feeder. 

The  three  constituents  of  feeding 
stuffs  which  demand  most  consideration 
on  the  part  of  the  feeder  are  protein, 
carbohydrates  and  fat. 

Protein  is  absolutely  essential  to  the 
production  and  repair  of  muscles,  blood, 
nerves,  brain  and  all  the  tissues  of  the 
body.  It  is  necessary  to  the  production 
of  casein  of  milk  and  albumen  in  eggs. 


The  greatest  amount  of  protein  is  re- 
quired by  growing  animals  or  animals 
producing  milk  or  eggs,  but  all  ani- 
mals of  every  age  whether  producing  or 
not   require   some  protein. 

Carbohydrates  cannot  produce  or  re- 
pair tissue.  They  can  be  used  for  the 
formation  of  fat  either  in  the  body  or  in 
milk  and  as  a  source  of  energy  and  heat. 
For  these  purposes  (energy,  heat  and 
fat  production)  the  carbohydrates  are 
equal  in  value  to  protein.  While  car- 
bohydrates cannot  take  the  place  of  pro- 
tein, they  do  serve  to  protect  the  protein 
in  the  body  from  consumption  so  that 
when  carbohydrates  are  fed  with  protein 
a  much  less  quantity  01  protein  is  re- 
quired in  the  ration. 

Fat  fulfills  the  same  functions  in  the 
ration  for  animals  that  the  carbohy- 
drates do  except  that  as  a  source  of  en- 
ergy and  heat  it  is  about  2.25  times  as 
valuable.  Fat  cannot  be  used  in  the 
building  or  repair  of  tissue.  It  may  be 
stored  in  the  body  as  fat  or  may  serve 
as  a  source  of  fat  in  mills:.  It  serves 
likewise  to  protect  the  protein  from  con- 
sumption so  that  when  fat  is  fed  in  the 
ration  with  protein  a  much  less  quantity 
of  protein  is  required. 

Any  of  the  food  constituents,  protein, 
fat,  or  carbohydrates  may  be  used  as 
a  source  of  energy  and  beat.  Any  may 
be  used  for  fat  production,  though  the 
chief  sources  of  fat  are  the  food  fats 
and  carbohydrates.  The  carbohydrates 
and  fats  may  serve  to  protect  protein 
from  consumption.  Pi'otein  is  the  only 
food  constituent  that  can  build  up  and 
repair  tissue  and  maintain  the  vital 
functions. 

Relative  to  the  changes  which  foods 
undergo  in  the  body,  it  does  not  appear 
that  protein  can  be  manufactured  in  the 
body,  but  must  come  to  the  body  ready 
formed  in  the  food.  The  food  fats  are 
modified  in  the  body  into  the  charac- 
teristic fat  of  the  animal  as  lard,  tal- 
low, oil,  etc,  and  the  body  can  build  up 
fats  out  of  simpler  substances  like  the 
carbohydrates.  The  stored  energy  of  the 
foods  is  made  available  to  the  animal 
through  chemical  process  by  which  the 
more  complex  compounds  are  broken 
down  into  simpler  ones  like  water  and 
carbonic  acid.  The  energy  released  in 
these  chemical  processes,  which  are 
largely  those  of  cleavage  and  oxidation, 
for  the  most  part  ultimately  appears  as 
heat. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


63 


If  food  is  withheld  from  an  animal, 
the  life  processes  continue  for  a  time, 
the  tissues  of  the  body  being  drawn  upon 
to  supply  energy.  The  fat  is  first  used. 
When  this  is  exhausted,  the  nitrogenous 
tissues  are  drawn  upon,  the  animal  be- 
comes emaciated  and  death  soon  fol- 
lows. With  pregnant  females  or  when 
cows  are  giving  milk  or  poultry  eggs, 
and  an  insufficient  supply  of  protein  is 
furnished  in  the  ration,  the  animal 
draws  upon  its  own  tissue  to  produce 
the  necessary  tissue  of  the  fcetns,  the 
casein  of  the  milk,  or  albumen  of  eggs. 

Animals  require  considerable  food  just 
to  maintain  themselves  and  carry  on  the 
necessary  internal  work  of  the  body.  It 
is  only  the  food  fed  in  excess  of  this  that 
can   be   used    for   productive   purposes. 


however,  to  the  amount  of  flesh  or  fat 
or  milk  which  an  animal  will  produce, 
and  any  additional  food  supply  is  simply 
consumed  in  the  body  or  is  excreted 
without  change. 

The  limit  of  increase  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  age  of  the  animal,  the 
stage  of  fattening,  or  the  period  of  milk 
production.  It  is  well  known  by  feed- 
ers that  when  animals  have  been  on  fat- 
tening rations  for  a  long  period  and 
have  reached  "maturity"  or  "ripeness,'' 
any  further  gain  in  weight  is  at  the  ex- 
pense of  double  or  quadruple  the  amount 
of  food  required  to  produce  a  pound  of 
gain  in  the  early  stages  of  feeding. 

Finally,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  amount 
of  flesh,  fat  or  mil!:  which  an  animal  can 
be  made  to  produce.    Heavy  feeding  be- 


Fig.   41 OHIO   PUMPKINS   READY   FOR   FEEDING    PURPOSES 


The  ration,  therefore,  for  milk  or  meat 
production  or  work  must  be  liberal  and 
must  contain  the  food  nutrients  for  these 
different  purposes  in  sufficient  quantities 
and  in  the  right  proportions.  A  horse 
stuffed  with  wheat  straw  cannot  do 
much  work,  nor  a  cow  give  much  milk, 
on  swale  hay.  They  do  not  contain  suf- 
ficient protein,  and  it  takes  so  much 
work  to  chew  and  digest  them  that  noth- 
ing is  left  for  productive  purposes. 

When  the  food  supplied  an  animal  is 
increased  beyond  what  is  essential  for 
maintenance,  there  is  an  increase  in  the 
amount  consumed  by  the  body  for  the 
supply  of  energy.  In  addition  to  this 
there  may  be  a  deposit  of  fat  or  increase 
in  milk  production.     There  is  a  limit, 


yond  this  point  is  at  a  financial  loss,  and 
nature  protests  by  a  failure  of  the  appe- 
tite or  a  lessened  ability  to  make  good 
use  of  the  food  and  in  other  ways. 

Animals  as  mere  machines — Com- 
mercially animals  may  be  regarded  pri- 
marily as  machines  for  the  conversion  of 
the  crude  products  of  the  farm,  like  the 
grasses,  fodders,  roots  and  grains  into 
manufactured  products  like  meat,  milk, 
wool  and  eggs.  It  is  the  part  of  econ- 
omy to  utilize  these  machines  to  their 
fullest  capacity,  within  the  limits  of 
health.  The  more  crude  matter  they 
can  consume,  the  greater  will  be  the 
outturn  of  manufactured  products  and 
the  greater  the  profits.  It  is  as  great 
folly   to    begrudge   the    animal    its   full 


04 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


feed  as  it  is  to  begrudge  the  fuel  for 
heating  the  boiler  of  the  engine.  A  low 
fire  means  low  steam  pressure  and  lit- 
tle work;  a  good  fire,  high  steam  power 
and  efficient  work. 

Productive  capacity  of  animals — The 
amount  of  manufactured  material  pro- 
duced by  an  animal  in  a  year  is  some- 
times enormous.  A  good  cow  will  yield 
6000  to  8000  pounds  of  milk  annually, 
containing  800  to  1000  pounds  of  dry 
solids.  This  is  more  than  twice  the  dry 
matter  contained  in  the  entire  body  of 
an  ordinary  cow.  Some  exceptional  cows 
have  produced  more  than  25,000  pounds 
of  milk  in  a  year  containing  at  least 
3000  pounds  of  dry  matter. 

No  other  animal  equals  the  cow  as  a 
machine  for  converting  feeding  stuffs 
into  products  for  man's  use.  The  hog 
from  birth  to  12  months  of  age  may  in- 
crease in  weight  to  300  or  400  pounds. 
Liberally  fed  steers  between  one  and  two 


years  old  may  gain  600  to  700  pounds  in 
weight.  In  both  cases  less  than  half 
the  gain  in  weight  is  dry  matter.  This 
shows  that  the  dairy  cow  normally  pro- 
duces two  to  five  times  as  much  dry  mat- 
ter in  a  year  as  fattening  swine  or 
steers. 

Utilizing  feeds  economically — The 
relative  ability  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine 
to  utilize  feeds  economically,  varies 
with  the  age  and  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal and  with  the  kind  of  feed.  Up  to 
the  age  of  three  months  calves  make  more 
rapid  gains  than  pigs,  but  with  older 
animals  neither  cattle  nor  sheep  make 
as  large  gains  on  the  same  amount  of 
feed  as  pigs.  This  point  is  well  brought 
out  in  the  following  table  taken  from  the 
Farmer's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture, 
which  shows  the  average  quantity  of  the 
different  grains  required  to  produce  100 
pounds  of  gain  with  each  of  these  ani- 
mals: 


GRAIN  BEQUIRED  FOR  100  POUNDS  GAIN 


Mixed 

Barley 

Corn 

Kafir  corn 

Oats 

Peas 

Wheat 

grain 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

Swine     .  • . 

, 418 

485 
502 

529 

582 

472 
518 

439 

422 

452 

582 

432 

Sheep    . . . 
Cattle     . . . 

453 

454 

914 

1,028 

1,058 

1,032 

911 

1,090 

871 

The  table  shows  that  cattle  require 
much  more  food  to  produce  a  pound  of 
gain  than  sheep  or  hogs.  It  also  shows 
that  generally  less  mixed  grain  is  re- 
quired to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  with 
all  animals  than  where  the  ration  con- 
sists of  a  single  grain  with  the  possible 
exception  of  barley  for  pigs  and  sheep. 
The  necessity  of  feeding  different  grains 
and  of  frequently  varying  the  rations 
for  rapid  and  economical  gains  has  been 
found  very  desirable  with  all  animals. 

Feeding  capacity  of  animals — An- 
other way  of  stating  the  differences  in 
the  feeding  capacity  of  animals  and 
their  ability  to  produce  manufactured 
products  from  crude  materials  is  as  fol- 
lows: When  animals  are  fed  sufficient 
and  suitable  rations  100  pounds  of  dry 
matter  in  the  feed  will  produce  on  the 
average  8  pounds  of  beef,  14  pounds  of 
mutton,  20  pounds  of  pork,  or  100 
pounds  of  milk. 

In  addition  to  the  actual  products 
for  man's  use  which  an  animal  may 
produce  and  which  may  more  than  pay 
for  the  cost  of  production,  the  manure 
by-product  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  farm 


and  has  a  direct  cash  value.  Some  fruit 
growers  and  other  specialists  frequently 
buy  cattle  and  feed  them  through  the 
winter  on  purchased  feed  and  are  satis- 
fied with  the  results  if  they  obtain  the 
manure  as  a  clear  profit. 

Feeding  stuffs  lose  practically  none 
of  their  fertiliz;ng  constituents  in  pass- 
ing through  an  animal,  but  on  the  other 
hand  are  the  sooner  made  available  for 
the  uses  of  crops  by  the  partial  decom- 
position which  they  undergo.  This 
phase  of  the  subject  will  be  considered 
more  in  detail  in  another  chapter  of  this 
work. 

FEEDING   STANDARDS 

It  has  been  shown  that  all  rations  for 
animals  must  contain  some  protein.  We 
have  seen  also  that  when  carbohydrates 
and  fat  are  fed  with  the  protein  less 
protein  is  required  and  the  cost  of  the 
ration  is  lessened.  The  question  arises 
how  much  of  the  ration  for  different 
purposes  should  consist  of  protein  and 
how  much  of  carbohydrates  and  fat? 

This  problem  has  been  most  exten- 
sively investigated  by  the  Germans,  and 
as  a  result  of  many  feeding  experiments 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


65 


and  observations  they  have  developed 
tables  of  feeding  standards.  These 
standards  show  approximately  the  total 
amount  of  dry  matter  which  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  animals  require  each  day 
for  maintenance,  for  growth,  fattening, 
work  or  milk  production  and  how  much 


of  the  dry  matter  fed  should  consist  of 
digestible  protein,  how  much  of  digest- 
ible fat,  and  how  much  of  digestible 
carbohydrates. 

These  standards,  as  devised  by  Wolff 
and  modified  by  Lehmann,  are  shown  in 
the  table  herewith : 


WOLFF-LEHMANN     FEEDING     STANDARDS 

[Showing  amounts  of  nutrients  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  for  a  day 

Total        i Digestible  nutrients — 

dry  Carbo- 

Animal  matter    Protein     hydrates       Fat 

Oxen :  Pounds    Pounds      Pounds    Pounds 

At   rest  in  stall IS  0.7  8.0  0.1 

At  light  work 22  1.4  10.0  0.3 

At  medium  work    25  2.0  11.5  0.5 

At   heavy  work 28  2.8  13.0  0.8 

Fattening  cattle : 

First   period    30  2.5  15.0  0.5 

Second  period   30  3.0  14.5  0.7 

Third  period 26  2.7  15.0  0.7 

Milch  cows : 

Giving  11  pounds  milk  a  day    25  1.6  10.0  0.3 

Giving  16%   pounds  milk  a  day     ...27  2.0  11.0  0.4 

Giving  22  pounds  milk  a  day    29  2.5  13.0  0.5 

Giving  27V2  pounds  milk  a  day 32  3.3  13.0  0.8 

Sheep : 

Coarse  wool    20  1.2  10.5  0.2 

Fine  wool    23  1.5  12.0  0.3 

Breeding   ewes,   with   lambs 25  2.9  15.0  0.5 

Fattening  sheep : 

First   period    30  3.0  15.0  0.5 

Second   period    28  3.5  14.5  0.6 

Horses : 

Light  work   20  1.5  9.5  0.4 

Medium   work    24  2.0  11.0  0.6 

Heavy  work   26  2.5  13.3  0.8 

Brood  sows 22  2.5  15.5  0.4 

Fattening  swine : 

First   period    36  4.5  25.0  0.7 

Second   period    32  4.0  24.0  0.5 

Third  period 25  2.7  18.0  0.4 

Growing  cattle : 

Dairy  breeds — 

2  to    3    months    old,    weighing 

about  150  pounds   23  4.0  13.0  2.0 

3  to    6    months    old,    weighing 

about  300  pounds 24  3.0  12.8  1.0 

6    to    12    months    old,    weighing 

about  500  pounds 27  2.0  12.5  0.5 

12  to   18   months   old,   weighing 

about  700  pounds   26  1.8  12.5  0.4 

18  to   24   months  old,    weighing 

about  900  pounds   26  1.5  12.0  0.3 

Beef  breeds — 

2  to    3    months    old,    weighing 

about  160  pounds 23  4.2  13.0  2.0 

3  to    6    months    old,    weighing 

about  330  pounds 24  3.5  12.8  1.5 

6    to    12    months    old,    weighing 

about  550  pounds 25  2.5  13.2  0.7 

12  to   18  months  old,   weighing 

about  750  pounds 24  2.0  12.5  0.5 

18  to   24   months  old,   weighing 

about  950  pounds 24  1.8  12.0  0.4 

Growing  sheep : 
Wool  breeds — 

4  to    6    months    old,    weighing 

about  60  pounds   25  3.4  15.4  0.7 

6    to    8    months    old,    weighing 

about  75  pounds   25  2.8  13.8  0.6 


s  feeding.] 

Fuel 
value 
Calories 
16,600 
22,500 
27,200 
32,755 

34,650 
35,500 
35,900 

22,850 
25,850 
30,950 
33,700 

22,600 
26,400 
35,400 

35,600 
36,000 

22,150 
26,700 
32,750 
35,170 

57.S00 
54,200 
40,200 


40,050 
33,600 
29,100 
28,300 
26,350 

40,450 
36,650 
32,150 
29,100 
27,350 

37,900 
33,400 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


WOLFF-LEHMANN     FEEDING     STANDARDS — Continued 

Total    i — Digestible  nutrients — \ 
dry  Carbo-  Fuel 

Animal  matter    Protein     hydrates       Fat  value 

Pounds    Pounds      Pounds    Pounds       Calories 
8   to    11    months    old,    weighing 

about  SO  pounds    23  2.1  11.5  0.5  27,400 

11  to   15   months   old,    weighing 

about  90  pounds   22  1.8  11.2  0.4  25,850 

15  to   20   months  old,    weighing 

about  100  pounds 22  1.5  10.8  0.3  24,150 

Mutton  breeds — 

4  to    6    months    old,    weighing 

about  60  pounds    26  4.4  15.5  0.9  40,800 

6    to    8    months    old,    weighing 

about  80  pounds   26  3.5  15.0  0.7  37,350 

8    to    11    months    old,    weighing 

about  100  pounds 24  3.0  14.3  0.5  34,300 

11   to   15   months  old,    weighing 

about  120  pounds 23  2.2  12.6  0.5  29,(550 

15  to   20   months   old,    weighing 

about  150  pounds 22  2.0  12.0  0.4  27,750 

Growing  swine : 

Breeding  stock — 

2  to    3    months    old,    weighing 

about  50  pounds   44  7.0  28.0  1.0  70,450 

3  to    5    months    old,    weighing 

about  100  pounds 35  5.0  23.1  0.8  55,050 

5  to    6    months    old,    weighing 

about  120  pounds 32  3.7  21.3  0.4  4S.190 

6  to    8    months    old,    weighing 

about  200  pounds 28  2.8  18.7  0.3  41,250 

8    to    12    months    old,    weighing 

about  250  pounds 25  2.1  15.3  0.2  33,200 

Growing  fattening  swine  : 

2  to  3   months  old,   weighing   about 

50  pounds    44  7.6  2S.0  1.0  70,450 

3  to   5  months   old,   weighing  about 

100    pounds 35  5.0  23.1  0.8  55,650 

5  to  6  months  old,   weighing  about 

150    pounds 33  4.3  22.3  0.6  52,000 

6  to  8  months  old,   weighing  about 

200   pounds 30  3.6  20.5  0.4  46,500 

9  to  12  months  old,  weighing  about 

275    pounds 26  3.0  18.3  0.3  40,900 

The  standard  shows  that  an  ox  at  rest  Meaning  of  nutritive  ratio_By  nu- 
requires  about  0.7  pound  of  protein,  8  tritive  ratio  is  meant  the  ratio  between 
pounds  of  carbohydrates  and  0.1  pound  the  digestible  protein  and  the  other  di- 
of  fat  per  day.  An  ox  at  heavy  work  re-  gestible  nutrients  in  the  ration.  The 
quires  considerably  more  food.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  a  ration  best  suited 
table  shows  that  he  requires  4  times  as  for  the  requirements  of  the  ox  at  rest 
much  protein,  or  2.8  pounds,  that  the  is  stated  in  the  table  to  be  1  tll.S.  This 
carbohydrates  should  be  increased  to  means  that  for  each  part  of  digestible 
13  pounds  and  the  fat  to  0.S  pound.  protein  in  the  ration  for  an  ox  at  rest 
In  addition  to  these  nutrients  which  the  there  should  be  11.8  parts  of  earbohy- 
ration  must  contain  to  support  the  ani-  drates  and  fat.  The  ratio  1 :11.8  is 
mal  under  the  different  conditions  of  called  a  comparatively  "wide"  ratio  on 
work  and  rest  a  certain  bulk  in  the  food  account  of  the  large  amount  of  car- 
is  desirable.  The  bulk  serves  to  distend  bohydrates  and  fat  contained  in  it  as 
the  stomach  and  aids  in  digestion  be-  compared  with  the  protein.  The  nutri- 
sides  keeping  the  animal  satisfied  and  tive  ratio  of  the  ration  recommended 
healthy.  The  bulk  which  has  been  found  for  the  ox  at  hard  work  is  1 :5.3.  This  is 
desirable  is  indicated  in  the  column  a  comparatively  "narrow"  ratio.  For 
marked  total  dry  matter.  The  dry  mat-  coarse  wool  sheep  a  ration  with  a  "me- 
ter is  the  actual  amount  of  food  given  dium"  ratio  1 :9.1  is  recommended  by  the 
exclusive  of  any  water  it  may  contain.  standard. 

The  nutritive   ratio   of   the   different  Method  of  calculating  nutritive  ratio 

rations  is  shown  in  the  last  column  of  — The  nutritive  ratio  of  a  feeding  stuff 

the  table.  or  ration   is  calculated  by  multiplying 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


07 


the  total  amount  of  digestible  fat  in  the 
ration  by  2.25,  since  fat  contains  2.25 
times  as  much  energy  or  heat  as  carbo- 
hydrates. The  resulting1  quantity  is 
then  added  to  the  total  amount  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  the  sum 
divided  by  the  total  amount  of  digestible 
protein. 

Timothy  hay  for  example  contains  2.9 
per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  43.7  per 


This  is  a  wide  ratio  and  is  character- 
istic of  many  of  the  coarse  feeds  of  the 
farm  like  the  grasses  and  straws.  The 
grains  like  corn,  barley  and  oats  and  the 
leguminous  hays  have  medium  nutritive 
ratios,  while  such  by-products  as  distil- 
ler's grains,  gluten  feeds,  cottonseed 
meal  and  linseed  meal  have  narrow  nu- 
tritive ratios,  the  nutritive  ratio  of  lin- 
seed meal  being  as  narrow  as  1:1.7. 


/  E 

/  * 

/ 

/    J 

f( 

■  sJ 

Fig.  42 VARIOUS  KINDS  of  forks  and  slings  for  unloading  hay 

Under  general  farm  conditions  the  sling  Fig.  E  is  most  satisfactory  for  unloading. 


cent  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  1.4  per 
cent  of  digestible  fat.  In  calculat- 
ing the  nutritive  ratio  of  this  feeding 
stuff  we  first  multiply  the  fat  1.4  by 
2.25,  which  equals  3.15.  This  amount 
added  to  the  digestible  carbohydrates 
43.7  gives  us  46.9  and  46.9  divided  by 
2.9,  the  digestible  protein,  gives  us  16.1. 
The  nutritive  ratio  of  timothy  hay, 
therefore,  is  stated  as  1 :16.1. 


Feeding  standards  only  approximately 
correct — The  amounts  of  nutrients  rec- 
ommended in  the  table  of  feeding  stand- 
ards are  intended  to  be  sufficient  to 
meet  the  food  requirements  of  maxi- 
mum production.  The  table,  however, 
must  not  be  taken  as  an  absolute  guide 
for  compounding  rations  for  all  ani- 
mal.- at  all  times.  Such  a  table  cannot 
be  constructed. 


68 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  the  first  place  our  methods  of 
analyses  of  feeding  stuffs  are  not  abso- 
lutely uniform.  Then  no  two  animals  di- 
gest the  same  amount  and  proportion 
of  nutrients  from  the  same  feeding  stuff. 
The  same  feeding  stuff  varies  in  com- 
position at  different  stages  of  maturity, 
and  as  a  result  of  different  methods  of 
curing.  Not  one  feeder  in  1000  can  have 
his  feeding  stuffs  analyzed.  He  must 
depend  on  tables  of  analyses  of  feed- 
ing stuffs.  These  feeding  standards,  as 
well  as  tables  of  analyses,  are  the  final 
averages  of  many  experiments  and 
analyses  and  hence  only  approximately 
correct  in  any  given  case.  Again,  these 
feeding  standards  have  been  developed 
under  conditions  as  they  exist  in  Ger- 
many. These  conditions  as  regards  both 
feeds  and  methods  are  considerably  dif- 
ferent from  what  they  are  in  America. 

The  German  feeding  standards  have 
been  in  use  now  in  this  and  other  coun- 
tries for  a  number  of  years.    As  a  result 


in  weight  is  due  almost  exclusively  to 
the  stored  fat  formed  from  the  carbohy- 
drates and  fat  of  the  food. 

Oxen  at  rest  have  been  fed  the  main- 
tenance ration  stated  by  the  standard 
and  made  a  uniform  gain  in  weight, 
showing  that  the  requirements  of  the 
standard  are  perhaps  too  high.  Again, 
the  food  requirements  of  dairy  cows,  it 
is  claimed,  should  be  made  to  conform 
more  closely  to  the  actual  productivity 
of  the  cows. 

While,  however,  these  inconsistencies 
of  the  German  standard  have  been 
pointed  out,  no  one  as  yet  has  offered 
a  substitute.  We  therefore  continue  to 
use  the  German  standard,  keeping  in 
mind  their  deficiencies. 

Reliability  of  standards — The  stand- 
ards represent  the  final  results  of  a  long 
series  of  investigations  and  observations 
with  each  of  the  different  classes  of  an- 
imals and  may  be  assumed  to  be  approx- 
imately correct  for  the  average  ph^sio- 


Fiff.43 TWO-HORSE     HAY      PRESS 


a  number  of  changes  have  been  sug- 
gested, the  most  radical  of  which  is  that 
the  nutritive  ratio  demanded  by  the 
standard  for  fattening  mature  animals  is 
much  too  narrow. 

The  standard  calls  for  a  ration  for  fat- 
tening cattle  which  shall  have  a  nutri- 
tive ratio  varying  from  1 :5.4  to  1 :6.5. 
Extensive  experiments  by  Kellner  have 
shown  that  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  fat- 
tening ration  for  cattle  may  vary  from 
1:4  to  1:10  without  affecting  its  effi- 
ciency for  fattening  purposes,  providing 
that  the  nutrients  supplied  above  that 
required  for  maintenance  be  from  the 
more  easily  digested  feeding  stuffs. 
Generally  with  mature  animals  the  fat- 
tening ration  may  have  a  wide  nutritive 
ratio,  while  with  growing  animals  the 
fattening  ration  should  have  a  somewhat 
narrower  ratio.  In  the  latter  case  it  is 
necessary  to  take  into  consideration  the 
protein  needs  of  the  animal  for  growth ; 
while  with  mature  animals  the  increase 


logical  requirements  of  herds  and  flocks. 
At  any  rate  they  present  an  intelligent 
approximation  to  the  truth,  and  the  man 
who  consults  them  as  a  guide  takes  a 
step  in  advanced  agriculture  which  will 
be  of  certain  benefit  to  him  intellectu- 
ally and  probably  financially.  The 
feeder  who  is  student  enough  to  study 
animal  nutrition  and  the  compounding 
of  rations  is  likely  to  give  the  greatest 
attention  to  the  well-being  and  comfort 
of  his  animals  in  other  respects  and  to 
keep  well  informed  on  the  cost  of  his 
feeds  and  the  market  price  of  his  prod- 
ucts. The  standards  are  calculated  for 
animals  weighing  1000  pounds.  If  they 
weigh  more  or  less  than  this,  the  amount 
given  should  be  increased  or  decreased 
very  nearly  in  proportion  to  their 
weight.  Figures  have  been  given  show- 
ing that  the  increase  should  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  radiating  surfaces  of  the 
animals  regarding  them  as  geometrical 
figures. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING^ 


If  we  regard  the  heat  of   the  body  ration  for  a  cow  weighing  about  1000 

largely  as  a  waste  product,  it  is  difficult  pounds  and  giving  20  pounds  of  milk 

to  see  how  this  rule  would  apply  except  per  day.     A  balanced  ration  is  a  ration 

perhaps   in   cold  weather  when   food  is  in    which    the    digestible    nutrients    are 

Dxidized   expressly   for   heat  production.  compounded     in    the    proportions    best 

There   can   be   no   doubt,   however,   but  8uited  to  tbe  end  in  view>     A  balanced 

what  the  quantity  of  work  an  animal  is  ration  for  an  animal  at  regtj  therefore) 

doing  should  be  taken  into  consideration  mi  M  be  a  ye       unbalanced  ration  for 

as  well  as  yield  of  milk  or  other  animal  aQ   animal   ^  ^^     The   ^^ 

products        Generally     speaking      with  best               tioM  of  ^  diff                 M. 

these  factors   in  mmd,  the   increase  or  *     \. 

decrease    in    the    ration    should    follow  \nts   to.   f+efd   *£    different   purposes    is 

somewhat  closely  the  weight  of  the  ani-  shown  in  the  table  of  feeding  standards, 

mal.     Small  animals  generally   require  Pa^e  65-     n  we  wish  to  feed  a  ration 

slightly   more   food  proportionally  than  ™at  sh^ll  be  satisfactory  for  a  cow  giv- 

large  animals  do.  ^nS  20  pounds  of  milk,  we  see  by  the 

~  *  ~  ~,„  .  ™,.,,«    -^A-r.-KT^-^Tv-nA  table,   page   65,   that   the  proportions   of 

TIONS                  BALANCED*  A-  digestible  ^^  best  £.  ^  f  Qr  ^ 

_                               ..                      ,  purpose  are  29  pounds  dry  matter,  2.5 

We  now  come  to  the  matter  of  com-  ^  protei      M           ^  carboh  drat 

pounding  rations  so  that  they  shall  con-  05           d  of  £      and      nutritive  rati()  of 

form  approximately  to  the  requirements  -t  .r.n 

of  the  feeding  standards.    Given  certain  '.'"., 

feeds,  in  what  proportions  shall  they  be  Available  foods—Let  us  suppose  that 

fed  to   fulfill   the   various  requirements  the  foods  available  are  mixed  hay,  corn 

of   rations   for    fattening,    growth,   milk  silage,  corn  meal,  bran  and  linseed  meal 

production,  maintenance   (or  rest),  etc?  (new   process).      The    table    giving    the 

The  work  is  largely  mathematical.  composition   c.f   feeding  stuffs,   page  74, 

Balanced    ration    for    a    cow — As    an  shows  these  feeds  to  have  the  following 

illustration,  let  us  compound  a  balanced  average  composition: 

CHEMICAL    COMPOSITION    OF    FEEDS 
Feeding  stuff  Nitrogen- 
Dry  matter      Protein  Fiber       free  extract           Fat 
Per  et  Per  ct            Per  ct             Per  ct             Per  ct 

Mixed   hay    S4.7  7.4                 27.2                 42.1                 2.5 

Corn    silage    25.6  1.9                   5.9                  12.0                 0.9 

Corn    meal    85.0  9.2                   1.9                 08.7                 3.8 

Bran     89.1  15.4                   9.0                 53.9                 4.0 

Linseed    meal    91.1  35.9                  8.8                 36.8                3.0 

It  has  been  shown  earlier  in  this  ac-  of  the  ruminants  will  digest  of  the  above 

count  that  not  ^  only  must  the  composi-  feeding  stuffs  is  shown  in  the  table  en- 

tion  of  a  feeding  stuff  be  known,  but  titled,      "Percentage      digestibility      of 

also  that  the  proportion  of  each  nutri-  American     feeding     stuffs,"     page     79. 

ent  that  an  animal  will  digest  must  be  From  this  table  the  following  figures  are 

known.    The  average  amount  which  any  secured: 

THE    PERCENTAGE    DIGESTIBILITY     OF    MIXED    HAY,   DENT   CORN   SILAGE, 

CORN   MEAL,   BRAN  AND   LINSEED   MEAL. 

Nitrogen- 
Dry  matter    Protein  Fiber     free  extract        Fat 

Mixed   hay   57.10  58.50             59.70             58.70             48.50 

Corn   silage    65.10  49.30             66.70             6S.60             80.00 

Corn    meal 89.40  67.90                  —             94.60             92.10 

Bran     62.30  77.80             28.60             69.40             68.00 

Linseed    meal    79.20  85.20            80.40             86.10            96.60 

Coefficients  of  digestibility_The  fig-  hay  about  57.1  per  cent  is  digestible  by 

ures  given  in  this  table   are  called  the  ruminants.    Of  the  total  protein  in  mixed 

"coefficients    of    digestibility."      Taking  hay   58.5  per   cent   is   digestible,   of   the 

those   for   mixed   hay  for   consideration  total  fibre  59.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  ni- 

the  57.1  per  cent  under  dry  matter  means  trogen-free  extract  58.7  per  cent  and  of 

that  of  the  total  dry  matter  in  mixed  the  total  fat  48.5  per  cent  is  digestible. 


70 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


If,  then,  mixed  hay  consists  of  84.7  per 
cent  of  dry  matter  as  shown  in  the  previ- 
ous table  and  only  57.1  per  cent  of  this 
is  digestible,  then  84.7  x  57.1,  or  48.36 
per  cent  is  the  amount  that  is  actually 
digested  by  the  animal;  that  is,  out  of 
every  100  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  mixed 
hay  48.36  pounds  are  digestible. 

The  digestible  nutrients  in  a  feeding 
stuff,  then,  are  determined  by  multiply- 
ing the  percentages  of  crude  nutrients 

TOTAL  DRY   MATTER  DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   IN    100   LBS 


by  their  respective  digestion  coefficients. 
The  product  shows  the  pounds  of  digest- 
ible nutriments  in  100  pounds. 

By  this  method  of  computation  the 
figures  showing  the  total  dry  matter  and 
the  digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 
of  all  the  feeding  stuffs  in  the  following 
table  were  found.  The  figures  for  fibre 
and  nitrogen-fibre  extract  are  combined, 
since  they  have  like  feeding  value,  under 
the    single   heading   of    carbohydrates. 


Dry  matter 
lbs 

Mixed    hay 84.7 

Corn  silage 25.6 

Corn   meal    85.0 

Bran     89.3 

Linseed   meal    yx-x 

This  method  of  ascertaining  the  di- 
gestible nutrients  in  any  feeding  stuff 
or  ration  is  long  and  laborious.  Tables 
have  been  constructed  which  show  at 
once  the  amount  of  digestible  nutrients 
in  100  pounds  of  a  large  number  of 
American  feeding  stuffs  and  one  of  these 
convenience  tables  are  given  on  page  83. 
By  the  use  of  this  table  the  work  of  cal- 
culating rations  will  be  very  much 
shortened. 

As  a  trial  ration  for  a  cow  giving  20 
pound  of  milk,  let  us  select  8  pounds 
of  hay,  25  pounds  of  corn  silage,  3 
pounds  of  corn  meal,  2  pounds  of  bran, 
and  2  pounds  of  linseed  meal  and  see 
how  it  compares  with  the  requirements 
of  the  standard. 

Using  the  table  given  above,  we  note 
first  that  100  pounds  of  mixed  hay  con- 
tains 84.7  pounds  of  dry  matter.  One 
pound  of  hay,  therefore,  will  contain 
1-100  of  84.7  pounds  or  0.847  pound. 
Eight  pounds,  then,  will  contain  8  times 
0.S4T  pound  or  6.78  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter. Similarly  if  100  pounds  of  hay 
contain  4.3  pounds  of  protein,  one  pound 
will  contain  1-100  of  4.3  pounds  or  .043 
pound  and  S  pounds  will  contain  8 
times   .043   or   .34  pound.     In  this  way 


igestible 

Digestible 

Digestible 

protein 

carbohydrates 

fat 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

4.3 

40.9 

1.2 

0.9 

12.6 

0.7 

6.2 

66.9 

3.5 

12.0 

3!  i.T 

2.7 

30.6 

38.7 

2.9 

HAND      CORN      SIIELLER 


the  figures  in  the  table  given  below  were 
obtained. 

When  we  compare  the  total  amounts 
of   nutrients    furnished   bv   this    ration 


DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS 

Dry  matter 
lbs 

8  lbs  mixed    hay    6.78 

25     "    silage    6.40 

3     "    corn    meal    2.55 

2     "    bran     1.78 

2     "    linseed    meal    1.S2 


19.33 
Ration   required   by  standard    29.00 


TRIAL   RATION 

'rotein 

Carb 

ohydrates 

Fat 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

0.34 

3.2 

0.10 

0.22 

3.2 

0.20 

0.19 

2.0 

0.10 

0.24 

0.8 

0.05 

0.61 

0.8 

0.06 

1.60 

10.0 

0.51 

2.50 

13.00 

0.50 

PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


71 


with  the  amount  required  by  the  stand- 
ard we  see  that  the  dry  matter,  protein 
and  carbohydrates  are  all  deficient.  Let 
us  add,  therefore,  about  10  pounds  more 
silage,  2  of  bran  and  V/2  of  linseed  meal. 

This  gives  us  a  ration  containing 
about  25  pounds  of  dry  matter,  2.59 
pounds  of  protein,  12.6  pounds  of  car- 
bohydrates and  0.6  pound  of  fat. 

This  ration  is  still  deficient  in.  dry 
matter  as  compared  with  the  standard 
and  contains  a  slight  excess  of  fat. 
Nevertheless  it  is  approximately  cor- 
rect, and  near  enough  to  satisfy  the 
standard.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
dry  matter  may  vary  from  10  to  20  per 
cent  from  the  standard  either  way  with- 
out affecting  the  efficiency  of  the  ration. 
The  amount  of  dry  matter,  however, 
could  easily  be  increased  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  few  pounds  of  straw  without 
materially  changing  the  nutritive  ratio 
or  affecting  the  ration  in  other  respects. 
The  method  here  given  for  calculating 
rations  is  largely  a  cut  and  try  method. 
The  amounts  of  each  material  to  use 
are  largely  guessed  at  until  the  right 
proportions  are  found.  It  is  the  method 
in  common  use  by  practically  everyone 
who  uses  these  standards,  and  practices 
the  feeding  of  balanced  rations. 

Calculating  balanced  rations  by  alli- 
gation— There  is,  however,  a  mathemat- 
ical way  of  calculating  balanced  rations 
based  on  the  old  arithmetic  principle  of 
alligation  in  which  all  guess  work  is  eli- 
minated. The  rule  of  alligation,  the 
reader  will  remember,  is  the  one  followed 
when  required  to  mix  together  three  or 
four  different  priced  articles  like  teas, 
to  produce  a  mixture  having  a  uniform 
price. 

The  method  of  applying  the  rule  of 
alligation  in  balancing  rations  was  first 
presented  by  J.  T.  Willard,  director  of 
the  Kansas  experiment  station  in  Bul- 
letin No  115  of  that  station. 

The  system  is  based  on  the  nutritive 
ratios  of  feeding  stuffs  and  on  what  the 
author  calls  the  "protein  equating 
factor."  By  this  term  is  meant  the  num- 
ber  of   pounds   of   a   feeding   stuff   re- 


quired to  contain  1  pound  of  digestible 
protein.  Thus,  if  a  feeding  stuff,  A, 
contain  5  per  cent  digestible  protein, 
65.5  per  cent  digestible  carbohydrates 
and  2.7  per  cent  digestible  fat,  the  nu- 
tritive ratio  (determined  by  the  method 
described  on  page  66  is  1 :14,  and  the 
protein  equating  factor  (100-=-5  is  20; 
that  is,  20  pounds  of  this  feed  will 
contain  1  pound  of  digestible  protein. 
In  a  similar  manner  let  us  assume  that 
the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  feeding  stuff,  B. 


Fig.    45 A    POPULAR    KIND    OF    POWER 

FEED    GRINDER    FOR    THE    FARM 

is  1:6  and  the  protein  equating  factor 
8.  Now  let  it  be  required  to  mix  these 
two  feeds  so  that  the  mixture  shall  have 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :9.  This  is  done  by 
alligation,  as  shown  below. 

Now  proceeding  with  the  alligation 
we  find  that  the  difference  between  14 
and  9  is  5.  This  is  set  down  opposite 
the  feed,  B,  with  which  it  is  compared. 


Second  term 
of  ratio 

Feed   A -14 

Proposed    mixture 9 

Feed    B 6 

The  difference  between  6  and  9  is  3,  which 
is  set  down  opposite  feed  A  with  which 
it  is  compared.    Now  for  each  pound  of 


Difference 
3 


Protein  equat- 
ing1 factor 
X    20 


Mixture 
necessary 
60 

40 


5  X      8 

protein  in  feed  A  there  are  20  (pro- 
tein equating  factor)  pounds  of  non- 
protein.   Hence  it  would  require  3  x  20, 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


or  60  pounds  of  feed  A  to  contain  3 
pounds  of  protein,  while  of  the  feed  B, 
whose  protein  equating  factor  is  8,  40 
pounds  (5  x  8)  must  be  taken.  In  com- 
pounding these  feeds  to  secure  the  de- 
sired nutritive  ratio,  therefore,  they 
must  be  taken  in  the  proportion  of  60 
to  40  or,  reducing,  3  to  2.  If  feeds  A 
and  B  are  mixed  in  the  proportions  of 
3  pounds  of  A  to  2  pounds  of  B  then 
the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  mixture  will 
always  be  1 :9.  Whatever  quantity  of 
this  mixture  is  taken  to  mix  with  the 
grain  or  other  feeds  in  compounding  a 
ration,  this  ratio  will  be  preserved. 

Second  term 
of  ratio 
(  Mixed    hay    11.0 

A  <  Required   mixture   5.7 

(  Bran    4.0 

i  Corn  silage   13.7 

Bi  Required  mixture    5.7 

(  Linseed  meal    1.5 

(  Corn  meal 11.7 

C  <  Required  mixture   5.7 

(  Bran    4.0 

The  feeds  are  arranged  in  couplets  0f 
which  one  of  each  pair  must  have  a 
nutritive  ratio  wider  than  the  desired 
ratio  and  the  other  narrower.  Hay  has 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :11,  which  is 
wider  than  the  desired  ratio  (1:5.7), 
while  bran,  with  which  hay  is  paired, 


Fig.  46 — A  GOOD  FORM  OF  STOCK 
FEED  COOKER 

has  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :4,  which  is 
narrower  than  the  desired  ratio  (1:5.7). 
So   in   couplet  B   and   couplet   C.      One 


Let  us  compound  a  ration  according 
to  this  method  for  dairy  cows  giving  20 
pounds  of  milk  which  shall  have  a  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  1 :5.7,  using  the  same  feed- 
ing stuffs  as  before,  viz:  hay  of  mixed 
grasses,  corn  silage,  corn  meal,  bran  and 
linseed  meal,  old  process.  From  the 
table,  page  83,  we  obtain  the  second 
terms  of  the  nutritive  ratios  of  these 
feeds,  and  the  protein  equating  factors, 
and  comparing  the  feeds  with  each 
other  in  pairs  with  the  desired  nutritive 
ratio  by  the  method  of  alligation,  we  ob- 
tain the  following  figures : 

Protein  equat-     Mixture 
Difference  ing  factor         necessary 

1.7  X     23.7  40 


5.3 

4.2 

8.0 
1.7 

6.0 


X      8.3 
X     82.6 


3.3 

1.6 

8.3 


44 
347 

26 

27 

50 


feed  with  a  wide  nutritive  ratio  is  com- 
pared with  another  having  a  narrow  nu- 
tritive ratio. 

Notice  in  this  example  we  have  five 
kinds  of  feeds,  three  of  which  have  a 
wider  nutritive  ratio  than  that  desired 
(1:5.7)  and  two  narrower.  In  order  to 
balance  the  three  wide  rations  against 
the  two  narrow  ones,  one  of  the  narrow 
rations  must  be  taken  twice.  We  have 
used  bran  twice.  We  could  have  used 
linseed  meal  twice  instead  of  bran  just 
as  well.  We  would  have  obtained  the 
same  result  so  far  as  nutritive  ratio  is 
concerned,  but  the  quantities  of  each 
feeding  stuff  used  in  compounding  the 
ration  would  have  been  changed  slightly. 

If  only  one  of  the  five  feeds  had  had 
a  nutritive  ratio  narrower  than  the  de- 
sired one,  then  it  would  have  been  nec- 
essary to  compare  each  feed  having  the 
wider  ratio  with  the  one  having  the  nar- 
row ratio. 

Now  we  are  ready  to  examine  the  last 
column  of  the  above  table  a  little  more 
critically.  As  it  now  stands  it  shows 
that  if  we  take  40  pounds  of  hay, 
44  pounds  of  bran,  347  pounds  of 
silage  and  so  on  down  the  column,  and 
mix  them  we  will  have  a  mixture  whose 
nutritive  ratio  will  be  1 :5.7,  and  we  can 
feed  as  much  of  this  as  we  desire.  These 
figures  are  rather  large  and  we  can  per- 
haps see  their  relationship  better  by 
reducing  them  down.  By  using  the  smal- 
lest   number    26 — that    for    oil    meal — 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


73 


for  our  divisor,  we  get  the  following  pro- 
portions: oil  meal  1,  hay  1.54,  bran  1.7, 
silage  13.3,  corn  meal  1.03,  bran  1.92. 

These  figures  mean  that  in  making 
up  a  ration  with  these  feeds  for  a  dairy 
cow  which  shall  have  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  1 :5.7,  every  time  we  take  1  pound  of 
oil  meal  for  the  mixture,  we  should  take 
1.54  pounds  of  hay,  13.3  pounds  of 
silage,  1.03  pounds  of  corn  meal  and 
3.62  pounds  of  bran  (1.7  plus  1.92). 

One  day's  feed — Supposing  now  we 
want  to  make  up  enough  feed  for  just 
one  day,  how  many  pounds  shall  we 
take  of  each  feed  ?    By  observing  the  re- 


Fig.    47 — ROOT    CUTTER,    SHOWING    AR- 
RANGEMENT    OF     KNIVES 

lation  between  the  figures  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraphs  we  see  that  if  we 
take  the  quantities  regarding  them  as 
pounds  just  as  they  stand,  they  would 
not  make  enough  feed.  If  we  take  three 
times  the  quantity,  we  would  have  a 
slight  excess  of  silage.  Suppose  we 
take  2V2  times  the  quantity,  this  will 
give  us  3.9  pounds  hay,  33.25  pounds 
silage,  9  pounds  bran,  2.5  pounds  lin- 
seed meal  and  2.7  pounds  corn  meal. 

This  ration  differs  somewhat  from  the 
ration  worked  out  by  guess  work  in  that 
less  hay,  more  bran  and  less  linseed  meal 
is  taken,  while  the  nutritive  ratio  is 
closer  to  that  required  by  the  standard 

We  have  given  these  two  methods  for 
calculating  rations  in  considerable  de- 
tail and  the  feeder  can  take  his  choice 
between  them.  The  first  method  may 
keep  the  inexperienced  guessing  a  long 


time  before  he  strikes  the  combination 
that  will  give  him  the  desired  quantities 
and  the  required  nutritive  ratio.  The 
latter  method  may  be  slightly  compli- 
cated, but  a  half  hour's  study  will  master 
it,  and  it  will  give  absolutely  accurate 
results,  with  a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  work.  By  use  of  the  conven- 
ience table,  page  83,  the  work  of  calcu- 
lating ratios  by  either  method  can  be 
greatly  lessened. 

Balancing  rations — A  few  general  re- 
marks will  apply  to  balancing  rations 
by  either  method.  If  in  the  above  ration 
the  feeder  had  for  feeding  nothing  but 
hay  from  mixed  grasses,  silage  and  corn 
meal,  it  would  have  been  impossible  to 
have  compounded  a  ration  with  a  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  1 :5.7  either  by  the  guess 
method  or  any  other  method  because 
the  nutritive  ratio  of  hay  is  1:11, 
that  of  silage  1:13.7,  and  that  of  corn 
meal  1:11.7 — all  more  than  1:5.7. 
Some  feed  with  a  nutritive  ratio  nar- 
rower than  1 :5.7,  like  bran  with  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  1:4,  or  oil  meal 
with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:1.5,  must 
be  used  for  balancing  up  the  feeds 
with  such  wide  nutritive  ratios.  This 
is  why  even  the  best  dairy  farmers 
nearly  always  have  to  buy  some  con- 
centrated feed  in  addition  to  what  they 
raise  on  their  farms,  in  order  to  make 
satisfactory  balanced  rations  for  their 
cows  giving  a  heavy  flow  of  milk.  The 
feeds  richest  in  protein  and  easily  di- 
gestible are  nearly  all  mill  by-products. 


Fig.  48 KNIFE  FOR  CUTTING  BEANS  OR  PEAS 

When  mature  animals  are  being  fat- 
tened for  market  or  stock  is  being  kept 
over  winter  without  work,  the  farm  will 
furnish  all  the  feed  that  is  required  of 
an  entirely  suitable  character,  and  none 
need  be  bought  from  outside  sources. 

The  feeder's  guide— Supposing  the 
standard  required  in  a  given  case  called 


74 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


for  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :5  and  with  the 
feeds  on  hand  the  nearest  the  feeder 
could  get  to  this  was  1 :7.5,  should  he 
sell  part  of  his  feed  of  one  kind  and 
buy  feed  with  a  narrower  nutritive 
ratio  of  another?  That  depends.  The 
matter  is  a  business  one.  It  might  not 
pay,  financially,  to  haul  one  feed  to 
town  and  bring  back  another,  even 
though  his  cows  gave  a  little  more 
milk  with  a  more  balanced  ration  or 
made  a  more  rapid  development.  The 
feeder  will  have  to  figure  this  out  for 


himself,  taking  into  consideration  the 
relative  cost  of  feeds,  nearness  to 
market,  price  of  finished  product,  etc. 
Literatuz'e — Some  of  the  more  recent 
popular  books  on  feeding  live  stock  are 
as  follows:  Feeds  and  Feeding  by  W. 
A.  Henry;  The  Feeding  of  Animals  by 
W.  H.  Jordan ;  The  Principles  of  Animal 
Nutrition  by  H.  P.  Armsby  (1903); 
Profitable  Stock  Feeding  by  H.  E.  Smith 
(1900)  ;  Die  Ernahrung  der  Landwirt- 
schaftlichen  Nutztiere  by  O.  Kellner 
(Paul  Parey,  Berlin,  1905). 


Tabic  1. 

PERCENTAGE    COMPOSITION    OF  AMERICAN    FEEDING 
Average  of  Many  Analyses. 


Water 

Acorns,  fresh   _. 55.3 

white  oak  — 27.0 

Alfalfa,  green  fodder 71.8 

hay    8.4 

meal    10.9 

Alfilaria    SO.O 

Alk'li  mead'w  grass  (Puccinrllia  airo'uhs)  4S.0 

"       dry    13.4 

Almond  hulls 4.8 

Apples,   fresh    S4.0 

Apple  pomace   72.0 

silage    SO.O 

American  poultry  food 9.1 

Animal  meal 5.7 

Artichokes    (Jerusalem)    tubers 78.0 

Atlas    gluten,    feed    or    meal ^_7.3 

Barley  silage   75.0 

straw    8.3 

"  green  forage 82.<  > 

hay    10.6 

"         grain    10.9 

"  "         naked  or  bald 9.4 

meal    119 

"         bran     7.0 

"  screenings    12.2 

"  malt  sprouts 10.2 

brewers'    grains,    wet 7."). 7 

dry   S.O 

feed    9.5 

grass,  wild  (Hordeum  jubatum)  hay  9.7 

Beans,  Adzuki    15.8 

Carob   (Beans  and  pods)    14.0 

"  "  grain     19.8 

Navy,  field 12.0 

"         Horse,  fresh   84.2 

straw    9.2 

"         Lima,  straw 10.0 

"         Mesquite,  (Prosopis  juliflora) 5.0 

Tornillo,    (Prosopis  pubrscens) . . . .   5.1 

Beets,  red    88.5 

Beggarweed,   hay 9.2 

Bermuda    grass,    in    bloom 71.7 

Blomo  feed   16.8 

Blood  molasses  feed 5.7 

meal    9.0 

"       dried   8.5 

Blue  grass,  Kentucky,  hay 21.0 

joint,  hay 6.8 

Bone,  boiled  beef 5.7 

meal   (Bowker's)    — 

fresh    34.0 

"       cut   26.3 

Brewers'   grains    (beer),  fresh 77.0 

"  "  dry     7.0 


Nitrogen- 

free 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

extract 

Fat 

1.0 

2.5 

4.4 

34.8 

1.9 

'  1.1 

3.5 

— 

45.4 

4.4 

2.7 

4.8 

7.4 

12.3 

1.0 

7.4 

14.3 

25.0 

42.7 

•>  2 

t.  i 

17.0 

20.3 

30.5 

1.6 

1.7 

4.9 

4.7 

7.9 

0.7 

4.0 

3.0 

17.0 

26.0 

0.9 

9.3 

12.T5 

17.0 

44.0 

3.5 

s.s 

5.5 

1.7 

60.0 

3.2 

0.4 

0.5 

1.0 

13.4 

0.7 

2.0 

1.4 

6.0 

17.0 

1.5 

0.9 

1.6 

4.5 

11.8 

1.0 

2.S 

13.2 

5.5 

63.0 

6.2 

■10.1) 

42.0 

— . 

— 

10.7 

1.8 

2.4 

0.9 

16.8 

0.1 

2.0 

31.2 

11.0 

36.0 

12  6 

3.0 

2.5 

11.3 

11.3 

1.2 

3.8 

3.7 

42.0 

39.5 

2.7 

1.7 

2.9 

4.2 

8.8 

0.9 

5.3 

9.3 

23.6 

18.7 

2.5 

2.4 

12.4 

o  7 

69.8 

1.S 

::.:; 

13.2 

2.8 

68.6 

2  7 

2.6 

10.5 

6.5 

66.3 

2  2 

— 

5.0 

26.0 

— 

1.1 

3.6 

12.3 

7.3 

61.8 

2  8 

5.  < 

•s\:2 

10.7 

48.5 

1  7 

1.0 

5.4 

:;.s 

12.5 

1  6 

3. 1 

24.1 

13.0 

44.8 

6.7 

4.5 

13.5 

8.5 

59.0 

4  0 

8.2 

9.8 

2<).o 

41.0 

2* 

3.5 

20.0 

3.9 

55.5 

0.7 

3.0 

5.6 

0.5 

72.0 

03 

2.6 

15.0 

17.4 

43.6 

1.4 

3.5 

22.5 

■ — ■ 

59.7 

1  9 

1.2 

2.8 

4.8 

6.5 

04 

8.7 

8.8 

37.6 

34.3 

1  4 

9.6 

10.7 

21.0 

46.7 

19 

3.4 

12.2 

3.2 

45.2 

2  5 

3.0 

9.8 

19.3 

61.8 

10 

1.0 

1.5 

0.9 

8.0 

01 

4.7 

11.8 

29.1 

42.1 

2.9 

2.0 

2.1 

5.9 

17.3 

09 

9.9 

14.0 

11.0 

48.0 

0  6 

— 

20.7 

— 

05.3 

3  2 

4.0 

80.0 

2.0 

4.0 

10 

4.7 

84.4 

— 

— 

2  5 

6.3 

7.8 

23.0 

38.0 

3  9 

5.3 

9.5 

33.8 

42.2 

24 

— 

44.8 

— 

— 

170 

— 

34.0 

— 

— 

22.0 

22.8 

20.6 

— 

1.9 

20  5 

16.0 

15.0 

— 

— 

23.0 

0.7 

7.0 

2.9 

11.0 

1.4 

2.7 

28,3 

11.8 

44.5 

5.8 

PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


rr, 


Table  1 — Continued 


Water 
Bronie  grass  (Bromus  inrrmis),  in  head. 64.1 

"       hay  11.0 

"  "       fringed   (B.  ciliatus) 62.5 

"  "       fringed    (B.   ciliatus),    hay.    4.4 

Broom   corn,    hay 9.4 

seed    12.7 

Buckwheat  straw   9.9 

grain    12.6 

"  bran     11.5 

"  middlings 11.8 

wild,   seed    12.0 

Buttercup,   hay    10.4 

Cabbage    90.5 

Cactus,  Sicilian,  spineless 8S.0 

plant   75.0 

cholla,  fruit 79.5 

Carrots,    root 88.6 

Cassava     66.6 

Chess,  (Bromus  secalinus),  green 73.0 

hay    10.0 

"  seed,  (Bromus  secalinus) 14.2 

Chicken     corn,     seed 10.0 

silage     To. 1 1 

forage 73.0 

Clover,    hay,    white 0.7 

"  "       Japan    11.0 

(red)    20.8 

green  forage  (red) 70.8 

silage    ( red ) 72.0 

"  meal    (red)    7.7 

alsike,  hay 9.7 

green     forage 74.8 

Bokhara  hay 9.0 

bur,    hay    11.3 

"  "       seed    6.(5 

crimson,    green    80.9 

hay  9.6 

wild,  yellow  hay   9.5 

sweet    (Melilotus    <iU>«) 70.0 

hay   6.0 

"  snail,   green    81 .0 

hay    10.0 

Cocoanut  cake    4.0 

meal    10.0 

Corn,  grain   10.9 

meal    15.0 

bran     8.7 

cob     10.7 

meal  and  cob 15.1 

hominy  feed  or  meal 8.8 

germ    10.7 

gluten  meal,  Hammond 8.1 

King    7.2 

(Buffalo)      8.2 

"  miscellaneous     ....    8.6 

Chicago    9.5 

cream  gluten    9.0 

gluten    feed,    Diamond 8.7 

"  "       Davenport    8.6 

miscellaneous     ....    8.1 

Buffalo    9.0 

aistillery  grains,  dried 7.0 

glucose    feed    and    refuse 0.5 

fodder,   green   flint 79.8 

dent 79.0 

"  "        sweet     79.1 

leaves  and  husks,  green.  .66.2 

dry    42.2 

leaves,  dry   30.0 

husks,    dry 50.9 

dry  stover 40.5 

silage     74.4 

Cotton    seed,    whole 9.1 

meal    S.2 


Nitrogen- 

free 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

extract 

Fat 

3.1  > 

4.0 

1O.0 

16.2 

1.8 

9.5 

11.0 

30.8 

35.2 

1.8 

2.0 

4.0 

13.0 

16.5 

0.8 

7.3 

10.4 

33.7 

42.0 

2.1 

5.7 

3.9 

36.8 

42.4 

1.8 

3.0 

io.:: 

o  2 

70.4 

5.0 

5.5 

5  2 

43.0 

35.1 

1.3 

2.0 

10.0 

s  7 

64.5 

22 

4.5 

24.8 

11.7 

40.8 

6.7 

4.8 

28.0 

6.3 

41.9 

7.2 

2.6 

10.(5 

lo.s 

60.8 

3.3 

6.0 

0.1 

30.0 

40.7 

3,4 

1.4 

2.4 

1.5 

3.8 

0.4 

3.0 

0.9 

1.4 

6.3 

0.3 

4.0 

1.7 

4.0 

15.6 

0,3 

2.6 

1.4 

3.0 

12.4 

1  2 

1.0 

1.1 

1.3 

7.6 

0.4 

0.7 

o.s 

1.6 

20.S 

0.2 

2.4 

3.0 

11.0 

9.0 

1  5 

8.0 

10.0 

36.5 

29.0 

6.0 

4.3 

s.o 

7.2 

63.3 

2.1 

4.5 

11.2 

9.0 

62.0 

2.8 

1.9 

2.5 

S  7 

11.2 

0.7 

1.9 

1!  1 

9.0 

11.0 

0.8 

8.3 

15.7 

24  0 

39.0 

2.9 

8.5 

13.8 

24.0 

39.0 

3.7 

0.6 

12.4 

21.9 

33.8 

4.5 

2.1 

4.4 

8.1 

13.5 

1  1 

2.6 

4.2 

8.4 

11.6 

1  2 

6.2 

10.0 

28.0 

45.0 

3.0 

8.3 

12.8 

25.6 

40.7 

2.9 

2.0 

3.9 

7,1 

11.0 

0.9 

7.0 

13.4 

22  1 

45.3 

3  2 

6.9 

10.5 

20.2 

44.9 

2.2 

8.9 

21.5 

5.2 

32.7 

5.4 

1.7 

6.1 

5.2 

8.4 

0.7 

8.6 

15.2 

27.2 

36.6 

2  8 

5.4 

15.6 

30.0 

35.0 

4.0 

2.0 

4.0 

4.8 

9.0 

0.5 

9.6 

1S.0 

21.8 

42.0 

24 

2.0 

2.9 

4.7 

8.4 

OS 

10.lt 

1  1.0 

22.0 

40.0 

3.2 

6.0 

20.4 

8.3 

39.0 

22  0 

0.0 

21.0 

7.4 

38.5 

17.0 

1.5 

10.5 

2  1 

(  19.6 

5  4 

1.4 

9.2 

1.9 

68.7 

3.8 

1.5 

O.S 

11.2 

62.6 

62 

1.4 

2,1 

30.1 

54.9 

0  5 

1.5 

8.5 

6.6 

64.8 

3  5 

2.7 

10.6 

4.2 

65.0 

77 

4.0 

'.)  s 

4.1 

64.0 

74 

1.0 

"s:: 

1.1 

50.8 

10  7 

1.4 

34.2 

1.7 

39.0 

16  5 

0.9 

24.5 

0.1 

47.S 

12  5 

o.s 

30.0 

2.6 

49.2 

8  8 

1.2 

37.6 

2.3 

44.4 

5  0 

0.9 

34.6 

1.9 

50.4 

26 

1.4 

2.-!.  7 

o.s 

54.9 

4  5 

1.3 

26.3 

(5.0 

53.0 

4  3 

1.3 

32.2 

6.4 

54.7 

63 

2  7 

20.6 

6.3 

52.0 

3  4 

2.0 

29  2 

11.0 

39.4 

11.4 

1.1 

l^o.T 

4.5 

56,8 

10  4 

1.1 

2.0 

4.3 

12.1 

07 

1.2 

1.7 

5.6 

12.0 

on 

1.3 

1.9 

4.4 

12.8 

0  5 

2.9 

2.1 

S.7 

19.0 

1  1 

2  7 

4.5 

14.3 

34.7 

1  6 

5.5 

6.0 

21.4 

35.7 

1  4 

1.8 

2.5 

15.8 

28  3 

07 

3.4 

3.8 

19.7 

31.5 

1.1 

1.5 

1.9 

5.9 

12.6 

0.9 

4.0 

19.6 

18.9 

28.3 

20.1 

7.2 

42.3 

5.6 

23.6 

13.1 

76 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


TABLE  1— Continued 


"Water 

Cotton  seed  hulls   11.1 

"  "      feed  (meal  and  hulls  1  to  4)   8.0 

Couch  grass,  western,   (A.  pseudorepens), 

air  dry    4.4 

Cowpea,   green   vines 83. G 

hay    10.7 

silage     79.3 

grain   11.9 

Crab  grass,  hay 10.3 

Distillery  slop 94.0 

"  waste,    dry    6.0 

Distillers'  grain   (dried),  mostly  corn..    7.0 
rye    ..   6.8 

Durra,    grain    10.3 

Emmer,  kernels  and  chaff 9.0 

alone 10.8 

Egyptian  corn,  grain 8.2 

leaves    6.1 

"     stalks    6.0 

Fescue  grass,  rough  (Festuca  scabrella) .  .57.3 

air   dry    4.5 

Flat  pea  (Lathyrus  sylvestris),  green.  ..  .66.7 

"     hay    8.4 

Fish  meal,  herring  offal,  slightly  salted. 11.0 

Flax  seed 3.7 

Gourd  vine  (Cucurbita  foetidissima),  dry.  13.9 
Greasewood  (Sarcobatus  vermiculatus) . .  4.6 
Grama  grass  (Bouteloua  oligostachya) . . . .  7.0 
Guinea  grass  (Panicnm  jummtorum) . . .  .64.5 
Hair  grass,  tufted  (Dcschampsia  cacspitosa), 

Hay,    mixed  grasses    15.3 

Hedvsarum  Woodland  (H  philoscia) .  .  .  .69.9 

hay     7.0 

H.  O.  Poultry  food 8.5 

"     "     Dairy  feed    8.5 

"     "     Horse  feed 11.0 

Johnson  grass  hay 10.2 

"  "     green  forage 81.0 

Kafir   corn,   grain 12.5 

"  "        stover    19.2 

"  "       green  fodder 73.0 

Kentucky   blue   grass    49.4 

hay    9.4 

Lespedeza  hay 11.0 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 9.2 

"  "        new   process    9.9 

Malt  sprouts    5.0 

skimmings    6.7 

Mangel-wurzels    91.2 

Marsh   ("Briston")   grass,  green 50.6 

Meadow    Foxtail,    green SO.O 

hay    10.0 

fescue,  hay   20.0 

"  "  green   forage    69.9 

Meat   or  beef  scrap 7.9 

"      meal    6.3 

and  bone   5.7 

Milk,    whole    87.0 

skim    90.0 

separator   90.6 

whey 93.8 

butter    91.0 

Millet,  Barnyard    ■ — ■ 

"        Broom  corn  or  hay,   seed 11.0 

Cattail  or  Pearl,  cut  in  bloom.. 49. 5 
African  or  Pearl,  dough  stage.. 40.0 
Indian  or  Pearl,  stalk  and  seed 

head     26.0 

Pearl,    cured    forage    7.5 

Japanese,    green 75.0 

"       Hungarian   hay    7.7 

"  "  green   forage    71.1 

seed 14.0 


Ash 
2.8 
3.7 


1.7 

7.5 
2.9 
3.4 


3.4 

2.0 

2.1 

5.7 

3.5 

1.5 

1.8 

11.8 

7.5 

4.6 

10.1 

2.9 

7.9 

11.8 

3.2 

12.7 

14.4 

14.0 


5.5 
2.0 
6.0 
2.6 
3.5 
2.8 
6.1 


Nitrogen- 
free 
Protein  Fiber    extract 
4.2        46.3         33.4 
13.4         32.5         38.7 


1.3 
8.0 
2.0 
3.9 
7.7 
8.5 
5.7 
5.6 
6.4 
3.5 
1.0 
2.8 
2.4 

10.0 
6.8 
1.8 

17.4 


0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.4 
0.7 


3.6 
3.0 
4.0 

4.0 
7.0 
1.5 
6.0 
1.7 
3.3 


6.5 

2.4 

16.6 

2.7 

23.5 

6.9 

1.2 

32.0 

29.2 

17.3 

4.4 

10.5 

14.0 

13.1 

10.1 

3.7 

4.0 

89.4 

8.7 

22.9 

61.0 

22.1 

11.4 

19.8 

6.5 

2.0 

7.4 
5.4 
16.7 
16.8 
19.0 
12.0 
7.2 


10.9 
4.8 
2.3 

5.2 
10.4 
13.8 
:;•_'.!> 

3.-1.9 

28.0 

14.4 

1.4 

5.1 

3.4 

16.0 

7.0 

2.4 

50.0 

48.4 

37.0 

3.6 

3.3 

3.2 

0.6 

0.3 


37.2 

4.8 

20.1 

6.0 

3.8 

32.9 

2.9 

9.0 

11.0 

12.3 

33.4 

10.5 

2.5 

1.6 

23.8 

31.6 

15.3 

34.0 

7.9 

26.2 

5.2 
16.9 
24.5 

28  2 

mo 

27.2 
6.7 

20.4 
4.6 

13.0 
8.9 

28.5 


1.9 
26.8 

6.9 
15.4 
19.6 
24.0 


11.0 

8.0 

0.8 

12.S 

5.4 

26.0 

25.9 

10.S 


9.0 
2.0 

3.0 

4.0 
6.0 
2.1 

7.5 
3.1 
11.8 


11.0 
20.0 
24.0 

29.0 

31.0 

7.8 

27.7 

9.2 

9.5 


43.0 
7.1 
42.2 
7.6 
55.7 
41.0 
2.0 
37.0 
39.0 
54.0 
44.4 
04.0 
69.0 
70.5 
46.4 
47.8 
18.5 
41.0 
12.2 
31.4 

26.6 
43.0 
34.3 
42.5 
19.0 

42.1 
15.5 
48.0 
62.0 
52.0 
61.0 
45.9 


70.5 
39.6 
15.1 
24.9 
50.4 
39.0 
35.4 
36.8 
47.0 
05.0 

5.4 
28.0 

7.4 
36.0 
38.4 
14.3 


4.9 
4.7 
5.2 
5.1 
4.8 


61.0 
22.0 
26.0 

35.0 
45.0 
13.1 
49.0 
14.2 
57.4 


Fat 

O  » 

3.7 

1.9 
0.4 
2.9 
1.5 
1.7 
1.6 
0.4 
12.0 
11.4 
7.5 
1.8 
2.5 
2.0 
4.8 
1.7 
3.4 
0.6 
1.3 
1.6 
3.2 
14.0 
39.S 
2.0 
2.5 
l.S 
0.4 


0.3 
1.0 
5.5 
4.0 
4.3 
2.1 


2.9 
1.6 
0.7 
1.3 
2  5 
3/7 
7.9 
3.0 
3.0 
2.8 
0.2 
1.6 
0.9 
4.0 
2.7 
0.S 
18.5 
13.0 
10.5 
3.7 
0.9 
0.3 
0.1 
0.5 


3.S 
2.0 
2.5 

2.0 

0.9 
0.5 
2.1 
6.7 
4.0 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


77 


Table  1— Continued 


"Water 
Millet.     Indian     (Eriscoma    cuspidata), 

green     56.8 

"  Indian  (Eriscoma  cuspidata),  dry    5.6 

Milo  maize,  white,  mature  head 15.7 

Modiola  dccumbens,  green    80.0 

Molascuit   21.2 

Needle  grass,  (Ktipa  Nclsonii),  green....   4.4 

air    dry     4.7 

Oak  leaves,  live  scrub  (Q.  dumosa) 3.9 

"         "         blue   scrub   (Q.   douglasii) . .   5.2 
"  poison  oak  (R.  diversiloba) .   5.4 

"     moss  (Ramalina  reticulata)    22.3 

Oat,  whole  grain 11.0 

"     feed    7.7 

"       "     Quaker  7.4 

"     straw    9.2 

"     hay     16:0 

"     green  forage   62.2 

"     and   pea  forage    (green) 78.7 

Olive    pomace    17.0 

Orchard  grass,  in  bloom 73.0 

hay 9.9 

Para  grass   (Panicum  mottc) 75.0 

Paloverde    twigs    5.1 

Parsnips 88.3 

Pea   (Lathyrus  maritimus),   vino 81.0 

"     field,    grain     15.0 

"     bran   or   hulls,    (field) 7.5 

"     meal    (field)     10.5 

"     silage     50.1 

Peavine  hay   (Mexican)    5.9 

"     field     10.0 

"       vines,    with    pods    6.3 

Peanut  vines,  with   pods 6.3 

(without  nuts)    7.6 

"  kernels,  without  hull 7.5 

hulls 9.0 

bran     6.4 

cake     10.7 

"  middlings 6.4 

Pie  melon    94.5 

Potato  tuber 78.9 

Pigeon  grass,  seed 11.0 

hay    8.0 

Prickley  Comfrey,   green SS.4 

Provender    11.7 

Pumpkins,  flesh 9.3 

whole  fruit    90.9 

seeds   and   stringy   matter.. 77.0 

Purslane   (Portulaca  oleracea) 87.0 

Quack    grass    76.8 

Rape,  green,  Dwarf  Essex 85.7 

silage,  Dwarf  Essex 78.0 

and  corn  silage 80.0 

Redtop,   green   forage 56.6 

hay    8.9 

Rhode   Island   bent,    hay 7.1 

Rice,   grain    12.4 

"       bran     9.7 

"       hulls    8.2 

polish     10.0 

"       wild,   grain    10.0 

Russian  thistle,  green,  small  and  tender. 83.0 

hay    13.0 

Rutabagas    . .  4 88.6 

Rye,     grain     116 

"       feed   11.7 

"       flour     13.1 

"       green   forage    76.6 

*'       straw    7.1 

"       grass,  perennial,  hay 14.0 

"       Italian,  hay .   8.5 

"  "  "       in  bloom   73.2 

Sacalin   leaves    8.2 


Ash 


Nitrogen- 
free 
Protein  Fiber    extract      Fat 


3.1 

5.4 

14.0 

21.0 

0.8 

6.7 

11.6 

30.0 

45.0 

1.7 

1.7 

8.2 

8.4 

63.1 

2.8 

2.8 

2.7 

3.2 

10.6 

0.6 

S.0 

3.7 

8.3 

58.8 

0.1 

4.5 

5.1 

19.4 

25.0 

1.6 

7.7 

s.s 

32.6 

43.0 

2.7 

9.4 

9.2 

26.8 

31.4 

5.2 

4.3 

8.3 

33.0 

34.6 

4.3 

8.7 

6.9 

25.0 

41.0 

6.5 

4.5 

19.2 

14.0 

48.4 

2.0 

3.0 

11.8 

9.5 

60.0 

5.0 

3.7 

16.0 

16.1 

59.4 

7.1 

5.0 

10.7 

16.4 

5.7 

3.6 

5.1 

4.0 

37.0 

42.4 

2.3 

6.1 

7.4 

27.2 

40.6 

2.7 

2.5 

3.4 

11.2 

19.3 

1.4 

1.8 

2.6 

11.6 

6.8 

0.6 

1.8 

7.6 

42.7 

13.1 

17.6 

2.0 

2.6 

8.2 

13.3 

0.9 

6.0 

8.1 

32.4 

41.0 

2.6 

2.S 

2.3 

9.1 

11.0 

0.3 

5.7 

10.9 

36.0 

39.0 

3.2 

0.7 

1.6 

1.0 

10.2 

0.2 

1.5 

4.0 

5.0 

7.0 

0.2 

2.4 

23.7 

7.9 

50.2 

0.8 

3.0 

10.0 

42.0 

36.0 

1.4 

2.6 

20.2 

14.4 

51.1 

1.2 

3.5 

5.9 

13.0 

26.0 

1.6 

11.0 

20.0 

29.0 

30.0 

3.2 

10.0 

24.0 

16.1 

37.0 

2.9 

6.0 

13.5 

29.0 

36.0 

15.0 

6.0 

13.5 

29.0 

36.0 

15.0 

10.8 

10.7 

23.6 

42.7 

4.6 

2.4 

27.9 

7.0 

15.6 

39.6 

3.4 

6.6 

64.0 

15.0 

1.6 

3.5 

5.5 

65.0 

18.0 

1.7 

4.9 

47.6 

5.1 

23.7 

8.0 

4.0 

8.0 

48.0 

23.0 

2.7 

0.4 

0.8 

1.2 

2.9 

0.2 

1.0 

2.1 

0.0 

17.3 

0.1 

r.u 

9..r> 

15.1 

54.5 

5.5 

9.5 

10.5 

28.0 

40.2 

3.8 

2.2 

2.4 

1.6 

5.1 

0.3 

2.0 

9.5 

4.7 

6S.0 

4.1 

7.0 

0.9 

1.0 

4.0 

0.1 

0.5 

i .:: 

1.7 

5  2 

0.4 

1.5 

6.0 

4.0 

5.0 

6.9 

2.0 

1.8 

2.0 

6.5 

0.5 

2.7 

4.2 

6.7 

9.1 

1.5 

2.0 

2.4 

22 

7.1 

0.6 

3.4 

2.7 

2.0 

13.0 

0.8 

2.0 

2.0 

5.0 

10.0 

0.4 

2.9 

3.8 

11.7 

23.9 

1.0 

5.2 

Y.9 

2S.6 

47<5 

1.9 

6.7 

6.1 

31.9 

46.3 

1.9 

0.4 

7.4 

0.2 

79.2 

0.4 

10.0 

12.1 

9.5 

49.9 

8.8 

13.2 

3.6 

35.7 

38.6 

0.7 

6.7 

11.7 

6.3 

5S.0 

7.3 

1.6 

13.7 

1.2 

73.0 

0.9 

3.3 

3.0 

2.7 

8.3 

0.3 

25.2 

16.8 

10.5 

32.8 

1.6 

1.2 

1.2 

1.3 

7.5 

0.2 

1.9 

10.6 

1.7 

72.5 

1.7 

3.7 

15.0 

4.5 

62.0 

3.0 

0.7 

6.7 

0.4 

78.3 

0.8 

1.8 

2.6 

11.6 

6.8 

0.6 

3.2 

3.0 

38.9 

46.6 

1.2 

7.9 

10.1 

25.4 

40.5 

2.1 

6.9 

7.5 

30.5 

45.0 

1.7 

2.5 

3.1 

6.8 

13.3 

1.3 

1.2 

5.0 

2.4 

8.0 

1.0 

78 


FARMERS  CYCLOPEDIA  Ob'  LIVE  STOCK 


TABLE  1— Continued 


Water 

Sacalin,  stalks    82.0 

Sainfoin,  hay 15.0 

Saltbush,  Australian,  green 78.<  I 

Saltbush    Australian,    hay 7.0 

Nuttall's,     green .  .  .  73.1  > 

"  "  air  dry   5.1 

Tumbling    (Atriplex    volutans), 

green     78.9 

"  Tumbling,     dried     6.2 

"  Atriplex   Califomias,    hay 6.0 

"  (Atriplex  halimoides),  green... 82.0 

dry     ..   4.8 

"  (A.    holocarpa),   green S5.0 

"  "  "  dry     5.6 

Salt  marsh  hay 10.4 

Serradella  at  different  stages 79.5 

hay 9.2 

green  forage 79.5 

Sesame    meal    7.4 

Sesbania  macrocarpa 9.0 

Spear  grass,  yellow,  (Poa  lucida) 48.5 

air    dry    4.3 
Buckley's,  (P.  buckley ana)  .53.8 

air   dry 5.3 

Sorghum,   seed 12.8 

silage.     76.1 

"  green    fodder    .....79.4 

cured   fodder    5.8 

Soy  bean,  seed 8.7 

meal 10.2 

"  "        silage     74.2 

"  "       green    forage    75.1 

"       hay    11.3 

straw     10.1 

Spelt,    whole    grain    7.5 

"  kernels     9.0 

Spurry  hay   13.7 

green    75.7 

seed     11.0 

Squashes,  whole  fruit    94.9 

Squirrel  tail  grass,   (Hordeum  jubatum) . .   4.."". 

Starch  feed,  wet 66.0 

"       dry 4.0 

Sugar  beet,  root    86.7 

leaves .  .88.8 

"  "       crowns    81.9 

fresh    pulp .  89.9 

"       tops     87.0 

"  "       dry   pulp    6.4 

"  "        molasses     25.7 

"  "       silage     70.0 

"      cane,  whole  plant 71.0 

"         "       tops    75.0 

Sunflower    seed 8.6 

stalks    and    leaves,    fresh 84.4 

heads  with   seeds    75.6 

Sweet  clover,  (Melilotus  alba),  green.  ..  .79.4 

dry    6.0 

Sweet  potato,  tubers    . 71.1 

vines     41.5 

Sweet  corn,  stalks,  green 80.0 

husks    SCO 

"  "       grain,    green     82.0 

"  "       cobs,  green    SO.O 

"  "       mature  green  fodder 84.0 

fodder  fully  dry 51.0 

"  "       silage     .....8.3.0 

Tall  oat  grass,  green 69.5 

Tankage '8.6 

Teosinte,   green    . 79.8 

silage 66.8 

Timothy,   green 61.6 

hay 15.0 


Nitrogen- 

free 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

extract 

Fat 

0.9 

1.6 

7.2 

S.O 

0.3 

7.3 

14.4 

20.4 

39.5 

3.0 

4.6 

2.7 

3.7 

10.4 

0.5 

19.4 

11.6 

15.9 

44.0 

2.0 

.3  7 

4.7 

4.4 

13.9 

0.2 

13.0 

16.6 

15.6 

49.0 

0.8 

3.9 

2.9 

6.3 

7.9 

0.2 

17.3 

13.0 

28.0 

35.0 

0.9 

4.7 

7.S 

27.0 

52.0 

2.0 

5.4 

3  2 

2.7 

6.3 

0  2 

28.9 

16.9 

14.3 

33.8 

1.3 

4.4 

2.7 

2.5 

4.8 

0.2 

28.5 

17.6 

15.9 

31.0 

1.2 

i.  i 

5.5 

30.0 

44.1 

24 

3.2 

2.7 

5.4 

8.6 

0.7 

7.2 

15.2 

21.6 

44.2 

2.6 

3.2 

2.7 

5.4 

8.6 

0.7 

8.7 

36.7 

3.8 

17.0 

26.0 

33.0 

32.0 

13.5 

38.0 

4.3 

3.9 

4.s 

18.8 

22.7 

1.5 

7.2 

8.9 

34.9 

IL'.7 

2H 

3.2 

2.8 

16.6 

22.7 

0.8 

6.5 

5.8 

34.1 

46.6 

1  6 

2.1 

9.1 

2.6 

69.8 

3  6 

1.1 

0.8 

6.4 

15.3 

0.3 

1.1 

1.3 

6.1 

11.6 

0.5 

8.0 

5.8 

23.0 

55.5 

1.6 

5.4 

36.3 

3.9 

27.7 

ISO 

5.0 

35.9 

3.4 

2.8 

17.5 

2.8 

4.1 

9.7 

6.9 

2? 

2.6 

4.0 

6.7 

10.0 

1.0 

7.2 

15.4 

22,3 

38.6 

5.2 

S.7 

8.8 

37.6 

34.0 

1.4 

3.8 

12.2 

13.5 

61.0 

2.0 

2.5 

15.5 

2.0 

68.5 

2.5 

5.8 

9.2 

24.0 

44.7 

2  8 

4.0 

2.0 

4.9 

12.7 

08 

11.0 

12.0 

11.0 

45.0 

9.0 

0.4 

0.7 

0.5 

3.2 

0.3 

7  5 

7.2 

33.3 

45.0 

2.8 

0.2 

4.0 

26.0 

24.0 

3.0 

0.7 

12.0 

8.0 

66.0 

10.0 

0.8 

1.5 

0.0 

9.9 

0.1 

0.7 

1.9 

1.4 

7  2 

0  3 

0.8 

1.9 

1.9 

13.4 

07 

0.4 

1.0 

•  >  •> 

6.3 

02 

0.7 

1.9 

1.5 

8.7 

0  4 

3.3 

10.8 

19.8 

5S.4 

1  3 

8.8 

7.3 

— 

58.2 

0.9 

4.4 

9.4 

14.0 

11 

0.5 

0.6 

10.0 

18.0 

0,4 

1.5 

1.7 

7.0 

14.0 

06 

2.0 

16.3 

29.9 

21.4 

°1  2 

1.9 

1.0 

5.7 

6.1 

00 

1.8 

2.3 

7.9 

7.8 

40 

2.1 

4.0 

4.8 

9.3 

0.5 

9.6 

18.0 

21.8 

42  2 

9,4 

1.0 

1.5 

1.3 

24.7 

0.4 

5.8 

7  7 

13.0 

20.3 

2.1 

1.3 

1.7 

0.4 

15.4 

0.4 

0.6 

1.1 

3.5 

8.4 

0? 

0.5 

2.9 

0.5 

12.9 

0.9 

0.6 

1.3 

5.6 

11.8 

0.5 

1.0 

o  2 

4.0 

8.0 

00 

2  7 

6.3 

15.0 

24.0 

1  3 

0.8 

2.0 

4.0 

8.6 

1  0 

2.0 

2.4 

9.4 

15.8 

0.9 

16.0 

49.8 

4.8 

5.0 

15  8 

1.3 

0.9 

6.2 

11.5 

0  3 

4.0 

2.5 

12.4 

13.6 

07 

2.1 

3.1 

11.8 

20.2 

1.2 

4.5 

6.0 

29.0 

41.9 

3.0 

PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


79 


TABLE  1— Continued 


Water 

Turnips,    roots    90.G 

Velvet  beans,  seed  and  pods 12.4 

"  "     seed 11.5 

hay    10.0 

Vetch,   seed   (Yicia   satira) 13.0 

hay    11.3 

Hairy,    hay    20.3 

"  Bird,   (Yicia  craccaj,   hay 7.3 

green     7.1.0 

"  Bodia's,     (Astragalus    bodini),    air 

dry    5.S 

Pretty  milk,   (A.  clcgans),  green. 75.0 
hay     .   5.6 

Water  grass  (Chloris  el cyans) 7.0 

Watermelons     00.0 

Watermelon   rind    00.0 

pulp    and   juice    02.0 

Whale  flesh   meal    7.3 

Wheat,  grain    (spring)    10.4 

(winter)    10.5 

rusted     10.7 

bran     11.0 

middlings     12.1 

"  screenings    11.6 

shorts     11.8 

mixed   feed    11.0 

straw     0.G 

rusted     8.6 

Red  dog  flour 8.0 

"  grass,  western,  green  forage.  .  .60.0 

hay    4.6 

"       slender,    (Agropyron    tcnc- 

rum),  green  forage   ..r>7.0 

slender    hay    5.1 

Bearded    (Aaropi/ron    can- 
mum)     38.3 

Pearded,   hay    5.3 

Northern       (A.       dasi/sta- 

chyum)    14.0 

Northern,    hay    4.8 

Winter  fat  (Eurotia  Janata),  green 58.0 

dry     0.0 

Wire   grass   (J uncus   balticus)    72.0 

hay     7.0 


Nitrogen- 

free 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

extract 

Fat 

0.8 

1.3 

1.2 

5.9 

0  2 

4.0 

17.0 

14.0 

48.0 

4  6 

."..l! 

22  7 

7.6 

4S.5 

6.6 

5.9 

14.0 

37.7 

30.6 

1  8 

2.9 

20.1 1 

2.S 

54.0 

1.1 

7.0 

IT.n 

25.4 

36.1 

2  3 

5.8 

17.2 

22.5 

32.1 

2  1 

6.0 

13.0 

30.0 

49.0 

2  o 

2.0 

5.5 

7.0 

10.0 

0.1 

11.4 

10.3 

21.3 

40.0 

1  3. 

2.0 

4.7 

8.3 

9.6 

0.4 

7.r> 

1S.0 

31.0 

36.0 

1  4 

12.0 

8.9 

33.6 

30.5 

1  0 

0.8 

1.0 

— . 

7.8(5 

1.2 

1.4 

1.4 

5.6 

0.4 

0.3 

0.8 

ii  5 

5.8 

0  6 

4.s 

( VI  3 

— 

— 

2.-,  1 1 

1.0 

12.5 

1.8 

71.2 

2  2 

1.8 

11. s 

1.8 

72.0 

21 

2.0 

13.7 

3.0 

os.o 

2.4 

5.8 

154 

9  0 

53.9 

4  0 

3.3 

15.6 

I.e. 

6.4 

4,9 

2  0 

12.5 

4.0 

65.1 

3.0 

4.6 

14.9 

7.4 

56.8 

4T. 

4.5 

16.0 

8.0 

55.0 

4  1 

4.2 

3.4 

38.1 

43.4 

1  3 

6.9 

6.0 

18.0 

29.6 

OS 

— 

19.0 

— 

— 

47 

3.0 

4.0 

12.6 

18.0 

1  2 

10.0 

8.7 

31.7 

43.3 

1.6 

3.2 

2.9 

14.0 

20.1 

OS 

7.6 

S.O 

31.0 

45.5 

2,1 

3.5 

3  3 

15.3 

ISO 

OS 

7.0 

7.4 

34.7 

420 

1.9 

4.0 

4.3 

21.0 

24.6 

1  0 

6.3 

7.4 

30.7 

4-J.O 

2  7 

5.1 » 

7  o 

14.0 

15.0 

0  7 

in. o 

15.0 

31.0 

.".■',0 

1    1 

2.0 

4.0 

10.0 

12.0 

0.4 

7.0 

12.0 

32.0 

42.0 

1.3 

PERCENTAGE       DIGESTIBILITY        OF        AMERICAN       FEEDING        STUFFS. 
AVERAGES      FOR      RUMINANTS 


Dry 
matter 

Acorns     SS.OO 

Alfalfa,    green,    3d    cutting 60.62 

hay     65.23 

Apple   pomace 72.51 

Atlas  gluten  meal 80.00 

Barley  hay    61.20 

green    fodder    65.90 

"        grain     86.00 

"       straw     53.00 

"        and   peas,    green   fodder.  .53. 40 

Barnvard  millet,   dried   fodder.  .  .57.40 

green    fodder.  .66.60 

Beans,    seeds,    field 89.00 

"        straw,     "  55.00 

"        meal,   soy    86.60 

soy,  dried  fodder 62.40 


Nitrogen- 

free 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

extract 

Fat 

— 

83  00 

1 12  1 N ) 

91.00 

S7.00 

40.00 

74.05 

42.41 

71.73 

38.42 

57.12 

75. 7(  1 

54.86 

72.43 

49.43 

54.74 

— ■ 

01.00 

SI.  50 

47.20 

— - 

7  2  8  » 

— 

st  50 

91.20 

44.80 

65  20 

01.70 

63.30 

40.50 

54.40 

71.  SO 

00.  so 

71.20 

5!  >.90 

— 

7()i)'i 

— 

92.00 

S0.00 

— - 

25.00 

55.00 

54.00 

42.00 

46.20 

77.20 

43.50 

01,10 

50.70 

03.10 

63.70 

61.60 

51.60 

J  0.30 

50.51) 

61.50 

66  50 

OS  30 

6!  30 

— 

SS.OO 

72.00 

02  00 

81.00 

— 

49.00 

43.00 

67.00 

57.00 

— 

91.10 

71.20 

70  30 

89  60 

— 

71.10 

60.  SO 

OS.  SO 

29.20 

80 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


TABLE  2 — Continued 


Dry 
matter 

Beans,  soy,  green  fodder 59. SO 

"        silage,   soy    (steers) 49.80 

"      (goats)     59.00 

"     and  corn    69.00 

"     and  millet   ...38.S0 
"              "          horse,     with     sun- 
flower heads 65.60 

"        silage,     horse,    with    corn 

and  sunflower   plant. 65.50 

Blomo,    feed 67.00 

Black  grass  hay  (J uncus  bulbosus)  59.50 

"    (J.    ffcrardi) 53.40 

and     redtop     hay 54.60 

Blue  grass  hay,  Kentucky 63.S0 

"      joint    hay 54.30 

Bran,    wheat    62.30 

and  shorts   00.20 

Branch      grass      hay,      (Distichlis 

spicata)    49.70 

Brewers'   grains,   dried    61.50 

Buckwheat    70.80 

Buffalo   grass,   hay   50.00 

Buttercup  hay   56.10 

Canada  field  peas,  green  forage. 68.40 

Cassava     52.00 

Cattail   millet,    dried   fodder 62.30 

Cerealine  feed 90.40 

Chess  or  cheat,   dried  fodder.  .  .  .45.00 

Clover,  alsike  hay 62.30 

"  crimson,    green    forage.  .07. !  10 

hay    58.10 

"         red,  green  forage 66.10 

"      silage    52.00 

"  "       rowen    (green)     ...59.30 

(cured) 58.00 

"      hay "...57.40 

white,    hay    66.00 

and  timothy  hay,  mixed. 54. 60 

Corn,  grain,  Dent 91.00 

meal     89.40 

"       and   cob   meal    78.70 

germ    74.00 

gluten  feed    86.30 

meal    89.70 

"        maize   feed    87.10 

cobs    51.40 

Dent,    green   fodder 67.80 

cured  fodder   64.30 

*'      flint,         "  "  68.60 

"       Dent    and    flint,    dried    im- 
mature fodder    03.90 

"       Dent    and    flint,    dried  ma- 
ture fodder    68.20 

"        sweet,  green  fodder    71.10 

cured       "       67.20 

stover    57.20 

"       shredded     58.00 

shives,  "new  corn  product"  58.10 
fodder,  topped,  (cured)  .  .57.40 
blades  and  husks,  (cured)    63.80 

leaves,  (pulled  fodder) 59.80 

husks,    cured    fodder 72.00 

dried   butts    66.50 

silage,   Dent    65.10 

immature    Dent    ..65.60 

Flint     73.10 

Dent    and    flint 70.80 

and  soy  bean  silage 69.00 

"       horse       beans,      and      sun- 
flower heads   65.60 

"       horse  beans,  and  sunflower 

plants     65.50 

silage,  sweet  corn  6S.10 


Nitrogen- 

free 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

extract 

Fat 

18.90 

75.10 

47.00 

73.20 

54.10 

28.00 

55.30 

42.90 

61.20 

48.90 

56.70 

75.70 

54.80 

52.00 

71.90 

— 

65.00 

64.80 

74.90 

82.10 

— 

38.40 

69.40 

59.20 

72.20 

41.10 

62.70 

60.10 

72.40 

76.70 

25.60 

58.00 

65.30 

73.70 

74.10 

31.00 

63.00 

61.00 

76.00 

15.00 

— 

63.00 

00.50 

57.00 

41.50 

69.00 

54.30 

57.40 

49.00 

45.70 

57.50 

47.90 

59.70 

53.20 

40.30 

44.70 

62.50 

66.60 

66.10 

53.70 

39.40 

63.40 

54.50 

55.90 

44.70 

— 

77.S0 

L'S.III) 

69.40 

68.00 

7.50 

75.80 

18.30 

64.30 

45.00 

58.10 

51.70 

56.40 

45.70 

36.60 

— 

80.80 

49.70 

50.80 

91.10 

66.50 

74.S0 

24.10 

75.80 

100.00 

6.00 

54.40 

04.70 

61.70 

62.40 

48.10 

56.30 

41.10 

66.90 

69.70 

42.30 

82.00 

62.40 

71.00 

52.40 

65.00 

24.00 

80.00 

55.00 

59.00 

6S.40 

62.60 

66.50 

59.10 

46.10 

— 

76.60 

82.20 

95.30 

80.60 

23.00 

42.00 

46.00 

49.00 

32.00 

52.20 

66.10 

53.50 

70.70 

50.20 

56.10 

77.10 

56.10 

74.50 

66.50 

51.90 

68.70 

46.70 

64.60 

43.40 

55.00 

67.00 

52.60 

77.60 

64.50 

44.00 

40.00 

55.00 

56.00 

54.00 

43.40 

61.90* 

52.50 

65.30 

60.80 

45.80 

64.S0 

47.40 

62.80 

59.80 

29.10 

58.00 

54.20 

64.40 

55.20 

58.50 

73.20 

60.00 

69.50 

50.60 

— 

42.30 

49.60 

57.50 

54.00 

— 

76.00 

58.00 

93.00 

86.00 

— 

67.90 

— 

94.60 

92.10 

— - 

55.60 

45.70 

87.60 

si. Ill 

48.00 

75.00 

68.00 

72.00 

90.00 

— 

85.  CO 

78.00 

89.20 

84.40 

— 

8S.2H 

— 

89.80 

94.40 

— 

85.50 

82.50 

87.90 

91.50 

— 

19.30 

57.50 

48.30 

— 

35.60 

59.70 

60.20 

73.70 

74.10 

30.70 

50,10 

62.20 

68.00 

73.00 

42.60 

60.00 

74.90 

70.30 

71.40 

37.20 

51.70 

66.00 

66.20 

72.20 

30.60 

56.10 

55.80 

72.20 

73.90 

55.30 

64.00 

62.90 

70.00 

75.60 

35.60 

04.10 

73.80 

68.20 

73.00 

32.60 

35.90 

64.20 

57.90 

70.40 

23.00 

37.00 

70.00 

60.00 

57.00 

38.70 

46.70 

57.0(1 

60.50 

78.20 

3.80 

38.70 

71.00 

57.90 

67.40 

22.60 

47.70 

72.90 

66.40 

58.10 

26.80 

48.40 

07.50 

63.00 

59.90 

16.00 

29.50 

79.50 

75.00 

32.50 

11.50 

21.00 

73.50 

69.00 

79.50 

32.20 

49.30 

66.70 

68.60 

80.00 

34.30 

51.30 

70.60 

67.40 

80.20 

32.90 

62.80 

75.10 

76.90 

81.80 

30.30 

56.00 

70.00 

76.10 

82.40 

— 

65.00 

64.80 

74.90 

82.10 

41.10 

62.70 

60.10 

72.40 

76.70 

25.60 

58.00 

65.30 

73.70 

74.10 

31.90 

54.00 

71.10 

71.80 

83.50 

PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


SI 


TABLE  2— Continued 

Dry 

matter        Ash  Protein 

Cottonseed,    raw 66.10  43.30        67.80 

roasted    55.90  —        46.90 

hulls 39.S0  23.20              — 

meal,  high  grade.  ..90.00  —         83.00 

73.70  23.70         8S.40 

low  grade   ...61.00  —         73.00 

Cowpea,  green  fodder 6S.30  22.S0         75.60 

vine  cured  fodder 59.20  49.50         64.80 

silage    59.60  30.30         57.50 

Crab  grass  hay   53.60  37.60              — 

Distillers'    grains,    Bills 73.00  —         71.00 

Merchants    ...79.00  —         72.00 

Flat  sage,  dried  fodder 56.50  62.00         51.80 

Fox   grass    (Spartina   patens)   hay. 54.80  58.20         59.30 

Gluten   feed    86.30  —         85.60 

meal    S9.70  —         88.20 

Grasses,  mixed  green  rowen 65.60  46.20         67.40 

"       cured    57.10  —         58.50 

pasture,  cured 72.60  51.80         73.40 

Hungarian  grass,   dried   fodder.  .65.00  47.40         60.00 

green    fodder. 67.20  52.20         64.30 

Hairy  vetch,  green  fodder 70.30  45.10         82.S0 

dried     fodder     69.40  42.20         82.30 

Hay,  mixed  grasses 57.10  —         58.50 

H.  O.  dairy  feed 65.30  —         77.80 

"     "    horse    feed    70.10  —         74.40 

Hominv  meal   (sheep)    91.00  35.00         74.00 

Johnson   grass,    cured    56.50  30.50  41.40 

Kafir  corn  meal 61.00  18.30         54.70 

"      dried   fodder    57.90  11.00  42.00 

"         "      stover    and    soy    bean 

meal    71.80  63.30         81.80 

Kentucky  blue  grass  hay    64.00  45.00  63.00 

Linseed  meal,  new  process 79.20  —  85.20 

old  process    78.70  —  8S.80 

Maize   feed    87.10  —  85.50 

Malt   sprouts    67.10  —  80.20 

Mangel-wurzels,  roots   78.50  16.40  74.70 

Millet,  Barnyard,  green  fodder.  .66.60  59.50  61.50 

cured  hay 57.40  63.10  63.70 

"       Cattail,  cured  fodder 62.30  68.40  02.60 

Hungarian,  green    67.20  52.20  64.30 

and  soy  bean  silage 5S.S0  —  58.40 

Milo  maize,  dry  fodder 52.00  77.00  16.00 

Oat  hay   49.30  34.60  54.20 

"     straw    50.30  —              — 

"     hay,   green    59.50  53.40  71.80 

"     dust    61.00  —  68.00 

Oats  and  peas,  green  fodder 65.40  45.40  76.10 

"      vetch,  green 67.00  52.70  74.80 

"     grain    60.00  53.40  72.00 

Orchard  grass,  hay 56.60  —  59.50 

Pasture    grass,    green    6S.70  49.70  65.50 

cured    72.60  51.80  73.40 

Pea  bean   (field)    71.00  —  67.50 

"     meal     86.80  43.70  83.20 

"     and  oat  hay 64.00  58.00  72.00 

"       "       "     silage    65.50  52.00  75.00 

Peanut  vine,  cured 59.90  20.40  63.30 

feed    52.10  —  70.60 

Potatoes,  dried   80.00  —  20.00 

raw    75.70  —  44.70 

boiled    80.10  —  43.40 

Prairie  hay 51.50  25.00  17.70 

Quaker  oat  feed   62.00  —  81.10 

Redtop  hay 59.70  20.00  61.30 

and  sedge  hay 46.00  10.10  37.20 

Redtop  and  black  grass  hay 54.60  57.50  47.90 

Rice  polish    83.00  32.00  66.00 

"      meal     73.80  —  61.90 

"      bran    58.00  33.00  65.00 

"      corn,  black,  fodder 52.00  21.00  25.30 

Rowen  hay   64.40  46.60  69.10 


Fiber 
75.50 
65.90 
40.00 

55.50 
38.00 
59.60 
42.00 
52.00 
59.10 
77.00 
89.00 
60.40 
57.40 
78.00 

62.60 
59.70 
76.10 
67.60 
71.20 
61.10 
61.10 
59.70 
40.80 
35.20 

65.70 

54.00 


67.00 
80.40 
57.00 
82.50 
32.90 
42.80 
66.50 
61.60 
66.50 
71.20 
69.40 
51.00 
43.50 
57.60 
52.80 
33.50 
59.70 
68.30 
53.00 
60.40 
74.30 
76.10 
69.00 
25.70 
63.00 
61.00 
51.90 
11.70 


61.00 
42.60 
61.30 
55.70 
59.70 
22.00 

14.00 
44.50 
66.60 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 
49.60 
51.40 
41.10 
90.00 
60.60 
68.00 
80.(50 
70.60 
72.50 
54.50 
70.00 
80.00 
55.10 
53.10 
89.20 
89.80 
71.00 
58.70 
74.20 
67.10 
67.90 
76.30 
72.90 
5S.70 
69.90 
78.70 
94.00 
56.90 
S0.30 
67.00 

68.30 
66.00 
86.10 
77.60 
87.90 
68.10 
91.30 
68.30 
51.60 
59.10 
67.90 
59.20 
61.00 
52.00 
53.20 
62.60 
69.50 
67.70 
67.90 
63.00 
55.40 
72.50 
74.20 
76.80 
93.60 
64.00 
67.00 
69.50 
49.10 
92.00 
90.40 
92.10 
61.00 
67.40 
61.90 
45.60 
53.20 
93.00 
92.30 
78.00 
62.00 
66.20 


Fat 
S7.10 
71.70 
-85.70 
100.00 
93.30 
90.00 
59.40 
51.  SO 
62.60 
46.80 
95.00 
97.00 
36.10 
36.40 
84.40 
94.40 
55.20 
48.50 
67.30 
63.90 
65.70 
71.60 
70.30 
48.50 
85.50 
84.00 
89.00 
38.40 

65.00 

9S.50 
54.00 
96.60 
88.60 
91.50 
100.00 

64.30 
46.30 
46.10 
65.70 
72.20 
63.00 
61.90 
38.30 
09.20 
79.00 
67:70 
47.20 
69.00 
53.80 
54.70 
67.30 
78.00 
54.50 
54.00 
75.00 
65.90 
89.70 

13.00 

56.60 
89.00 
50.50 
49.00 
40.30 
74.00 
91.10 
35.00 
64.00 
47.40 


82 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


TABLE   2 — Continued 


Dry 
matter 

Rutabaga,  root S7.20 

Rye,   meal    ST. 30 

green  fodder    73.40 

Salt   bush,    silver    (Atriplex  argen- 

tea),  hay 46.30 

Salt   hay,   high   grown 53.00 

"         "        mixture    50.40 

Sorghum,  green  fodder 07,30 

"  cured  fodder,   pulled.  .63.10 

"  bagasse    00.00 

seed    70.00 

Soy  bean,  meal SI. 00 

green   fodder    59.80 

"         cured    fodder    62.40 

"        silage   (steers)    49.80 

(goats)     59.00 

and  millet  silage 58.80 

"       "  "     corn   silage    71.00 

i^ugar    beets     94.50 

Swale  hay    39.00 

Timothy,  green  fodder 63.50 

"       rowen    64.80 

hay     5G.G0 

before  or  in  bloom.60.70 

past  bloom    .".."..Ill 

rowen     62.20 

Turnips     92.80 

Velvet  beans,  green  vines 69.30 

hay    74.20 

Vetch,  common,  green  fodder.  .  .  .61. SO 
and     oats,     mixed,     green 

fodder    67.00 

"  and  oats  cured   fodder. .  .58.10 

Hairy,   green   fodder    ....70.30 

cured    fodder     CO. 40 

"Victor  corn  and  oat  feed 74.70 

Wheat   bran    62.30 

"     and  shorts 60.20 

middlings    75.00 

Whiteweed   hay    57.81  > 

Wild  oat  grass  hay 04.00 

Witch  or  quack  grass  hay 01.20 


Ash 
31.20 


55.  SO 

71.50 

69.  SO 
42.40 
29.50 
13.40 


1S.90 

2S.00 
50.70 

37.00 
31.90 

32.20 
45.20 
32.80 
44.20 
30.30 
56.40 
5S.G0 

20.40 
17.30 


45.10 

42.20 


52.00 
34.70 

40.00 


Protein 
80.30 
S4.40 
79.40 

0610 
03.00 
42.00 
46.80 
60.  so 
13.70 
53.00 
91.10 
75.10 
71.10 
55.30 
75.70 
58.40 
60.00 
91.30 
34.00 
4S.10 
71.70 
46.90 
56.80 
45.10 
68.00 
89.70 
73.30 
6S.  SO 
71.40 

74.  SO 
59.70 

S2.S0 
82.30 
70.80 

77. SO 
7.-.. si  I 
70.  so 
58.40 
58.30 
58.60 


Fiber 
74.20 

79.20 

S.30 
50.00 
60.70 
59.00 
70.40 
63.S0 
43.00 
71.20 
47.00 
OO.SO 
42.90 
54.80 
60.40 
03.00 
100.00 

33.00 

55.00 
63.80 
52.50 
58.80 
47.10 
66.50 
100.00 
59.60 
7S.00 
44.20 

68.30 
66.00 
61.10 
01.10 
48.30 
28  60 
18.30 
3,3. 10 
45.50 
67.90 
62.80 


Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 
94.70 
91.90 
70.10 

49.20 
53.00 
54.70 
74.60 
64.50 
01.  SO 
82.00 
76.30 
73.20 
OS.  80 
01.20 
52.00 
59.20 
77.00 
99.90 
40.00 
65.70 
67.80 
02.30 
04.30 
00.40 
03.40 
96.50 
82.40 
75.70 
70.10 

67.90 
54.20 
70.30 
72.90 
73.00 
69.40 
04.30 
SI  .30 
CO.  70 

65.50 
65.60 


Fat 
S4.20 
64  20 
74.50 

52.30 
47.00 
29.70 
74.20 
46.70 
40.40 
S1.00 
85.70 
54.10 
29.20 
48.90 
71.90 
72.20 
90.00 
49.90 
44.00 
53.10 
52.90 
52.20 
58.40 
51.90 
49.50 
87.50 
81.30 
78.70 
5S.G0 

47.20 
18.00 
71.00 
70.30 
86.80 
os  oo 
45.00 
86.30 
62.  oo 
50.50 
57.20 


PERCENTAGE   DIGESTIBILITY   BY   SWINE 


Dry 
matter 
Per  ct 
Grains  and  seeds : 

Millet  seed,  Hog    73.0 

Barley,    whole    kernel 80.1 

Flint   corn,    unground 82.5 

89.7 

Corn  meal,  finely  ground 89.5 

and    cob    meal,    whole    ear 

ground     7.r>.0 

Wheat,   unground    72.0 

cracked     82.0 

Peas,   ground    89.8 

Sorghum   seed    75.0 

Py-products : 

Wheat   bran    65.8 

"       shorts    70.5 

Linseed   meal    77.5 

Roots : 

Potatoes,  raw 97.0 

"  cooked 95.0 


Ash 
•er  ct 

Protein 
Per  ct 

Fiber 
Per  ct 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 
Per  ct 

Fat 
Per  ct 

19.0 
5.4 

68.0 
81.4 
68.7 
89.9 
86.1 

33.0 

4S.7 
38.3 
48.7 
29.4 

92.0 

S6.6 
ss.s 
93.9 
94.2 

59.0 
57.0 
45.6 
77.0 
81.7 

44.0 
50.0 
40.3 

75.7 
70.0 
80.0 

ss.o 

60.0 

28.5 
30.0 
60.0 
77.9 
20.0 

83.6 
74.0 
83.0 
95.1 
83.0 

82.0 
00.0 
70.0 
50.0 
72.0 

5.4 
10.0 

75.1 
73.5 

S6.0 

33.0 

36.5 
12.0 

65.5 

so.s 
ss.o 

71.8 
80.0 

44.6 
40.0 

84.5 
82.0 

- 

98.1 
97.6 

— 

PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


PERCENTAGE    DIGESTIBILITY    BY    HORSES 


Dry 
matter 
Per  ct 
Dried  Fodders : 
Timothy  hay  in  full  bloom,  well 

cured     43.5 

New  corn  product 49.9 

Grains  : 

Dent   corn,    unground    74.4 

Corn  meal,  ground SS.4 

White  oats,  first  quality,  un- 
ground     72.4 

Oats,   same   material   as  above, 

ground    75.7 

Sorghum   seed    04.0 


Ash 
Per  ct 

Protein 
Per  ct 

Fiber 
Per  ct 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract 
Per  ct 

Fat 
Per  ct 

34.0 
21.7 

21  2 

07.5 

42.0 
54.0 

47.3 
40.9 

47,3 
59.8 

20.3 

57.8 
75.0 

(?) 

(?) 

88.2 
95.7 

47.7 
73.1 

33.1 

80.1 

31.1 

79.4 

82.4 

29.2 

82.4 
41.0 

14.4 
29.0 

80.1 
74.0 

79.9 
01.0 

TABLE  5 

CONVENIENCE    TABLE 

Showing  pounds  of  dry  matter  and  digestible  food  ingredients  in  100  pounds 
of  feeding  stuffs;  also  fuel  value,  nutritive  ratio,  and  protein-equating  factor,     a. 

Total  Carbo-                    Fuel  Nutri-  Protein- 
dry  hy-                      value,         tive  equating 
Feeding  stuff                           matter  Protein  drates       Fat  calories     ratio  factor 

lbs            lbs  lbs            lbs     Per  lb 
Green  fodder: 

Corn  fodder  (av.  all  varieties)  .20.7         1.10  12.0S  0.37       200  1:11.7  90.9 

Kafir  corn  fodder   27.0         0.87  13.80  0.43       291  1:17.0  114.9 

Sorghum   fodder    20.0         0.00  12.20  0.40       254  1:22.0  100.7 

Rape    14.3         2.10  8.65  0.32       214  1:     4.3  40.3 

Rye  fodder   23.4         2.05  14.11  0.44       319  1:     7.4  48.8 

Oat   fodder    37.8  2.44  17.99  0.97       -120  1:     S3  41.0 

Redtop,   in  bloom    34.7          2.00  21.24  0.58       4.17  1:   10.9  48.5 

Orchard  grass,  in  bloom 27.0  1.91  15.91  0.58       355  1:     0  0  52.4 

Meadow  fescue,  in  bloom 30.1  1.49  10.78  0.42       357  1:11.9  07.1 

Timothy,  different  stages 38.4  2.01  21.22  0.04       459  1:   11:*,  40  S 

Kentucky  blue  grass   34.9  2.00  17.78  0.09       409  1:      7.3  37.6 

Hungarian  grass   28.9  1.92  15.03  0.30       341  1:     8.6  52.1 

Red  clover,   different  stages.  .  .29.2  3.07  14.82  0.09       301  1:     5.3  32.(5 

Crimson   clover    19.3  2.10  9.31  0.44       231  1:     4.8  40.3 

Alfalfa,   different  stages 28.2  3.89  11.20  0.41       207  1:     3.1  25.7 

Cowpea     10.4  1.08  8,08  0.25       102  1 :     5.1  59.5 

Soy  bean    28.5  2.79  11.82  0.03       29S  1:     4.7  35.8 

Corn  silage    (recent  analyses)  .25.0  1.21  15.50  0.88       330  1:13.7  82.0 

"      fodder,  field  cured .r>7.8  2.34  32.34  1.15       093  1:14.9  42.7 

"      stover,  field  cured 59.5  1.98  33.10  0.57       077  1:17.4  50.5 

Kafir  corn  stover,  field  cured.  .80.8  1.82  41.42  0.98       845  1:24.0  55.0 

..57.7  3.22  48.72  1.15    1,014  1:15.9  31.1 

Sorghum      silage       23.9  0.00  14.90  0.20       290  1:  25.0  166.7 

fodder,  cured 90.0  2.00  53.20  1.70    1,109  1:  21.9  38.5 

Hay  from — 

Barley     S9.4  5.11  35.94  1.55       82S  1:     7.7  19.0 

Oats    84.0  4.07  33.35  1.07       700  1:     9.1  24.0 

Orchard  grass    90.1  4.7S  41.99  1.40       929    .  1 :     9y4  20.9 

Redtop    91.1  4.S2  40.83  0.95    1,000  1:  10.2  20.8 

Timothy  (all  analyses)    80.8  2.89  43.72  1.43       927  1:10.2  34.0 

Kentucky  blue  grass 78.8  4.70  37.40  1.99       809  1:     8.8  21.0 

Hungarian  grass 92.3  4.50  51.07  1.34    1,101  1:12.2  22.2 

Meadow  fescue    80.0  4.20  43.34  1.73       957  1:  11.3  23.S 

Mixed   grasses    87.1  4.22  43.20  1.33       939  1 :  11.0  23.7 

Rowen   (mixed)    83.4  7.19  41.20  1.43       9G0  1:     0.2  13.9 

Buffalo   grass    50.1  0.20  42.01  1.28       950  1:     7.2  10.1 

Prairie   grass    51.5  0.01  40.90  1.97       900  1 :  S4.2  103.9 

Mixed  grasses  and  clover 87.1  0.10  42.71  1.40       970  1:     7.5  10.2 

Red   clover    84.7  7.3S  38.15  1.81       923  1:     5.7  13.0 

Alsike   clover    90.3  8.15  41.70  1.30       984  1:     5.5  12.3 

White   clover    90.3  11.40  41.82  1.48    1,053  1:     3.9  8.7 

q,     From  Kansas  station,  Bulletin  No.  115,  by  J,  T.  Willard, 


84 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


TABLE  5 — Continued 


Total  Carbo- 

dry  hy- 
Feeding    stuff                         matter  Protein  drates 

lbs  lbs  lbs 

Crimson  clover    , 91.4  10.49  3S.13 

Alfalfa    91.6  10.58  37.33 

hay,   first  stage    59.5  13.24  39.26 

"     second   stage 58.3  11.90  40.67 

"     third    stage    GO.O  10.43  43.17 

Cowpea 89.3  10.79  38.40 

Soy  bean   88.7  10.78  38.72 

Wheat  straw 90.4  0.37  36.30 

Rye  straw   92.9  0.63  40.58 

Oat  straw    90.8  1.20  38.64 

Soy  bean  straw 89.9  2.30  39.98 

Roots  and  tubers: 

Potatoes     21.1  1.36  16.43 

Beets 13.0  1.21  8.84 

"       sugar     13.5  1.10  10.20 

Mangel-wurzels    9.1  1.03  5.65 

Turnips     9.5  0.81  6.46 

Rutabagas 11.4  0.88  7.74 

Carrots   11.4  0.81  7.83 

Grains  and  other  seeds: 

Corn  (av.  of  dent  and  flint)  . .  .89.1  7.14  66.12 

Kafir  corn   87.5  5.78  53.58 

Barley     89.1  8.69  64.83 

Oats    89.0  9.25  4S.34 

Rye    88.4  9.12  69.73 

Wheat   (all  varieties) 89.5  10.23  69.21 

Cottonseed  (whole)    89.7  11.08  33.13 

Mill  products: 

Corn  meal S5.0  6.26  65.26 

"       and  cob  meal 84.9  4.76  60.06 

Oatmeal   92.1  11.53  52.06 

Barley  meal   88.1  7.36  62.88 

Ground    corn    and    oats,    equal 

parts    88.1  7.01  61.20 

Pea  meal 89.5  16.77  51.78 

Kafir  corn  meal 61.2  6.13  51.72 

Soy  bean  meal 71.8  36.09  17.01 

Meat  scrap   89.3  66.20  0.30 

By-products    obtained    in 
various  industries: 
Gluten  meal — 

Buffalo    91.8  21.56  43.02 

Chicago   90.5  33.09  39.96 

Hammond    91.9  24.90  45.72 

King    92.8  30.10  35.10 

Cream     gluten      (recent     an- 
alyses)      90.4  30.45  45.36 

Gluten  feed   (recent  analyses)  .91.9  19.85  54.22 

Buffalo  (recent  analyses)    91.0  22.88  51.71 

Rockford    (Diamond)    91.3  20.38  54.71 

Hominy  chops   88.9  8.43  61.01 

Malt  sprouts S9.8  18.72  43.50 

Brewers'  grains  (wet)    24.3  4.00  9.37 

(dried)      92.0  19.04  31.79 

Distillery  grains    (dried),   prin- 
cipally corn 93.0  21.93  38.09 

Distillery  grains    (dried),  prin- 
cipally  rye    v. .  .93.2  10.38  42.48 

Atlas     gluten     feed      (distillery 

by-product)     92.6  23.33  35.64 

Rye  bran 88.2  11.47  52.40 

Wheat  bran   (all  analyses) 88.5  12.01  41.23 

"       middlings 84.0  12.79  53.15 

"       shorts    S8.2  12.22  49.98 

Buckwheat  bran   88.5  19.29  31.65 

Cottonseed  feed 92.0  0.65  38.57 

Buckwheat  middlings   S8.2  22.34  36.14 


Fuel 

Nutri-  Protein- 

value, 

tive  equating 

Fat 

calories     ratio 

factor 

lbs 

Per  lb 

1.29 

95S 

1 

3.9 

9.5 

1.38 

949 

1 

3.8 

9.5 

0.89 

1,014 

1 

3.1 

7.6 

0.39 

994 

1 

3.5 

8.4 

0.69 

1,026 

1 

4.3 

9.6 

1.51 

978 

1 

3.9 

9.3 

1.54 

985 

1 

3.9 

9.3 

0.40 

698 

1 :100.5 

270.3 

0.38 

782 

1 

65.8 

158.7 

0.76 

773 

1 

33.6 

83.3 

1.03 

S29 

1 

18.4 

43.5 

330 

1  : 

12.1 

73.5 

0.05 

1S9 

1  : 

7.4 

82.6 

0.10 

215 

1  : 

9.5 

90.9 

0.11 

128 

1  : 

5.7 

97.1 

0.11 

139 

1: 

8.3 

123.5 

0.11 

164 

1  : 

9.1 

112.5 

0.22 

169 

1: 

10.3 

123.5 

4.97 

1,572 

1  : 

10.8 

14.0 

1.33 

1.160 

1  : 

9.8 

17.3 

1.60 

1,434 

1  : 

7.9 

11.5 

4.18 

1,247 

1  : 

6.2 

10.8 

1.36 

1,524 

1  : 

8.0 

11.0 

1.68 

1,548 

I  : 

7.1 

9.8 

18.44 

1,600 

1- 

6.7 

9.0 

3.50 

1,477 

1  : 

11.7 

16.0 

2.94 

1,329 

1: 

14.0 

21.0 

5.93 

1,433 

1  : 

5.7 

8.7 

1.96 

1,389 

1: 

9.1 

13.6 

3.87 

1,432 

1  : 

10.0 

14.3 

0.65 

1,302 

1  : 

3.2 

6.0 

— 

1,131 

1  : 

8.9 

16.3 

25.38 

2,058 

1  : 

2.1 

2.8 

13.70 

1,415 

1: 

0.5 

1.5 

11.87    1,702 

1 

:     3.2 

4.6 

4.75    1,559 

1 

:     1.5 

3.0 

10.16    1,742 

1 

:     2.8 

4.0 

15.67    1.S73 

1 

2.3 

3.3 

2.47    1,514 

1 

1.7 

3.3 

5.35    1,605 

1 

3.3 

5.0 

2.89    1,509 

1 

2.5 

4.3 

3.82    1,557 

1 

3.1 

4.9 

7.06    1,589 

1 

9.1 

11.9 

1.16    1,200 

1 

2.5 

5.3 

1.3S       306 

1 

3.1 

25.0 

6.03    1,199 

1 

2.4 

5.3 

10.83    1,573 

1 

2.8 

4.6 

6.38    1,252 

1 

5.5 

9.6 

11.88    1,598 

1 

2.7 

4.3 

1.79    1,263 

1  • 

4.9 

8.7 

2.87    1,111 

1 

4.0 

8.3 

3.40    1,369 

1: 

.4.8 

7.8 

3.83    1,318 

1: 

4.8 

8.2 

4.56    1,139 

1  : 

2.2 

5.2 

3.37    1,039 

1  : 

4.8 

10.4 

6.21    1,349 

1: 

2.3 

4.5 

PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK  FEEDING 


85 


[Table   5 — Continued 


Total  Carbo- 

dry  hy- 

Feeding    stuff                         matter  Protein  drates 

lbs  lbs           lbs 

Cottonseed  meal   91.8  37.01  1G.52 

hulls    SS.9  1.05  32.21 

Linseed  meal    (old  process)  ..  .00.8  2S.TG  32.81 

"       (new  process)  ..90.1  30.59  38.72 

Sugar  beet  pulp  (fresh) 10.1  0.63         7.12 

"       (dry)    93.0  G.80  65.49 

"      leaves    12.0  1.70         4.00 

Beet  molasses 79.2  9.10  59.50 

Dried  blood 91.5  52.30            — 


Fuel 
value, 
Fat  calories 
lbs     Per  lb 
1,526 
698 
1,443 
1,411 
144 
1,344 
20 
127 
1,078 


12.58 
1.S9 
7.06 
2.90 


0.20 
2.50 


Nutri-  Protein- 
tive  equating 
ratio       factor 


1.2 

34.7 
1.7 
1.5 

11.3 
9.6 
3.0 
6.1 
0.1 


95.2 
3.5 
3.3 

158.7 

14.7 

5S.8 

11.0 

1.9 


PART   III 

Diseases 

of  Animals 


FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


FARM  HYGIENE 

Health  is  an  absolutely  necessary  pre- 
requisite to  the  accomplishment  of  prof- 
itable results  from  animal  industry.  So 
long  as  animals  are  not  in  health  they  do 
not  have  good  appetite,  and,  therefore, 
fail  to  make  suitable  gains  in  weight 
or  to  perform  other  valuable  service 
such  as  work,  in  the  case  of  horses,  milk 
yield,  in  the  case  of  dairy  cows,  or  wool 
and  mohair,  in  the  case  of  sheep  and 
goats.  The  domestic  fowls  likewise 
fail  to  yield  any  returns  even  from 
the  small  amount  of  feed  consumed, 
so  long  as  they  are  not  in  health.  It 
becomes  necessary,  therefore,  to  look 
after  the  hygienic  conditions  of  animals 
not  only  for  the  reason  that  otherwise 
no  profits  can  be  made,  but  also  in  order 
to  prevent  the  permanent  infection  of 
premises  in  the  case  of  outbreaks  of  in- 
fectious diseases  and  to  prevent  endan- 
gering the  lives  of  the  farm  help  and 
others  who  may  use  produce  coming 
from  the  farm. 

Importance  of  good  feed — Animals, 
like  human  beings,  are  susceptible  to  va- 
rious unfavorable  conditions  in  their 
environment.  One  of  the  highly  impor- 
tant considerations  to  bear  in  mind  in 
animal  industry  is  the  necessity  of  fur- 
nishing clean,  wholesome  forage.  It  re- 
quires but  little  consideration  of  this 
point  to  realize  how  much  this  impor- 
tant factor  in  profitable  animal  industry 
has  been  neglected.  A  chemical  analy- 
sis of  a  feeding  stuff  shows  its  feeding 
value,  but  this  analysis  is  based  on  clean, 
wholesome  samples  and  the  percentages 
of  nutrients  obtained  do  not  apply  to  the 
same  feeding  stuffs  when  the  latter  are 
for  any  reason  in  unsatisfactory  condi- 
tion. In  the  first  place  it  may  be  stated 
that,  under  ordinary  conditions,  feeding 
stuffs  cannot  be  maintained  for  an  in- 
definite   period   without   suffering   some 


harm.  They  lose  slightly  in  feeding 
value  by  long  keeping  even  when  the 
conditions  for  the  preservation  are  the 
best  which  it  is  possible  to  obtain. 

Changes  due  to  moisture — As  a  result 
of  changes  in  the  moisture  content  of 
the  air  they  may  at  times  absorb  enough 
water  to  cause  fermentations  or  to  favor 
the  development  of  molds  and  other 
fungi  all  of  which  processes  have  the 
effect  not  only  of  reducing  the  nutritive 
value  of  these  feeds,  but  also  of  render- 
ing them  more  or  less  injurious  or  actu- 
ally dangerous.  Thus  hay,  corn  fodder 
and  other  materials  stacked  in  the  field 
are  subjected  to  the  injurious  effects  of 
weathering  and  are  generally  diminished 
in  value  as  a  result  of  the  increasing 
penetration  of  rain  into  the  material  and 
by  the  rotting  and  fermentation  due  to 
the  development  of  molds. 

Silage  and  other  feeds — Silage,  under 
the  proper  conditions,  normally  under- 
goes a  fermentation  which  is  considered 
beneficial,  but  when  carried  too  far,  or 
when  an  attempt  is  made  to  keep  the 
material  too  long,  a  loss  is  suffered  in  its 
feeding  value  and  it  becomes  less  pala- 
table. Grain  preserved  in  granaries  even 
under  the  best  conditions  gradually  be- 
comes dusty,  dries  out  to  an  undesirable 
extent,  thus  becoming  less  palatable  and 
presumably  somewhat  less  nutritious. 
At  the  same  time,  unless  conditions  are 
unusually  favorable,  it  is  .likely  to  ab- 
sorb odors  from  various  sources  so  as  to 
render  it  less  suitable  for  animal  feed. 

Other  undesirable  changes  in  feeding 
stuffs — The  above  unfavorable  changes 
are  mentioned  as  occurring  in  feeding 
stuffs  which  have  been  harvested  in  ex- 
cellent condition  and  stored  under  suit- 
able arrangements.  The  undesirable 
changes  in  the  condition  of  feeding  stuffs 
take  place  more  rapidly  and  are  of 
greater  extent  when  these  materials  are 


90 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


allowed  to  become  injured  by  bad 
weather  conditions,  faulty  storing,  or 
from  the  existence  of  fungous  diseases 
and  insect  pests  during  life.  All  rusty, 
smutty,  or  moldy  forage  is  less  valuable 
for  feeding  than  clean  material  of  the 
same  sort  and  in  some  instances  may  be 
decidedly  dangerous.  The  rusts  of  ce- 
reals and  grasses  are  perhaps  the  least 
dangerous  of  the  many  fungous  diseases 
which  attack  these  plants,  but  when 
straw  is  thoroughly  dried  the  existence 
of  rust  increases  the  amount  of  dust  in 
such  material  and,  therefore,  renders  it 
a  less  desirable  feeding  stuff.  Smuts 
on  the  other  hand,  may  be  not  only  very 
disagreeable  on  account  of  the  clouds  of 
dust  which  come  from  the  smutty  ce- 
reals, but  may  also  be  dangerous  under 
certain  circumstances.  For  example, 
smutty  oats,  while  not  always  harmful 
to  a  pronounced  extent  have  Occasionally 
been  known  to  cause  death  of  dairy  cows 
and  other  animals  to  which  they  have 
been  fed  in  large  quantities.  Similarly 
with  corn  smut  this  material  while  often 
fed  without  any  injurious  effect  is  by 
no  means  always  a  harmless  food  mate- 
rial. Then  too,  silage,  although  an  ex- 
cellent feed  for  all  kinds  of  animals 
when  given  in  a  proper  stage  of  fermen- 
tation, may  become  exceedingly  danger- 
ous after  it  has  undergone  other  kinds 
of  fermentation  as  a  result  of  molds. 
Moldiness  of  cereals  and  other  feeding 
stuffs  is  usually  due  to  the  presence  of 
such  common  fungi  as  species  of  Peni- 
cillium,  Mucor  and  Aspergillus.  Some 
of  these  have  been  shown  by  experiment 
to  be  fatal  to  horses,  cattle  and  sheep. 
The  fact  that  they  are  not  always  dan- 
gerous should  not  furnish  an  excuse  for 
carelessly  allowing  forage  to  be  affected 
by  them. 

Careless  feeding  responsible  for  many 
ailments — Animals  require  a  ration 
more  or  less  accurately  compounded  ac- 
cording to  their  needs.  When  a  prop- 
erly balanced  ration  is  not  fed  loss  of 
weight  may  occur,  which,  in  extreme 
instances,  leads  to  a  pronounced  emaci- 
ation, loss  of  appetite,  and  an  increased 
susceptibility  to  disease  of  all  kinds. 
Careless  feeding  may,  therefore,  be  re- 
sponsible for  a  considerable  percentage 
of  animal  disease,  some  of  which  is  of 
a  serious  nature.  Thus,  colic  in  horses 
is  ordinarily  due  to  feeding  excessive 
grain  rations  to  horses  which  have  been 
kept    on    medium    rations,    to    feeding 


heavy  rations  of  coarse  forage  immedi- 
ately before  putting  the  animal  to  hard 
work,  or  to  feeding  spoiled  material. 
Even  in  mules,  which  are  commonly  con- 
sidered less  susceptible  to  such  troubles 
than  horses,  it  has  been  found  that  the 
use  of  large  quantities  of  uncut  hay  im- 
mediately before  going  to  work  may 
cause  a  rapid  development  of  colic.  In 
order  to  prevent  such  results,  it  has 
been  found  desirable  to  cut  the  hay  in 
short  lengths  and  feed  it  in  smaller 
quantities  in  the  morning  and  to  omit 
hay  from  the  noon  ration  in  order  to 
prevent  the  overloading  of  the  stomach. 
Azoturia  in  horses  is  likewise  caused  in 
most  instances  by  continuing  heavy 
work  rations  for  working  horses  during 
days  when  they  are  idle.  The  unneces- 
sary amount  of  protein  obtained  in  these 
rations  is  not  used  up  in  the  body  while 
at  rest,  and  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys 
in  large  quantities,  causing  more  or  less 
serious  derangement  of  these  organs  or 
death  in  a  large  percentage  of  cases. 
In  the  case  of  heaves,  roaring  and  vari- 
ous other  troubles  of  the  respiratory 
organs  in  horses,  the  predisposing  cause 
may  often  be  the  use  of  dusty,  moldy 
or  unwholesome  forage,  especially  in  too 
large  quantities. 

Tt  has  long  been  known  that  certain 
feeding  stuffs  may  produce  serious 
trouble  if  fed  in  maximum  rations  at 
once  without  a  preliminary  feeding  pe- 
riod in  which  the  amount  is  gradually 
increased.  Thus  cottonseed  meal  is 
decidedly  dangerous  or  fatal  for  pigs  if 
fed  in  too  large  quantities  without  re- 
gard to  the  length  of  the  feeding  period. 
Unfavorable  results  are  also  obtained 
from  this  material  if  fed  in  larger  rar 
tions  than  2  to  4  pounds  for  horses  and 
4  to  6  pounds  for  cattle.  Alfalfa,  al- 
though fed  to  thousands  of  horses,  cat- 
tle, sheep  and  hogs  as  the  exclusive 
roughage,  is  not  always  a  perfectly  safe 
feed.  Bloating  from  alfalfa  rarely  oc- 
curs when  it  is  fed  in  the  form  of  hay, 
but  as  a  pasture  crop  it  may  cause  seri- 
ous effects  in  this  way  upon  cattle  and 
sheep  but  not  on  horses  and  pigs.  In 
order  to  avoid  danger  from  this  plant, 
it  is  necessary  to  accustom  the  animals 
slowly  to  pasture  on  alfalfa  and  usually 
an  immunity  to  bloating  is  acquired 
after  a  preliminary  period  of  varying 
length.  Similarly  with  pea  hay  an  oc- 
casionally bad  result  has  been  noted 
from    feeding    this   material    in   excess. 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


91 


In  some  instances,  it  has  an  irritating 
effect  upon  the  kidneys  and  must  be  dis- 
continued for  this  reason. 

Medicinal  effect  of  certain  feeds — 
A  large  percentage  of  feeds  exercise  a 
more  or  less  pronounced  medicinal  effect 
upon  the  alimentary  tract  in  addition  to 
their  nutritive  property.  Thus,  roots, 
as  a  whole,  silage,  alfalfa,  and  various 
leguminous  crops,  as  well  as  green  for- 
age in  general  have  a  slightly  laxative 
effect,  which,  in  some  cases,  becomes  so 
pronounced  that  it  must  be  corrected 
by  reducing  the  amount  of  laxative  feeds 
in  the  ration  or  by  giving  other  feeds 
with  an  opposite  tendency  to  counter- 
act the  effect  of  the  feed.  Horses  which 
are  accustomed  to  receiving  timothy  hay, 
when  first  put  on  alfalfa,  are  often  badly 
affected  in  this  way  and  perspire  more 
freely  than  they  ordinarily  do.  After 
a  short  period  of  feeding,  however,  the 
disagreeable  effects  wear  off.  It  is 
highly  desirable,  therefore,  that  changes 
of  this  sort  in  the  ration  be  made  in  a 
gradual  manner  so  as  to  avoid  digestive 
disturbances  or  loss  of  appetite. 

The  appetite  of  animals  must  be 
closely  watched  in  order  to  obtain  the 
best  results  from  feeding.  It  is  not  al- 
ways possible  to  determine  at  once  what 
is  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  appetite. 
As  a  rule,  however,  it  indicates  either 
an  excessive  ration,  the  too  long  con- 
tinuance of  a  forcing  ration,  the  iise  of 
unwholesome  materials,  or  lack  of  va- 
riety. In  working  horses  the  loss  of 
appetite  is  not  so  serious  a  matter  since 
a  change  of  ration  and  the  use  of  pur- 
gatives and  tonics  usually  restore  the 
appetite. 

Any  loss  of  weight  suffered  dur- 
ing the  feeding  period  is  an  exceed- 
ingly serious  matter  in  the  case  of 
steers,  sheep  and  hogs  which  are  being 
forced  for  market.  In  these  animals  a 
loss  of  weight  means  not  only  the  abso- 
lute loss  due  to  the  original  trouble,  but 
also  a  considerable  period  of  delay  dur- 
ing which  the  animal  still  continues  to 
make  unsatisfactory  gains.  Since  so 
many  of  our  domestic  animals  are  main- 
tained under  somewhat  unnatural  con- 
ditions and  since,  on  this  account,  un- 
usual demands  are  made  of  their  diges- 
tive power,  it  is  necessary  for  the  farmer 
to  give  strict  heed  to  the  appetite  of  all 
his  animals  in  order  to  prevent  losses 
which  may  occur  from  neglecting  this 
matter.      A   simple   and    almost   univer- 


sally practiced  method  of  preventing 
loss  of  appetite  consists  in  a  change  of 
grain  and  roughage  rations,  and  if  this 
change  is  made  with  proper  regard  to 
the  equivalents  in  feeding  value  of  the 
different  rations,  beneficial  effects  are 
almost  always  observed  and  no  loss  oc- 
curs as  a  result  of  the  animal  going  off 
feed. 

Water  as  a  source  of  disease — Water 
is  commonly  recognized  as  a  source  of 
many  animal  diseases,  but  its  impor- 
tance in  this  connection  is  probably  un- 
derestimated by  the  majority  of  farm- 
ers. Eecently,  however,  an  increased 
interest  in  the  protection  of  the  water 
supply  is  being  shown  by  the  most  ad- 
vanced stockmen.  Water  is  not  only 
capable  of  carrying  bacterial  diseases, 
but  a  number  of  the  most  serious  ani- 
mal parasites  are  transmitted  by  drink- 
ing water  or  by  eating  grass  and  other 
plants  which  grow  along  the  edge  of  in- 
fested pools  or  water  ways. 

The  relative  percentage  of  infection  in 
different  kinds  of  animals  from  drinking 
impure  water  depends  partly  upon  the 
amount  of  the  water  which  the  animal 
consumes,  but  more  immediately  iipon 
the  quality  of  the  water.  Most  bacteria 
are  gradually  destroyed  in  running  water 
which  is  subject  to  sufficient  movement 
to  cause  a  reasonable  amount  of  aera- 
tion. Nearly  all  pathogenic  bacteria, 
however,  live  for  a  greater  or  less  time 
in  pure  water  and  when  once  the  water 
becomes  contaminated  the  danger  of  in- 
fection, therefore,  persists  for  several 
days.  The  number  of  bacteria  in  water 
naturally  varies  greatly  according  to  the 
sources  of  the  water  and  the  amount  of 
filth  Avhich  it  carries.  Thus,  in  a  hog 
wallow  there  may  be  as  high  as  2,500,000 
bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  of  water, 
while  in  well-floated  cisterns  and  deep 
wells  properly  protected  the  number  may 
not  be  more  than  a  few  hundred  in  the 
same  quantity  of  water.  The  number 
of  bacteria  in  water  and  the  consequent 
danger  from  using  it  depends  also  upon 
the  depth  of  soil  through  which  the 
water  has  filtered.  Thus,  as  shown  by 
Bitting,  the  number  of  bacteria  in  a 
cubic  inch  of  surface  soil  may  be  as 
high  as  518,000,  while  at  1  inch  below 
the  surface  it  is  only  51,000  and  at  5 
feet  only  about  2,500.  The  number  of 
bacteria  in  the  soil,  however,  will  nat- 
urally vary  according  to  the  amount  of 
rain    and    the    severity   of   the    storms. 


92 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


After  heavy  rain  storms  the  bacterial 
content  of  the  deeper  strata  of  soil  is 
higher  than  after  long  periods  of 
drought. 

The  common  practice  of  allowing  hogs 
and  other  animals  to  obtain  their  water 
from  streams  or  ponds  in  which  they  are 
allowed  to  stand  is  an  undesirable  prac- 
tice. Not  only  do  the  animals  contam- 
inate the  water  which  they  require 
themselves,  but  the  contamination  in  the 
case  of  running  streams  is  carried  down 
the  stream  and  subjects  the  animals  of 


Fig.    50 SIMPLE    METHOD    OF    TAKING    AIR 

INTO    STONE    OR    BASEMENT    STABLES 

other  farmers  to  the  danger  of  infection. 
An  infectious  disease  once  started  may, 
therefore,  spread  widely  as  the  result  of 
carelessness  from  the  premises  where  it 
had  first  occurred.  Such  methods  of  in- 
fection have  been  observed  in  the  case 
of  hog  cholera,  but  particularly  of 
anthrax.  It  is  well  worth  the  trouble 
of  all  stock  farmers  to  provide  a  clean 
water  supply  in  troughs  or  by  some 
other  method  by  which  the  animals  are 
prevented  from  contaminating  their 
water  supply. 

A  proper  supply  of  pure  air  is  nec- 
essary to  the  health  of  all  kinds  of  farm 
animals  and  it  is  unquestionably  true 
that  a  considerable  percentage  of  the 
disease  which  prevails  among  farm  ani- 
mals is  due  to  close  confinement  in 
badly  ventilated  and  otherwise  insani- 
tary stables.  The  belief  is  often  held 
that  our  modern  high-bred  animals  re- 
quire more  pampering  and  greater  atten- 
tion to  the  regulation  of  the  temperature 
of  their  surroundings  than  do  scrub 
animals.  Such,  however,  is  not  neces- 
sarily the  case. 

Moreover,  in  securing  a  high  tempera- 
ture in  stables  during  the  winter  it  often 
occurs  that  too  little  attention  is 
given  to  the  ventilation  of  the  stable, 
so  that  one  possible  advantage  is  ob- 
tained with  the  simultaneous  loss  of 
another  and  more  important  advan- 
tage,   namely,    good    ventilation.     The 


air  of  stables  which  are  filled  to  their 
full  capacity  with  farm  animals  be- 
comes contaminated  not  only  as  a  result 
of  the  breathing  of  the  animals,  but  by 
various  organic  substances  given  off  in 
the  respired  air  and  by  the  manure  and 
other  filth  which  is  too  often  allowed  to 
accumulate  in  stables. 

The  amount  of  air  breathed  hourly 
by  different  farm  animals  has  been  cal- 
culated by  King  as  follows:  For 
horses  4,296  cubic  feet,  for  cows  3,542 
cubic  feet,  for  hogs  1,392  cubic  feet, 
for  sheep  917  cubic  feet  and  for  hens 
31.5  cubic  feet.  It  is,  of  course,  admitted 
at  once  that  perfect  ventilation  is  not 
possible  in  practice,  but  fortunately  it 
is  also  not  necessary.  In  fact  in  the 
average  stable,  a  sufficient  amount  of 
air  passes  through  the  cracks  and 
around  doors  and  windows  to  prop- 
erly ventilate  the  stable.  Under  such 
conditions  no  attention  may  be  given  to 
ventilation.      If,    however,   such   loosely 


Fig.    51 — CROSS    SECTION    OF    MONITOR- 

ROOFED    STABLE    WITH    HINGED-VALVE 

SYSTEM    OF    INLETS    AND    OUTLETS 

constructed  stables  admit  too  much  cold 
air  and  lower  the  temperature  too 
greatly,  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  them 
nearly  airtight,  and  if  this  be  done  a 
system  of  ventilation  becomes  necessary. 
In  other  words,  in  practice  a  special  sys- 
tem of  ventilation  is  necessary  only  in 
cases  where  the  stables  are  constructed 
so  nearly  airtight  that  otherwise  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  air  could  not  get  in. 
Furthermore,  in  order  to  secure  the 
proper  operation  of  any  system  of  ven- 
tilation, it  is  necessary  to  have  the 
stables  constructed  nearlv  airtight  since 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


93 


otherwise  the  matter  could  not  be  con- 
trolled at  all.  Where  air  can  leak  in 
through  various  cracks  this  is  sufficient 
to  interfere  with  the  operation  of  an 
artificial  system  of  ventilation. 

Ventilation  important — The  princi- 
ples upon  which  a  scientific  system  of 
ventilation  is  based  are  the  necessity  of 


I}L45lL_jt5l 


2L& 


Fig.    52 CROSS    SECTION    OF    THE    WISCON- 
SIN    STATION     BARN     SHOWING     SYSTEM     OF 
VENTILATION  DEVISED  BY   PROFESSOR  KING 

furnishing  as  large  amounts  of  air  as 
possible  without  reducing  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  stable  in  winter  unnecessa- 
rily. Obviously  the  air  which  rises  to 
the  roof  of  the  stable  is  warmer  than 
that  upon  the  floor.  Much  of  the  heat 
generated  by  the  animal  body  is,  there- 
fore, lost  by  removing  the  air  near  the 
roof.  Again,  this  air  does  not  contain 
the  impurities  which  it  is  desirable  to 
remove,  since  they  are  for  the  most 
part  heavy  and  remain  nearer  the  floor 
of  the  stable.  The  best  systems  of  ven- 
tilation, therefore,  provide  for  taking 
the  foul  air  from  near  the  floor  and  dis- 
charging it  to  the  outside  with  as  little 
loss  of  warm  air  as  possible.  The  ven- 
tilating system  which  has  been  devised 


and  worked  out  by  King  operates  very 
successfully  in  all  moderate  climates  in 
winter,  but,  according  to  some  Canadian 
experiments,  is  not  very  successful  in 
the  extreme  cold  weather  which  prevails 
in  Canada  during  midwinter. 

Recent  experiments  in  Minnesota  have 
shown  that  steers  in  the  process  of  fat- 
tening appear  to  thrive  well  and  re- 
main comfortable  when  confined  in  box 
stalls  as  tight  as  they  can  be  made,  be- 
ing removed  for  a  short  time  once  a 
week.  It  is  perfectly  obvious,  therefore, 
that  ventilation  is  a  matter  which  may 
be  overestimated,  in  and  of  itself,  under 
conditions  which  are  otherwise  sanitary. 
If,  however,  an  infectious  disease  pre- 
vails on  any  given  premises  it  is  much 
more  necessary  to  give  heed  to  proper 
ventilation,  since  otherwise,  the  disease 
will  spread  and  affect  animals  more  ex- 
tensively than  would  be  the  case  if  large 
quantities  of  good  air  were  provided. 


Fig.  53 HINGED  VALVE  FOR  VENTILATING 

STABLE 

Care  of  yards — In  safeguarding  the 
health'  of  animals  another  important 
point  remains  in  connection  with  the 
care  of  yards.  Quite  too  often  animals 
are  allowed  to  stand  in  wet,  unspeakably 
filthy  yards.  In  the  case  of  dairy  cows, 
the  animals  become  so  filthy  that  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  obtain  clean 
milk  from  them  and  other  animals  be- 


94 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


come  soiled  and  uncomfortable  with 
mud  and  other  filth  which  dries  on  them 
as  soon  as  they  are  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  get  out  of  the  mire.  It  has 
been  shown,  time  and  time  again,  from 
careful  experiments  that  all  farm  ani- 
mals make  better  gains  and  give  more 
profitable  returns  from  their  food  when 
yards  are  properly  drained  and  kept  in 
a  dry  and  cleanly  condition.  The  finan- 
cial argument  is,  therefore,  sufficient  to 
determine  a  sanitary  practice  in  this 
regard  if  other  considerations  are  not 
entertained. 

Exercise  is  an  important  matter  in 
the  proper  management  of  all  farm  ani- 
mals. In  order  that  animals  should  de- 
velop to  their  best  estate  and  show  all 
the  vigor  of  which  they  are  capable,  it 
is  necessary  that  they  be  reared  under 
circumstances  which  permit  of  freedom 
and  natural  exercise.  Obviously,  the 
amount  of  exercise  desirable  for  differ- 
ent farm  animals  will  vary  according 
to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  raised. 
During  a  short  fattening  period  it  is 
not  necessary  to  pay  much  attention  to 
this  point,  since  the  danger  of  the  loss 
of  health  from  lack  of  exercise  during 
a  short  period  is  not  great.  For  all  an- 
imals which  are  to  be  kept  for  stock  pur- 
poses and  dairy  purposes  and  similar 
lines  of  usefulness  which  require  that 
the  animal  should  live  to  an  old  age, 
the  matter  of  exercise  must  never  be 
lost  from  view. 

Outdoor  exercise  desirable — In  recent 
feeding  experiments  with  steers  and 
other  animals  it  appears  that  better  and 
more  economic  gains  are  made  if  the 
feeding  period  is  long  when  the  animals 
are  allowed  a  reasonable  amount  of  out- 
door exercise.  Similarly  with  dairy 
cows,  the  returns  in  milk  are  better  and 
they  are  made  on  less  feed  when  they  are 
given  the  freedom  of  a  dry  yard.  _  Ac- 
cording to  the  observation  of  Craig  in 
Indiana,  nervous  exhaustion  and  debil- 
ity frequently  develop  in  breeding  ewes 
which  are  not  allowed  a  sufficient 
amount  of  exercise.  The  symptoms  of 
the  disease  are  for  the  most  part  of  a 
nervous  character,  the  appetite  is  lost 
and  the  animal  becomes  dull  and  slow 
of  motion.  As  a  rule,  the  disease  pro- 
gresses quite  rapidly  and  does  not  respond 
to  medicinal  treatment  unless  it  is  ap- 
plied in  the  early  stages.  In  a  large 
percentage  of  these  cases  the  trouble  is 
caused  by  insufficient  exercise  and  im- 


proper feeding,  the  exercise  being  the 
more  important  factor.  Craig  recom- 
mends that  breeding  ewes  should  be 
forced  to  take  considerable  exercise 
every  day,  if  necessary,  driving  them 
about  one-balf  mile  each  day. 

Disinfecting  premises  and  how  it  is 
done — After  the  occurrence  of  an  in- 
fectious disease,  it  is  necessary  to  disin- 
fect the  premises  thoroughly.  This  may 
be  accomplished  in  various  ways  de- 
pending on  the  nature  of  the  buildings 
and  yards  in  which  the  disease  occurred. 
Infected  hog  pens,  if  not  of  much  value, 
may  be  burned  on  the  spot  and  new  ones 
constructed  at  another  place  on  the 
farm,  similarly  with  temporary  chicken 
houses,  after  an  outbreak  of  fowl  cholera 
or  other  serious  infectious  disease. 
With  valuable  buildings,  however,  such 
a  procedure  cannot  be  adopted  and  some 
form  of  disinfection  can  be  carried  out. 
In  this  work  there  is  a  choice  of  a  num- 
ber of  materials.  We  may  use  corrosive 
sublimate  at  the  rate  of  1  ounce  in  8 
gallons  of  water,  the  material  being 
mixed  in  wooden  tubs  or  barrels  and 
the  corrosive  sublimate  being  powdered 
before  it  is  added  to  the  water.  The  so- 
lution may  then  be  applied  with  a  broom 
or  mop  to  all  contaminated  woodwork. 

Chloride  of  lime  at  the  rate  of  5  ounces 
to  the  gallon  of  water  is  an  effective 
material  and  may  he  applied  in  the  same 
way  as  corrosive  sublimate.  Crude  car- 
bolic and  sulphuric  acids  may  be  mixed 
in  wooden  tubs  or  glass  vessels,  the  two 
acids  being  combined  in  equal  quanti- 
ties and  afterward  diluted  in  cold  water 
at  the  rate  of  1  part  to  20.  Slaked  lime 
is  a  very  useful  material  in  disinfect- 
ing buildings  and  yards,  although  it 
does  not  possess  the  high  antiseptic 
power  of  the  substances  wdiich  have  just 
been  mentioned.  It  is  particularly  val- 
uable in  disinfecting  soil,  since  it  does 
not  injure  the  soil  for  crop  purposes.  It 
may  be  used  at  the  rate  of  one-half 
pound  of  lime  to  the  gallon  of  water. 
Whitewash,  prepared  in  this  way,  is  a 
common  disinfectant  for  use  in  chicken 
houses  and  stables.  In  addition  to  its 
disinfectant  properties,  it  is  of  some  use 
as  a  deodorizer.  Sulphuric  acid  may 
also  be  used  on  woodwork  when  diluted 
in  water  at  the  rate  of  1  ounce  to  the 
gallon.  In  tightly  constructed  stalls  or 
small  buildings,  formalin  fumigation 
may  be  adopted,  but  unless  the  build- 
ing is  very  tight  this  remedy  will  give 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


95 


no  results.  Contaminated  floors,  ceil- 
ings, walls  and  other  woodwork,  how- 
ever, may  be  sprinkled*  or  sprayed  with 
2  or  3  per  cent  solution  of  formalin 
with  excellent  results. 

Cautions  about  contagious  diseases — 
In  case  of  the  death  of  any  animal  from 
contagious  disease  the  carcasses  should 
be  at  once  destroyed  without  opening 
or  allowing  the  infection  to  be  spread 
by  the  fluids  in  the  body.  This  destruc- 
tion is  best  accomplished  by  burying 
deeply  or  by  burning.  The  carcasses  of 
animals  which  have  died  of  contagious 
diseases  are  a  great  menace  to  the  health 
of  other  animals  or  to  man.  The  virus 
in  such  carcasses  may  be  carried  long 
distances  by  water,  flies  and  various 
other  insects  and  particularly  by  dogs, 
other  carnivorous  animals,  and  carrion- 
eating  birds.  All  danger  from  such  dis- 
semination of  the  disease  may  be  avoided 
by  destroying  the  carcasses  promptly. 
Small  animals  may  be  easily  disposed  of 
by  burying  to  a  depth  of  2  feet.  This  is 
particularly  effective  with  chickens 
which  may  be  covered  with  unslaked 
lime  before  the  soil  is  placed  over  them. 
McDowell  believes,  however,  that  burn- 
ing is  the  most  satisfactory  method  of 
disposing  of  contagious  carcasses.  If 
no  furnace  or  specially  prepared  place  is 
available,  a  trench  may  be  dug  2  or  3 
feet  deep  and  a  layer  of  brushwood 
placed  in  the  bottom,  after  which  the 
body  is  laid  on  the  wood  and  covered 
with  brushwood  sprinkled  with  kerosene 
and  set  on  fire.  According  to  the  experi- 
ments of  McDowell  complete  destruc- 
tion of  a  1,300  pound  carcass  required  5 
gallons  of  kerosene  and  Y-z  a  cord  of 
wood.  In  other  localities  good  results 
have  been  obtained  in  burning  carcasses 
by  placing  them  on  iron  rails  under 
which  a  fire  may  be  easily  maintained. 
In  the  southwestern  part  of  the  country 
where  crude  oil  is  abundant  and  cheap 
this  material  may  be  used  for  destroying 
carcasses. 

The  care  of  pastures  is  an  important 
matter  on  account  of  the  possibility  of 
the  spread  of  various  parasitic  diseases 
as  a  result  of  carelessness  in  this  regard. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  the  tape- 
worms of  sheep,  the  gid  worm  and  stom- 
ach worms  of  sheep  and  calves,  lung 
worms  of  sheep,  and  the  nodular  disease 
of  the  intestines  of  sheep  are  all  due  to 
the  use  of  pastures  which  have  become 
thoroughly  contaminated  with  the  par- 


asitic worms  which  cause  the  diseases  in 
question.  In  order  to  avoid  the  annual 
propagation  of  these  diseases  it  is  nec- 
essary to  adopt  a  system  of  rotation, 
changing  the  sheep  and  cows  from  one 
pasture  to  another  every  few  days  and 
combining  this  system  witb  better  drain- 
age and  protection  of  the  water  supply. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE 

_  The  horse  stands  in  a  peculiar  rela- 
tion to  man  as  compared  with  other 
domestic  animals,  in  that  he  enjoys  the 
close  personal  sympathy  of  man  and  is 
therefore  looked  after  rather  closely  with 
regard  to  his  health.  Moreover,  the 
average  farmer,  after  finding  a  horse 
winch  suits  bis  purposes,  naturally  wants 
to  keep  him  as  long  as  he  is  capable  of 
good  service,  and  this  means  that  the 
horse  is  subject  to  a  great  many  chances 
of  injury  which  are  not  of  much  im- 
portance in  the  case  of  cattle,  sheep  or 
pigs,  for  the  reason  that  these  animals 
are  kept  only  a  short  time. 

Veterinarians  have  spent  more  time 
and  energy  in  studying  horse  diseases 
and  perfecting  practical  remedies  than 
is  true  of  the  diseases  of  any  other  farm 
animal.  In  fact,  in  many  localities  the 
terms  "veterinarian,"  and  "horse  doc- 
tor" are  practically  synonymous.  The 
obvious  reason  for  the  common  use  of 
the  term  "horse  doctor"  for  "veterina- 
rian" is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  farmer 
calls  in  export  veterinary  services  in 
treating  bis  horses  more  often  than  for 
his  other  animals.  In  the  following  ac- 
count of  horse  diseases,  attention  is 
given  first  to  the  general  infectious  dis- 
eases and  later  to  those  which  affect  one 
organ  or  set  of  organs. 

How  to  detect  illness — The  normal 
temperature,  pulse  rate,  rate  of  breath- 
ing and  other  matters  which  may  be  of 
assistance  to  the  farmer  in  examining  the 
horse  to  determine  whether  anything  is 
wrong  with  his  health  have  already  been 
discussed  in  Part  I.  The  temperature 
of  the  horse,  as  in  the  case  of  most  other 
farm  animals,  is  to  be  taken  by  insert- 
ing a  clinical  thermometer  in  the  rec- 
tum. Most  farmers,  after  a  little  experi- 
ence, can  readily  tell  whether  fever  is 
present  or  not  by  placing  the  hand  in 
the  mouth.  In  a  particular  case  of  sick- 
ness, considerable  importance  attaches  to 
the  attitude  of  the  horse  and  to  various 
facts  regarding  the  history  of  the  case. 
Thus,    there    is    always    the   possibility 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


of  determining  with  some  certainty 
whether  the  animal  has  been  exposed  to 
infectious  diseases  in  other  horses,  or 
whether  the  sickness  is  of  a  noninfec- 
tious character  and  due  to  some  condi- 
tions in  the  environment  of  the  particu- 
lar horse.  The  condition  of  the  coat, 
especially  if  it  appears  rough  and  star- 
ing, may  indicate  the  presence  of  fever, 
without  any  other  symptom.  Moreover, 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  and 
eyes  readily  indicate  the  congested  con- 
dition which  accompanies  fever.  In  ad- 
ministering medicine  to  horses,  several 
methods  are  at  the  disposal  of  the 
farmer.  (See  under  veterinary  medi- 
cines.) 

Influenza  also  called  pink  eye,  epizoo- 
tic, bilious  fever,  typhoid  fever  of  the 
horse,  etc,  is  a  highly  contagious  disease 
of  the  horse,  ass  and  mule,  accompanied 
with  fever,  changes  in  the  blood,  stupe- 
faction, great  depression  and  nervous 
disturbances.  One  attack  of  the  disease 
ordinarily  confers  immunity.  Some- 
times influenza  occurs  merely  in  scat- 
tered cases,  but  under  other  conditions, 
not  well  understood,  it  may  appear  as 
a  general  epizootic,  affecting  large  num- 
bers of  horses.  Simple  cases  of  influenza 
are  not  necessarily  serious,  but  the  dis- 
ease is  sometimes  followed  by  troubles 
in  the  nervous  and  blood  systems. 

On  account  of  the  fact  that  one  at- 
tack of  the  trouble  nearly  always  pro- 
tects the  animal  against  other  attacks, 
old  animals  which  have  had  the  disease 
and  recovered  from  it  are  safer  to  buy 
than  younger  animals  which  have  not 
been  affected.  Apparently  lack  of  ex- 
ercise and  over-feeding  in  young  horses 
are  predisposing  causes  of  influenza. 
The  symptoms  occur  within  from  four 
to  seven  days  after  exposure.  In  mild 
cases  they  may  consist  merely  of  a 
short  course  of  fever  accompanied  with 
considerable  depression  and  stupefaction 
of  the  animal.  The  horse  stands  with 
his  head  low  and  occasionally  shows 
chills  and  champing  with  his  teeth. 
The  special  senses  are  often  affected,  so 
that  the  horse  cannot  hear,  see  or  taste 
correctly.  The  eye  is  greatly  congested 
and  this  gives  rise  to  the  term  pink  eye. 
A  reddish  or  saffron  color  also  appears 
in  the  mouth.  During  the  course  of  the 
disease  the  fetlocks  and  belly  may  swell 
to  a  considerable  extent.  The  disease 
ordinarily  lasts  from  six  to  ten  days  and 


during  this  time  the  horse  may  lose 
from  thirty  to  seventy-five  pounds.  At 
times  nearly  half  of  the  cases  are  com- 
plicated with  intestinal  or  pulmonary 
troubles  and  when  the  lungs  are  affected 
with  a  form  of  pneumonia  the  mortality 
is  very  high.  In  fact  influenza  may  be 
followed  by  congestion  of  the  feet, 
pleurisy,  peritonitis  and  various  other 
complications. 

As  long  as  the  appetite  remains  the 
horse  may  be  given  small  quantities  of 
grain,  bran  or  hay,  with  roots  or  apples. 
One  method  of  reducing  the  tempera- 
ture consists  in  giving  large  enemas  of 
cold  water  and  quinine  in  one  dram 
doses.  If  the  lungs  are  affected,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  blanket  and  otherwise  protect 
the  horse,  as  in  cases  of  pneumonia. 
Influenza,  at  best,  is  a  rather  serious 
disease  and  proves  fatal  in  a  large  per- 
centage of  cases,  especially  in  young  an- 
imals. The  percentage  of  cases  in  which 
the  lungs  are  affected  is  also  high. 

Strangles — This  disease  is  also  called 
distemper,  catarrhal  fever,  or  colt  ill, 
and  is  an  infectious  disease  most  fre- 
quently seen  in  young  animals.  One  at- 
tack protects  the  animal  against  another. 
The  fever  lasts  for  a  few  days,  but  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  the  disease,  pus  may 
form  in  the  lungs  and  frequently  absces- 
ses develop  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 
The  first  symptoms  are  sluggishness,  ir- 
regularity of  appetite,  increase  in  thirst, 
a  dry,  staring  coat,  and  rose  color  in  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  eye  and 
mouth.  After  two  or  three  days  the  an- 
imal coughs  and  a  discharge  takes  place 
from  the  nostrils,  the  discharge  being 
first  watery  and  later  becoming  thick 
and  yellowish  in  color.  Later  a  swell- 
ing takes  place  in  the  throat,  between 
the  jaw  bones.  This  swelling  is  puffy, 
hot  and  sensitive  and  soon  develops  into 
a  large  abscess,  which  breaks  spontane- 
ously, or  may  be  opened.  In  simple 
cases  recovery  takes  place  within  about 
two  weeks.  If  the  swelling  in  the  throat 
is  accessible,  it  must  be  opened  in  order 
to  prevent  the  pus  from  burrowing  too 
deeply  in  the  muscles.  In  some  cases 
there  is  more  or  less  delirium,  plunging 
and  involuntary  movements,  but  mild 
cases  require  little  treatment,  except 
careful  diet  and  protection  from  cold 
drafts.  If  the  fever  is  high,  Glauber 
salts  may  be  administered  in  doses  of  a 
handful  three  times  daily.  The  swelling 
about  the  throat   may  be  treated  with 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


9? 


warm  water  and  flaxseed  poultices.  Dur- 
ing convalescence  the  animal  should  be 
protected  against  drafts. 

Scalma  is  a  contagious  disease  accom- 
panied with  fever  and  irritation  of  the 
breathing  passages,  as  shown  by  the  de- 
velopment of  a  cough.  The  symptoms 
develop  within  about  a  week  after  ex- 
posure and  the  disease  spreads  slowly 
through  the  stable.  A  gray  albuminous 
discharge  takes  place  from  the  nostrils 
and  may  persist  for  two  or  three  weeks. 
The  breathing  and  pulse  are  not  much 
affected,  but  the  temperature  may  rise 
quite  high.  The  course  of  the  disease  is 
from  five  to  eight  days.  Scalma  may  be 
complicated  with  spasms  and  pleurisy 
and  may  be  diagnosed  most  easily  from 
the  fact  that  the  temperature  is  quite 
high  without  a  corresponding  quicken- 
ing of  the  pulse.  Most  cases  recover. 
Steaming  with  turpentine  at  the  rate  of 
one-half  ounce  in  half  a  bucket  of  hot 
water  and  hot  packs  on  the  loins  re- 
lieve some  of  the  pain.  Quinine  may 
also  be  given  during  the  fever  period. 

Pneumonia,  also  called  edematous,  or 
contagious  pneumonia,  is  an  infectious 
disease  of  the  horse  which  develops  most 
frequently  in  damp,  unclean  and  badly 
ventilated  stables.  The  symptoms  may 
appear  slowly  or  at  once.  If  the  case 
develops  slowly,  there  is  a  cough  accom- 
panied with  dullness  and  loss  of  appetite 
and  a  considerable  acceleration  of  the 
breathing  and  pulse.  The  mucous 
membranes  of  the  mouth  and  eyelids  be- 
come somewhat  swollen.  If  the  case  is 
more  violent,  the  symptoms  of  pneu- 
monia appear  at  once  and  the  disturb- 
ance of  the  temperature,  pulse  and 
breathing  are  more  pronounced.  The 
weakness  of  the  animal  is  very  striking 
and  is  not  accompanied  with  stupefac- 
tion or  nervous  troubles.  The  mortality 
from  edematous  pneumonia  is  usually 
ibout  two  per  cent,  but  may  run  as  high 
as  twenty-five  per  cent.  Bleeding  should 
not  be  resorted  to  in  cases  of  this  disease, 
since  the  animal  is  already  greatly 
weakened.  Stimulants  are  indicated  as 
a  desirable  treatment  for  this  trouble. 
Turpentine  may  be  given  in  one  ounce 
doses,  or  alcohol,  digitalis,  strychnine 
and  quinine.  (For  doses  see  Veterinary 
Medicines.)  In  Europe  a  serum  treat- 
ment has  been  devised  for  pneumonia  of 
horses  and  gives  excellent  results  in 
some  cases,  but  appears  not  to  be  en- 
tirely reliable. 


Horse  pox  is  an  infectious  horse  fever 
accompanied  with  pustules,  especially  on 
the  pasterns  and  fetlocks,  and  also  upon 
the  lips  or  about  the  nose.  This  disease 
closely  resembles  sheep  pox,  cow  pox 
and  also  small  pox  in  men  and  usually 
runs  a  mild  course  of  about  four  days, 
followed  by  rapid  convalescence.  If  the 
disease  is  not  complicated  by  swelling 
and  suppuration  of  the  glands,  little 
treatment  is  necessary,  The  animal 
should  be  protected  from  cold  drafts  and 
if  the  fever  is  high  may  be  given  qui- 
nine or  iodide  of  potash  in  one  dram 
dcses.  Where  pneumonia  complications 
are  threatened,  mustard  poultices  may  be 
applied  to  the  chest. 

Anthrax  attacks  nearly  all  of  the 
domestic  animals  and  is  due  to  a  specific 
micro-organism,  which  was  discovered 
in  1851.  The  disease  largely  spreads  by 
carelessness  in  the  disposal  of  the  car- 
casses of  animals  dead  of  anthrax.  It 
has  been  shown  that  the  virus  of  anthrax 
may  remain  virulent  in  dead  bodies  for 
a  period  of  fifteen  years  or  more.  This 
shows  how  necessary  it  is  to  burn  or 
otherwise  completely  disinfect  the  car- 
cass of  an  animal  dead  with  the  disease. 
The  symptoms  of  anthrax  usually  de- 
velop very  rapidly.  The  animal  shows 
great  weakness,  chills  and  colicky  pains. 
The  temperature  is  high  and  swellings 
appear  underneath  the  skin  in  the  legs, 
shoulder  or  side  of  the  body.  As  a 
rule  death  takes  place  within  three  or 
four  days.  The  blood  is  black  and 
does  not  coagulate.  There  is  little  use 
in  treating  cases  of  this  disease.  Ex- 
periments have  been  made  to  treat  it 
with  creolin  in  2  to  5  dram  doses,  but 
without  good  results.  A  number  of  Ital- 
ian investigators  have  claimed  that  the 
use  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  sub-cuta- 
neous injections  was  of  some  value  but 
this  claim  has  not  been  substantiated.  In 
a  few  cases  carbolic  acid  in  a  one-half 
per  cent  solution  in  water,  given  in  fre- 
quent doses  so  as  to  aggregate  40  or  50 
quarts  a  day,  have  yielded  satisfactory 
results,  but  the  method  is  not  applicable 
in  all  cases.  In  many  outbreaks  of  an- 
thrax in  horses,  infection  has  been  due 
to  the  use  of  oats  which  had  in  turn 
been  infected  from  previous  cases  of 
the  disease.  Where  oats  or  grain  are 
suspected,  it  may  be  well  to  subject 
them  to  a  high  temperature  in  an  oven 
before  feeding.  The  temperature  should 
be    hio-h    enough    to    brown    the    grain. 


OS 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  best  prevention  of  anthrax  consists 
in  the  use  of  a  vaccine  from  which  good 
results  have  been  obtained  by  the  Bu- 
reau of  Animal  Industry  and  by  other 
investigators.  In  some  localities  in  the 
South  this  disease  is  almost  stationary 
and  has  to  be  treated  constantly  by  the 
preventive  method. 

Glanders,  also  called  farcy  or  nasal 
gleet,  is  a  malignant,  highly  contagions 
disease  due  to  infection  with  the  gland- 


Glanders  occurs  under  at  least  three 
distinct  forms,  one  affecting  chiefly  the 
lungs,  another  the  nasal  passages  and 
the  third  the  skin.  These  forms  of  the 
disease,  however,  are  not  by  any  means 
separate  and  distinct,  but  the  most  con- 
spicuous symptoms  may  be  located  in 
one  or  the  other  of  the  sets  of  organs 
just  mentioned.  In  pulmonary  gland- 
ers, for  example,  the  lungs  are  the  chief 
seat  of  infection  and   contain  tubercles 


Fig.  54- 


FARCY    FORM 


ers  bacillus.  Glanders  is  most  common 
in  horses  and  in  mules,  but  may  occur 
in  nearly  all  the  domestic  animals  ex- 
cept cattle.  Man  may  also  become  in- 
fected through  wounds,  .  and  in  such 
cases  the  disease  is  nearly  always  fatal. 
Likewise  in  horses  the  disease  is  almost 
uniformly  fatal,  but  the  course  may 
vary  from  a  few  weeks  to  several  years. 


of  varying  size,  depending  on  their 
age.  At  first  these  tubercles  are  so 
minute  that  they  would  not  be  detected 
except  by  the  trained  veterinarian. 
Later,  however,  they  increase  in  size, 
break  down  and  pockets  are  thus  formed 
which  contain  pus;  such  pockets  are  at 
once  disclosed  by  cutting  through  the 
lungs  with  a  sharp  knife. 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


9:) 


The  nasal  form  of  glanders  is  char- 
acterized by  chronic  catarrh.  The  nasal 
discharge  may  be  interrupted  at  inter- 
vals, but  sooner  or  later  begins  again. 
The  division  wall  in  the  nose  is  attacked 
and  pustules  form  which  later  break 
down  and  slough  off  leaving  ulcers  with 
a  ragged  outline  which  may  be  seen 
from  the  nasal  openings.  Occasionally, 
however,  the  ulcers  are  located  too  far 
back  to  be  visible. 

The  skin  form  of  glanders,  also 
know  as  farcy,  is  chiefly  character- 
ized by  the  presence  of  numerous  swell- 
ings in  the  lymphatic  glands  just  be- 
neath the  skin  of  various  parts  of  the 
body  but  particularly  of  the  legs.  The 
farcy  buttons,  as  they  are  called,  may  be 
accompanied  with  a  general  swelling  of 
the  affected  parts.  In  stallions  the  testi- 
cles usually  become  swollen  during  the 
early  stage  of  the  disease. 

These  different  forms  of  glanders,  as 
already  indicated,  are  not  distinct  dis- 
eases but  may  all  appear  in  one  and  the 
same  case.  During  the  progress  of  the 
disease  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  pan- 
creas and  various  other  organs  may  be 
attacked  in  addition  to  the  lungs,  lym- 
phatic glands,  skin  and  mucous  lining 
of  the  nose. 

In  ordinary  cases  of  glanders  a  dry 
cough  is  noticed,  especially  after  exer- 
cise or  after  pressure  on  the  throat. 
This  cough  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
that  of  ordinary  colds  or  other  diseases 
by  the  fact  that  it  persists  indefinitely. 
The  submaxillary  glands  are  usually 
swollen  and  very  sensitive.  These  glands 
may  be  felt  by  pressing  against  the  in- 
side of  the  lower  jawbone  from  the  un- 
der side  of  the  throat.  In  health  the 
submaxillary  glands  are  soft  and  not 
readily  recognizable  by  the  touch;  when 
attacked  by  glanders  they  become  hard, 
knotty  and  slip  back  and  forth  under 
pressure.  The  swelling  of  the  submax- 
illary glands  is  one  of  the  symptoms  by 
means  of  which  the  disease  is  diagnosed. 

Symptoms  frequently  obscured — 
While  glanders,  as  already  indicated, 
is  almost  always  fatal  and  therefore  one 
of  the  most,  if  not  the  most,  serious  dis- 
ease of  horses,  the  symptoms  are  often 
quite  obscure  in  the  early  course  of  the 
disease,  and  it  therefore  becomes  of 
great  importance  to  devise  a  method  for 
recognizing  the  disease  as  early  as  pos- 
sible. In  cases  of  recent  origin  or  slow 
development   where   the  external   symp- 


toms are  not  recognizable,  mallein  has 
been  found  to  be  a  most  valuable  and 
reliable  agent  in  the  detection  of  gland- 
ers. Mallein  is  a  product  of  the  gland- 
ers bacillus  containing  the  active  toxin 
or  poison  of  the  bacillus,  but  no  living 
bacilli.  It  cannot,  therefore,  produce 
glanders,  and  it  has  no  noticeable  effect 
upon  the  healthy  horse.  In  glander- 
ous horses,  on  the  other  hand,  a  hypo- 
dermic injection  of  mallein  causes  an 
elevation  of  temperature  to  the  extent 
of  one  to  three  degrees,  swelling  at  the 
point  of  inoculation  and  occasionally 
trembling.  The  method  of  making  the 
mallein  test  is  essentially  the  samt,  as 
that  adopted  in  the  tuberculin  test.  (See 
tuberculosis  under  Diseases  of  Cattle.) 
The  use  of  mallein  is  generally  prac- 
ticed throughout  the  world  in  detecting 
glanders  in  its  incipient  stages. 

There  is  no  satisfactory  treatment 
for  glanders  and  none  should  be 
adopted  or  permitted.  A  course  of  treat- 
men^  for  glanders  adopted  by  a  careless 
veterinarian  or  farmer  simply  results 
in  exposing  other  horses  and  men  to  in- 
fection with  a  disgusting  and  incurable 
disease.  The  use  of  mallein  in  repeated 
and  large  doses  has  sometimes  apparently 
caused  a  partial  or  complete  cure  of 
glanders  after  that  disease  had  been 
thoroughly  established.  Thus,  a  num- 
ber of  instances  of  this  sort  have  been 
reported  in  England,  Canada,  the 
United  States  and  elsewhere.  These 
cases  of  supposed  cure,  however,  are  not 
so  numerous  as  have  been  thought  and 
many  of  them  have  turned  out  to  be 
merely  apparent  cures.  The  system  first 
adopted  in  Canada,  after  much  serious 
thought  along  this  line,  was  to  quaran- 
tine all  horses  which  showed  a  tempo- 
rary reaction  after  the  use  of  mallein 
and  keep  them  under  observation  for  a 
number  of  years,  during  which  they  re- 
ceived other  mallein  injections.  This 
method,  however,  has  been  abandoned 
and  in  its  place  the  more  satisfactory 
one  has  been  adopted  of  killing  all  glan- 
derous horses  as  soon  as  the  disease 
is  detected. 

Care  of  a  glanderous  horse — As  al- 
ready indicated,  there  is  no  satisfactory 
treatment  for  glanders.  Good  care  and 
a  nutritious  diet  may  enable  glanderous 
horses  to  live  for  five  years  or  more,  but 
in  the  meantime  they  may  spread  con- 
tagion far  and  wide.  All  glanderous 
animals   should  therefore  be  killed  im- 


100 


FARMERS  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


mediately  and  burned  or  deeply  and 
carefully  buried.  In  most  states  tbe 
State  Veterinarian  is  empowered  to 
carry  out  these  measures  and  it  has  been 
necessary  to  do  so  on  account  of  the 
rapid  spread  of  glanders  unless  strict 
repressive  measures  are  undertaken.  In 
,'some  localities,  as  for  example  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Boston,  glanders  grad- 
ually increased  in  spite  of  all  measures 
taken  to  repress  it.  A  source  of  con- 
tagion of  considerable  importance  was 
found  in  the  existence  of  public  water- 
ing troughs,  where  one  glanderous  horse 
might  leave  infection  for  a  number  of 
other  horses.  It  therefore  appears  to  be 
a  very  dangerous  practice  to  permit  the 
use  of  any  glanderous  horse  in  such  a 
way  that  it  will  be  brought  in  contact 
with  other  horses  in  public  places. 

Tetanus,  0r  lockjaw  is  a  very  virulent, 
infectious  disease,  characterized  by  vio- 
lent muscular  contractions,  which  are 
due  to  the  poisoning  of  the  nerve  centers 
by  a  toxin  produced  by  the  tetanus 
bacillus.  Nearly  all  domestic  animals 
and  man  are  subject  to  the  disease,  but 
it  is  more  common  in  horses  and  mules 
than  in  cattle.  Occasionally  tetanus  oc- 
curs in  cows  after  abnormal  calving. 
As  a  rule  tetanus  arises  from  infection 
of  a  wound,  frequently  as  a  result  of 
carelessness  in  castration,  docking  the 
tail,  etc.  The  most  conspicuous  feature 
of  tetanus  is  the  continued  muscular 
spasm,  which  may  be  increased  in  sever- 
ity by  any  fright.  Different  parts  of 
the  body  are  attacked  in  different  cases, 
chiefly  the  muscles  of  the  head  and 
throat ;  in  other  cases  those  of  the  neck 
and  back.  The  nervousness  and  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  ears  are  greatly  in- 
creased, so  that  the  slightest  noise  may 
produce  fright  and  the  resulting  spasms. 
The  head  and  tail  are  usually  extended 
and  the  movements  of  the  animal  are 
stiff.  Moreover,  the  teeth  are  occasion- 
ally grated   together. 

The  tetanus  bacillus  is  common  in 
the  filth  of  stable  floors  and  in  gardens. 
In  some  localities  this  infection  is  much 
more  general  than  in  others  and  there- 
fore an  antiseptic  treatment  of  wounds 
must  be  applied  promptly  in  all  cases 
in  order  to  avoid  the  development  of 
tetanus.  In  the  treatment  of  tetanus, 
good  results  have  been  obtained  by  the 
use  of  anti-tetanus  serum.  This  serum 
is  commonly  prepared  from  the  blood  of 
horses  recovered  from  tetanus  and  pro- 


duces immunity  to  tetanus  in  man  oi 
horses.  In  large  doses  it  occasionally 
gives  good  results  after  the  first  symp- 
toms of  the  disease  have  appeared.  In 
all  cases  of  tetanus,  however,  a  veteri- 
narian should  be  called  to  administer 
the  treatment.  The  results  obtained 
from  the  use  of  the  anti-tetanus  serum, 
while  not  uniform,  still  furnish  a  basis 
for  reasonable  hope  of  ultimate  con- 
trol of  this  disease.  In  a  number  of 
cases  good  results  have  been  obtained 
from  treating  horses  with  the  serum 
after  the  disease  had  reached  an  acute 
form.  In  such  cases  the  serum  was 
given  in  repeated  doses  of  large  size. 
In  some  cases  the  best  results  have  been 
obtained  from  rubbing  the  serum  into 
the  wound  through  which  infection  took 
place.  One  German  investigator  claims 
to  have  cured  horses  by  firing  a  gun 
close  to  the  head  during  the  height  of 
the  muscular  spasms.  The  shock  is  said 
to  have  caused  a  relaxation  of  the  mus- 
cles. Likewise  good  results  have  been 
reported  in  a  few  instances  from  the 
use  of  sodium  iodide  in  doses  of  five 
grams.  Quite  recently  a  Spanish  inves- 
tigator has  reported  the  cure  of  a  few 
cases  of  tetanus  by  means  of  a  subcu- 
taneous injection  of  carbolic  acid. 
Apparently,  however,  the  chief  reliance 
in  cases  of  this  disease  is  to  be  placed 
on  the  timely  treatment  of  wounds  with 
antiseptics  and  the  use  of  anti-tetanus 
scrum. 

Rabies — The  virus  of  rabies,  or  hydro- 
phobia is  found  in  the  saliva  of  affected 
animals  and  is  usually  transmitted  only 
by  the  bite  of  such  animals,  which  in 
the  vast  majority  of  cases  are  dogs. 
(See  under  Diseases  of  Dogs.) 

Surra — While  surra  probably  does  not 
occur  in  the  United  States,  it  is  com- 
mon in  the  Philippines,  where  it  has 
caused  great  loss  among  horsesi  and 
mules,  as  well  as  among  carabao  and 
other  animals.  The  disease  attacks  both 
sexes  and  all  ages,  but  white  or  gray 
mules  are  said  to  be  more  susceptible 
than  those  of  other  colors.  Surra  is  al- 
most invariably  fatal  and  the  course  of 
the  disease  extends  ordinarily  over  a 
period  somewhat  less  than  two  months. 
This  disease  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
parasite  in  the  blood  which  is  carried 
from  one  animal  to  another  by  means 
of  biting  insects.  The  symptoms  of 
surra  include  fever,  loss  of  appetite, 
dullness    and    a   stumbling   gait.     The 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


101 


temperature  runs  up  to  104°  F.  Occa- 
sionally there  may  be  slight  catarrhal 
symptoms,  with  discharge  from  the  nos- 
trils. Chills  are  never  observed  in  the 
course  of  this  disease.  There  is  almost 
always  some  swelling  of  the  legs,  partic- 
ularly between  the  fetlock  and  hock; 
the  sexual  organs  are  also  likely  to  be- 
come greatly  swollen.  In  the  later 
stages  of  the  disease  the  animal  becomes 
markedly  paralyzed.  The  appetite  is 
ravenous,  but  there  is  a  gradual  and  ex- 
treme emaciation.  There  is  no  satis- 
factory treatment  and  affected  animals 
should  therefore  be  slaughtered  at  once 
and  buried. 

Cerebro-spinal  meningitis — This  is, 
in  the  most  instances  at  least,  a  non-con- 
tagious disease  which  occurs  in  horses 
in  isolated  cases  or  occasionally  in  ex- 
tensive outbreaks.  The  symptoms  of  the 
disease  are  not  well  defined  and  it  is 
therefore  probable  that  several  different 
diseases  have  been  referred  to  under  the 
same  name.  Similar,  if  not  identical, 
diseases  have  been  called  choking  dis- 
temper, grass  staggers  and  blind  stag- 
gers. Horses  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes 
are  affected  and  temperament  and  phys- 
ical condition  have  nothing  to  do  with 
susceptibility  to  the  disease.  Mules  are 
affected  as  well  as  horses  and  the  mor- 
tality among  them  is  equally  great.  Ac- 
cording to  certain  European  investiga- 
tions, this  disease  is  due  to  a  bacterial 
organism  in  the  membranes  of  the 
brain.  Such  conditions  were  found  in 
an  outbreak  investigated  in  Maryland. 
Other  writers  have  attributed  the  dis- 
ease to  ergot,  smuts  and  other  fungi 
which  are  supposed  to  be  taken  with 
the  food.  In  some  instances  improper 
feeding  has  been  considered  the  cause 
of  the  disease.  Occasionally  the  use  of 
moldy  corn  causes  a  rapidly  fatal  dis- 
ease in  horses,  usually  referred  to  as 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis. 

The  usual  symptoms  are  staggering 
gait,  partial  or  total  inability  to  swallow, 
various  muscular  contractions  and  de 
lirium.  In  violent  cases  treatment  is 
seldom  effective,  while  in  mild  forms 
the  administration  of  cathartics,  tinc- 
ture of  aconite  and  blisters  on  the  neck, 
spine  and  throat  give  some  relief. 

New  horse  disease — A  disease  among 
horses  which  acquired  the  name  of 
"new  horse  disease"  was  investigated  in 
Maryland  and  appeared  to  be  cerebro- 
spinal  meningitis.      Since   no   bacterial 


organism  has  been  identified  in  con- 
nection with  this  disease  in  the  United 
States,  it  seems  well  to  avoid  the  use 
of  all  moldy  grain  or  fodder  or,  at  least, 
cease  feeding  such  material  if  the  symp- 
toms of  the  disease  should  appear.  In 
some  cases  a  beneficial  effect  is  noted 
from  the  use  of  cold  water  or  crushed 
ice  about  the  head  and  favorable  re- 
sults have  also  been  obtained  from  bel- 
ladonna and  strychnine.  In  an  out- 
break of  this  disease  which  occurred  in 
Delaware,  decayed  corn  silage,  musty 
oats  and  musty  wheat  bran  were  sus- 
pected of  having  caused  the  trouble. 
Feeding  experiments  with  suspected  sub- 
stances for  the  purpose  of  determining 
their  effect  upon  horses  have  usually 
been  without  result.  In  such  experi- 
ments grain  screenings  containing  a 
large  proportion  of  cockle  seed,  wheat 
bran  infested  with  stinking  smut  and 
moldy  oats  failed  to  produce  any  symp- 
toms of  the  disease  in  horses.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  experiments  already  men- 
tioned, it  should  be  stated  that  in  mild 
attacks  there  is  a  loss  of  control  of  the 
legs  and  tail  and  loss  of  appetite;  also 
a  brown  discoloration  of  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  mouth  and  nose.  In 
violent  cases  there  is  trembling,  stupor 
and  complete  paralysis,  the  animal  stag- 
gering and  falling  to  the  ground.  In 
such  cases  a  large  proportion  of  the  an- 
imals die  in  convulsions.  Improvement 
may  begin  on  the  third  or  fourth  day, 
or  in  more  severe  cases  the  disease  lasts 
eight  to  14  days.  This  trouble  needs  fur- 
ther   investigation. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    OR- 
GAN'S 

The  horse  is  subject  to  a  number  of 
troubles  due  to  improper  rations,  over- 
feeding and  unpalatable  or  moldy  feed. 
Moreover,  water  in  excessive  quantities 
after  an  unusually  long  period  of  thirst- 
ing may  give  rise  to  violent  digestive 
disturbances.  As  should  be  apparent  to 
every  farmer,  the  quality  of  water  given 
to  horses  should  be  above  suspicion.  It 
is  besc  to  allow  the  horse  to  drink  at 
frequent  intervals  or  whenever  dry.  No 
bad  results  may  be  expected  from  allow- 
ing the  horse  to  drink  small  quantities 
of  water,  even  when  heated  from  work- 
ing. As  already  indicated,  however, 
after  long  periods  without  water,  some 
care  must  be  exercised.  Many  cases  are 
on  record  where  horses  during  transpor- 


102 


FARMER'S  CYCLOP  ED  LI  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


tation  have  developed  fatal  symptoms 
of  digestive  trouble  as  the  result  of  al- 
lowing them  to  drink  unlimited  quan- 
tities of  water  after  being  in  stock  cars 
for  24  hours. 

Bowels  affected  by  feeds — Some  feed- 
stuffs  may  cause  a  too  laxative  condi- 
tion of  the  bowels.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  alfalfa  and  other  leguminous 
plants  until  horses  become  accustomed 
to  them.  Most  roots  are  also  slightly 
laxative.  It  is  well,  therefore,  in  ordi- 
nary rations,  not  to  use  too  many  differ- 
ent materials  which  are  laxative.  The 
use  of  moldy,  smutty  or  dirty  feed  is 
always  to  be  avoided  on  account  of  the 
possible  bad  effects  from  such  material. 

Teeth  an  important  factor — The  teeth 
of  the  horse  sometimes  give  trouble  and 
require  attention.  There  is  no  question, 
however,  that  much  of  the  work  done 
on  the  horse's  teeth  is  quite  unneces- 
sary and  in  many  cases  harmful.  It  has 
been  customary  with  certain  empiric 
horse  doctors  to  file  off  the  teeth  in 
nearly  every  case  which  they  examine  if 
they  could  find  no  other  cause  of  trouble. 
Such  manipulation  repeated  too  often 
renders  the  teeth  less  suited  than  they 
naturally  would  be  for  masticating  the 
feed  and  in  some  cases  leads  to  decay. 
Irregularities  with  the  teeth  may  re- 
quire treatment.  In  some  horses  the 
teeth  do  imt  wear  uniformly  across  the 
whole  surface  and  leave  points  which 
lacerate  the  tongue  and  checks.  Even 
a  casual  examination  will  show  whether 
such  points  are  present  or  not  and  they 
may  be  readily  removed.  In  the  case  oi 
severe  toothache  due  to  the  decay  of  a 
tooth,  it  is  necessary  for  the  farmer  to 
call  a  qualified  veterinarian,  since  the 
removal  of  a  horse's  tooth  is  a  rather 
difficult  operation. 

The  mucous  membrane  covering  the 
hard  palate  or  roof  of  the  mouth  fre- 
quently appears  to  be  somewhat  swol- 
len and  projects  downward  somewhat 
lower  than  usual.  Such  swelling  in 
most  cases  is  perfectly  natural  and 
needs  no  treatment.  There  has  been  a 
tendency  to  call  this  trouble  "lampas" 
and  to  lance  the  mouth  in  all  cases. 
This  is,  for  the  most  part,  unnecessary. 

The  lining  of  the  mouth  and  tongue 
sometimes  becomes  irritated  or  lacer- 
ated by  spines,  barbs  and  other  hard 
material  in  the  feed.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  after  the  use  of  hay  contain- 
ing wild  barley  or  foxtail  grass,   as   it 


is  commonly  called  through  the  west- 
ern states.  The  barbs  of  this  plant 
puncture  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth  where  they  break  off  and  re- 
main, causing  inflamed  areas  or  in  some 
cases  wdiite  patches  and  interfering 
with  the  feeding  of  the  horse.  This 
trouble  is  best  treated  by  changing  the 
diet,  feeding  clean,  wholesome  material 
and  washing  the  horse's  mouth  with  a 
weak  solution  of  borax. 

In  case  of  choke  from  some  large 
piece  of  feed  swallowed  by  the  horse, 
it  is  desirable  to  give  some  softening 
material  at  once,  such  as  oil  and  plenty 
of  water.  If  this  does  not  remove  the 
obstruction  in  the  throat,  the  use  of 
a  probang  becomes  necessary  and  if 
some  experience  has  not  been  had  in 
such  cases,  it  may  be  well  to  call  a 
veterinarian.  Some  farmers,  however, 
understand  how  to  use  a  perfectly 
smooth  oiled  stick  or  buggy  whip  in 
pushing  the  obstruction  down  the  gullet. 

Colic — The  horse  is  subject  to  various 
forms  of  colic,  some  of  which  are  quite 
dangerous  and  require  immediate  treat- 
ment. A  distinction  should  be  made  in 
treating  the  colic  of  horses  between  the 
various  forms  which  occur.  According 
to  Michener,  engorgement  colic  is  due 
to  overloading  the  stomach.  This  may 
be  the  result  of  a  ravenous  appetite  or 
of  the  accumulation  of  food  in  the  stom- 
ach   from  indigestion. 

Engorgement  colic  often  arises  when 
horses  are  fed  full  rations  during  a  pe- 
riod of  rest.  The  symptoms  include  ab- 
dominal pain,  retching  movements,  hard 
breathing,  upturned  upper  lip,  contrac- 
tion of  the  flank  and  arching  of  the  neck. 
Sometimes  the  horse  may  sit  down  like  a 
dog  or  may  show  violent  movements;  in 
other  instances  he  is  stupid  or  dazed 
and  leans  against  the  stall.  This  form 
of  colic  should  be  treated  by  rectal  in- 
jections of  large  quantities  of  water 
containing  turpentine.  If  the  pain  is 
acute,  it  may  be  relieved  by  giving  mor- 
phine in  five-grain  doses  or  Indian 
hemp  in  doses  of  two  drams. 

Obstruction  colic  is  a  very  common 
bowel  trouble  in  horses  which  requires 
prompt  treatment  or  the  disease  is  fatal. 
It  may  be  due  to  paralysis  of  the  bowels 
or  the  accumulation  of  partly  digested 
feed.  The  horse  shows  abdominal  pain, 
paws  and  lies  down  flat  on  his  side  with 
head  and  legs  extended.  At  quite  fre- 
quent intervals  he  rises  and  walks  about 


VISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


103 


looking  at  his  sides.  The  ahdomen  is 
distended,  but  not  with  gas.  In  treat- 
ing this  form  of  colic,  large  doses  of  a 
cathartic  should  be  given,  such  as  Bar- 
badoes  aloes  in  one-ounce  doses,  calo- 
mel in  doses  of  2  drams  or  a  pint  of 
linseed  oil;  castor  oil  may  also  be  given 
to  the  extent  of  1  pint  to  1  quart. 
Some  veterinarians  recommend  Epsom 
or  Glauber  salts  in  doses  of  1  pound. 
Enemas  of  turpentine  (tablespoonful  in 
a  quart  of  water)  are  also  beneficial. 

Flatulent  colic,  also  called  wind 
colic  or  bloat,  is  usually  due  to  sudden 
changes  of  food,  too  long  fasting  or  to 
the  eating  of  excessive  quantities  of  feed 
after  exhaustion.  The  symptoms  do  not 
develop  so  rapidly  as  in  spasmodic  colic. 
The  horse  appears  dull,  paws  somewhat 
and  the  pain  seems  to  be  continuous 
from  the  start.  The  abdomen  swells 
and  if  the  symptoms  are  not  relieved,  the 
breathing  and  heart  beat  are  violent  and 
rapid.  The  characteristic  symptom  of 
the  disease  is  the  accumulation  of  gas 
in  the  intestines.  For  this  form  of  colic, 
charcoal  may  be  given  in  large  quanti- 
ties. Chloral  hydrate  may  be  adminis- 
tered as  a  drench  in  doses  of  1  ounce 
in  a  pint  of  water.  Spirits  of  ammonia 
may  also  be  given  in  water  in  one-ounce 
doses.  A  cathartic  should  be  used  as 
soon  as  possible,  preferably  Barbadoes 
aloes,  accompanied  with  rectal  injec- 
tions of  linseed  oil  or  turpentine. 

Spasmodic  colic,  also  called  cramp 
colic,  is  the  name  commonly  used  for  the 
form  of  colic  caused  by  contraction  of  a 
part  of  the  small  intestines  and  is  usu- 
ally due  to  excessive  drinking  of  water 
or  indigestible  food.  Cramp  colic  al- 
ways begins  suddenly.  The  horse  stops, 
stamps  and  looks  back  at  his  side.  Pain 
is  shown  by  pawing,  lying  down,  rolling 
and  getting  up  frequently.  Each  at- 
tack is  followed  by  an  interval  of  ease, 
during  which  the  horse  appears  to  be 
entirely  well.  Soon  after,  the  pain  re- 
turns with  increased  severity  and  the 
intervals  between  the  later  attacks  are 
shorter.  If  the  pain  becomes  very  acute, 
the  horse  may  plunge  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  he  will  seriously  injure  him- 
self if  kept  in  an  ordinary  stall.  It  is 
commonly  believed  that  high  bred  horses 
with  a  round  barrel  are  particularly  sub- 
ject to  this  disease.  For  the  treatment 
of  cramp  colic,  chloral  hydrate  may  be 
used  in  one-ounce  doses  diluted  in  water, 
or  a  mixture  of  2  ounces  each  of  sul- 


phuric ether  and  laudanum  in  a  half 
pint  of  linseed  oil.  If  these  materials 
are  not  at  hand,  whiskey  or  Jamaica  gin- 
ger are  useful.  Blankets  dipped  in 
water  containing  a  little  turpentine  and 
placed  about  the  belly  offer  some  relief. 
A  cathartic  of  aloes  or  linseed  oil  may 
also  be  given  with  enemas  of  water  con- 
taining turpentine. 

Worm  colic — Horses  are  also  subject 
to  a  number  of  intestinal  parasites,  in- 
cluding at  least  three  kinds  of  tape 
worms,  several  small  round  worms  and 
the  common  long  round  worm  of  the 
stomach.  The  intestinal  worm  most  fre- 
quently seen  is  Ascaris  equorum.  They 
are  white  or  reddish  in  color  and 
vary  from  4  to  12  inches  in  length. 
The  symptoms  of  infestation  with 
worms  are  not  easily  recognizable  but 
the  condition  may  be  known  from  the 
presence  of  worms  in  the  feces.  In  treat- 
ing this  disease  it  should  be  remembered 
that  remedies  are  more  effective  upon 
the  worms  if  given  after  a  long  fast. 
If  round  worms  are  observed  in  the 
feces,  it  is  well  to  give  daily  for  three 
or  four  days  a  drench  containing  1 
ounce  of  creolin  and  2  or  3  ounces 
of  linseed  oil,  followed  by  1  ounce  of 
Barbadoes  aloes  on  the  fourth  day. 

Jaundice  is  caused  by  the  absorption 
of  the  bile  into  the  blood  and  may  be 
recognized  by  the  yellow  tinge  of  the 
mucous  membranes  or  even  of  the  skin 
in  white  or  light  gray  horses.  The  dis- 
ease occurs  as  a  result  of  some  liver 
trouble  and  may  best  be  treated  in  most 
cases  by  the  administration  of  calomel 
in  two-dram  doses  followed  by  7  drams 
of  aloes. 

Peritonitis  Js  a  serious  inflammation 
of  the  membrane  lining  the  body  cavity. 
It  is  rarely  seen  as  a  primary  disease 
but  frequently  occurs  as  a  result  of  care- 
lessness in  castration.  Inattention  to 
the  castration  wound  may  lead  to  in- 
fection which  penetrates  along  the  cords 
into  the  body  cavity.  This  disease  is 
usually  ushered  in  with  a  chill,  followed 
by  high  fever,  stiffness  and  pawing  or 
striking  at  the  belly.  The  horse  lies 
down  carefully,  walks  uneasily  about  the 
stall  and  in  the  later  stages  of  the  dis- 
ease prefers  to  stand.  The  flanks  are 
tucked  up  and  the  legs  cold.  The  pulse 
is  hard,  wiry  and  rapid,  ranging  from 
70  to  90  beats  a  minute.  Treatment 
should  consist  in  giving  opium  in  the 
powdered  form  in  doses  of  from  1  to 


104 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


2  drams,  followed  by  half-dram  doses 
of  calomel  every  two  or  three  hours. 
Mustard  poultices  or  other  counter  irri- 
tants may  also  be  applied  to  the  belly. 

Diabetes  is  characterized  by  an  ex- 
cessive secretion  of  a  clear,  watery  urine, 
great  thirst,  loss  of  strength  and  rapid 
emaciation.  The  cause  of  the  disease  is 
to  be  sought  in  any  drug  or  food  which 
unduly  stimulates  the  kidneys.  Affected 
horses  may  live  for  months  or  may  die 
of  exhaustion  within  a  short  time. 
Treatment  is  not  always  successful  by 
any  means,  but  should  properly  con- 
sist of  a  change  of  diet,  the  use  of 
wholesome  food,  boiled  flaxseed  in  the 
drinking  water  and  tonics  like  powdered 
gentian  in  doses  of  4  drams  and  phos- 
phate of  iron  in  two-dram  doses. 

Saccharine  diabetes  is  another  form 
of  the  disease  primarily  due  to  an  affec- 
tion of  the  liver  rather  than  of  the  kid- 
neys. The  chief  symptom  is  the 
secretion  of  a  large  quantity  of  urine 
containing  sugar.  As  is  well  known, 
the  liver  has  the  function  of  storing 
sugar  in  the  form  of  glycogen,  but  may 
at  times  fail  to  perform  this  function, 
leaving  large  quantities  of  sugar  in  the 
blood  which  is  excreted  through  the  kid- 
neys. The  excessive  use  of  sugar  or 
molasses  in  the  ration  may  give  rise 
temporarily  to  this  form  of  diabetes. 
If  the  liver  is  not  seriously  affected  the 
disease  may  best  be  treated  by  allowing 
the  horse  to  run  at  pasture  and  by  ad- 
ministering carbonate  of  potash  in  doses 
of  ^4  ounce ;  mix  vomica  in  half -dram 
doses  is  also  useful  in  improving  the 
general   health. 

Bloody  urine  is  ordinarily  caused  by 
mechanical  injuries  or  sprains  in  the 
region  of  the  loins  or  by  bladder  stones. 
Certain  plants  also  produce  this  effect, 
at  least  temporarily.  Thus,  in  some 
cases  bloody  urine  may  be  observed  as 
the  result  of  feeding  pea  straw  to  horses 
for  long  periods.  In  treating  this  dis- 
ease it  is  necessary  to  avoid  all  irritating 
substances  in  the  food.  Slippery  elm 
or  linseed  tea  may  be  added  to  the  drink- 
ing water  and  in  some  cases  cold  water 
applied  to  the  loins  is  beneficial.  It  is 
also  well  to  give  chloride  of  iron  in 
three-dram  doses. 

Azoturia,  also  called  hemoglobinuria, 
is  due  to  disease  of  the  liver  rather  than 
that  of  the  kidneys,  but  the  characteris- 
tic symptoms  are  loss  of  control  of  the 
hind  legs  and  the  excretion  of  dark-col- 


ored, ropy  urine  of  a  reddish  or  brownish 
color.  This  disease  is  in  most  instances 
connected  with  the  use  of  a  highly  nitrog- 
enous diet  containing  large  quantities 
of  beans,  peas,  cottonseed  meal,  oats, 
etc,  especially  when  given  to  working 
horses  during  a  period  of  idleness. 
Azoturia  never  appears  among  horses 
at  pasture  and  rarely  among  working 
horses,  except  on  holidays  or  days  when 
they  are  allowed  to  rest  without  a  cor- 
responding reduction  of  their  ration. 
Azoturia  may  cause  death  within  a  few 
hours  or  days,  or  recovery  may  take  place 
under  the  proper  treatment.  The  dis- 
ease may  be  largely  prevented  by  atten- 
tion to  the  diet,  reducing  the  amount  of 
protein  and  reducing  the  whole  ration 
during  periods  of  idleness.  Treatment 
may  consist  in  the  use  of  laxatives, 
daily  exercise  and  a  one-ounce  dose  of 
saltpeter  given  each  day.  Bromide  of 
potash  in  a  four-dram  dose  sometimes 
yields  encouraging  results,  as  does  also 
iodide  of  potash  in  half-ounce  doses 
every  four  hours. 

Inflammation  of  the  urinary  organs 
— Horses  are  also  subject  to  acute  or 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  kidneys, 
tumors  in  the  kidneys,  parasites  in  these 
organs,  inflammation  and  paralysis  of 
the  bladder  and  stricture  of  the  urethra 
as  well  as  urinary  calculi.  In  cases 
where  evidence  appears  of  stones  or 
gravel  in  the  urinary  organs,  whether 
in  the  kidneys,  ureter,  bladder  or 
urethra,  the  treatments  ordinarily  rec- 
ommended have  not  shown  very  encour- 
aging results.  The  continued  use  of 
carbonate  of  potash  or  muriatic  acid  in 
the  drinking  water  may  break  down  the 
stones  formed  in  the  urinary  organs,  but 
it  is  seldom  that  any  method  of  treating 
this  disease  is  perfectly  satisfactory. 

DISEASES    OE    THE    RESPIRATORY 
ORGANS 

The  horse  is  subject  to  colds,  catarrh, 
bronchitis,  pneumonia  and  other  simple 
inflammatory  or  more  serious  diseases 
of  the  respiratory  organs,  and  these 
troubles  are  frequently  due  to  badly  ven- 
tilated stables,  and  exposure  to  cold 
rains  or  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 
In  a  case  of  simple  cold,  no  serious  re- 
sults need  be  feared,  provided  the  trouble 
is  not  unduly  neglected. .  It  may  be  well 
to  allow  the  horse  to  rest  a  few  days  and 
supply  warm  food  and  water  in  a  stable 
where  the  temperature  and  pure  air  sup- 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


105 


ply  may  be  easily  regulated.  Good  re- 
sults are  usually  obtained  also  from 
giving  bran  mash  or  linseed  gruel.  If 
the  horse  is  somewhat  constipated  this 
symptom  may  be  relieved  by  the  use  of 
enemas  of  warm  water  and  the  animal 
may  be  made  to  inhale  steam  for  fifteen 
to  twenty  minutes  four  or  five  times  a 
day.  If  the  discharge  from  the  nose 
does  not  cease  within  a  reasonable  time, 
tonics  may  be  administered. 

Chronic  catarrh,  or  as  it  is  sometimes 
called  "nasal  gleet,"  is  essentially  a 
chronic  persistence  of  a  cold  and  con- 
sists of  an  inflammation  of  the  nasal 
membrane.  Occasionally  the  same 
trouble  is  due  to  a  fracture  of  a  bone 
in  the  nose  from  blows,  or  to  diseased 
teeth.  This  disease  is  not  contagious  but 
great  precaution  should  be  exercised  to 
make  sure  the  trouble  is  chronic  catarrh 
and  not  glanders.  In  some  cases  of 
chronic  catarrh  the  glands  under  the 
jaw  are  somewhat  swollen  but  there  are 
never  ulcers  with  ragged  edges  in  the 
nostrils,  such  as  are  seen  in  glanders. 
Attention  should  be  given  to  the  food 
and  water  and  a  tonic  may  be  adminis- 
tered containing  a  mixture  of  3  ounces 
reduced  iron  and  1  ounce  powdered  nux 
vomica.  This  material  should  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  and  made  into  16  powders, 
which  are  to  be  given  twice  a  day  for 
eight  days. 

Minor  respiratory  difficulties — The 
horse  is  also  subject  to  nasal  polypus, 
bleeding  from  the  nose,  inflammation 
of  the  pharynx,  sore  throat  and  spasm 
of  the  larynx.  These  troubles,  however, 
are  not  of  sufficiently  frequent  occur- 
rence to  merit  a  discussion  in  this  con- 
nection. "Thick  wind"  and  "roaring'7 
are  terms  applied  to  difficulty  in  breath- 
ing which  is  sometimes  shown  by  horses. 
Thick  wind  may  be  due  to  the  presence 
of  nasal  polypus,  deformed  bone,  paraly- 
sis of  one  side  of  the  nostril  and  other 
causes.  In  chronic  roaring,  a  peculiar 
noise  is  made  when  the  air  is  drawn  into 
the  lungs.  This  trouble  is  due  to 
paralysis  of  the  muscles  which  move  one 
of  the  cartilages  of  the  larynx  and  us- 
ually is  to  be  treated  by  surgical  opera- 
tion. Similar  troubles  in  breathing  are 
referred  to  under  the  names  of  grunt- 
ing,  high-blowing   and   whistling. 

Lung  troubles—The  lungs  of  the  horse 
may  be  affected  by  congestion  of  a  tem- 
porary sort  or  by  pneumonia  in  the  form 


frequently  referred  to  as  lung  fever. 
Pneumonia  is  ushered  in  by  chill,  after 
which  the  breathing  becomes  rapid,  the 
animal  hangs  its  head  and  the  tempera- 
ture rises.  In  cases  of  pneumonia  the 
horse  does  not  lie  down  but  persists  in 
standing  during  the  whole  course  of  the 
disease.  In  treating  this  trouble  pure 
air  is  essential  and  it  is  better  to  have 
proper  ventilation,  even  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  cold,  than  to  secure  a  higher  tem- 
perature with  foul  air.  If  the  legs  be- 
come cold  they  may  be  warmed  up  by 
rubbing,  and  hot  blankets  may  be  applied 
to  the  chest  at  frequent  intervals  until 
the  most  violent  stage  of  congestion  is 
relieved.  Since  the  heart  is  often  very 
much  weakened  during  the  progress  of 
pneumonia,  great  precaution  should  be 
used  in  giving  aconite,  since  this  is  a 
powerful  depressant.  The  diet  should 
consist  of  a  laxative  food  such  as  bran 
mash  or  green  feed  if  in  season.  Stimu- 
lants are  indicated  in  nearly  all  case3 
of  pneumonia.  One  that  is  commonly 
recommended  consists  in  repeated  doses 
of  6  ounces  of  whiskey. 

Horses  may  also  be  affected  by  inflam- 
mation followed  by  the  formation  of  pus 
in  the  guttural  pouches  or  by  pleurisy, 
bronchitis,  abscesses  in  the  lungs, 
chronic  cough,  rupture  of  the  diaphragm 
and  thumps. 

Heaves  [8  a  disease  so  frequently  re- 
ferred to  that  special  mention  of  it  may 
be  made  in  connection  with  the  diseases 
of  the  respiratory  organs.  The  peculiar 
irregular  movements  of  the  flanks  and 
abdomen  seen  in  horses  affected  with 
heaves  are  familiar  to  all  horse  raisers. 
While  heaves  appears  to  be  a  disease  of 
the  respiratory  organs,  its  cause  is  usu- 
ally sought  in  the  use  of  improper  food, 
particularly  smutty  or  moldy  clover  or 
other  leguminous  forage  plants.  Heaves 
is  also  referred  to  under  the  names  of 
broken  wind  or  asthma.  The  trouble 
may  be  obscured  by  temporary  treatment 
and  this  gives  occasion  to  some  decep- 
tion by  horse  dealers.  The  presence  of 
the  disease,  however,  may  be  readily 
shown  by  driving  the  horse  rapidly  up 
hill,  when  the  peculiar  symptoms  of 
heaves  will  at  once  appear  if  the  horse 
is  affected  with  the  disease.  There  is 
no  complete  cure  for  the  disease  if  it  has 
persisted  for  some  time,  but  the  more 
distressing  symptoms  may  be  relieved 
by  giving  attention  to  the  diet. 


106 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


DISEASES     OF   THE     NERVOUS 
SYSTEM 

While  the  diseases  peculiar  to  the 
nervous  system  of  the  horse  are  not 
readily  recognized  by  the  average  farmer 
and  are  not  easily  treated,  it  may  be 
well  to  mention  briefly  some  of  the 
more  important  ones.  The  membrane 
of  the  brain  may  undergo  an  inflamma- 
tion, which  gives  rise  to  cerebritis  or  men- 
ingitis, as  it  is  also  called.  This  trouble 
is  usually  caused  by  exposure,  extreme 
heat  or  cold,  overfeeding  with  nitrogen- 
ous food  or  injury  to  the  brain.  The 
first  symptoms  are  usually  those  of  men- 
tal excitement  and  are  followed  by  de- 
pression, muscular  twi  tellings  and  con- 
vulsive or  spasmodic  movements.  In 
violent  cases  there  is  delirium  and 
plunging.  About  the  only  treatment 
which  can  be  applied  in  such  cases  is 
the  use  of  ice  packs  upon  the  head  and 
bleeding  in  case  the  heart  action  is  very 
violent.  Some  benefit  is  also  derived 
from  the  use  of  a  cathartic,  such  as 
Barbadoes  aloes,  in  doses  of  7  drams. 

Congestion  0f  the  brain,  also  known 
as  megrims,  may  be  due  to  the  influence 
of  great  heat,  sudden  excitement  or  arti- 
ficial stimulation.  Tat  horses  with 
short  necks  are  especially  subject  to  this 
disease.  The  symptoms  appear  sud- 
denly. The  animal  stops,  staggers  and 
falls  and  the  breathing  is  fast  and 
noisy.  In  some  cases  loosening  the  col- 
lar gives  immediate  relief.  The  animal 
may  be  given  a  large  dose  of  Glauber 
salts  or  some  other  purgative  and  bleed- 
ing from  the  jugular  vein  will  give  re- 
lief if  the  blood  pressure  is  high. 

Sunstroke — In  cases  of  this  disease 
the  animal  suddenly  stops,  droops  his 
head,  staggers  and  falls  to  the  ground 
unconscious.  The  breathing  is  noisy 
and  the  pulse  slow  and  irregular.  The 
temperature  may  rise  to  107°  or  109° 
F.  In  sunstroke  no  bleeding  should  ever 
be  permitted.  Ice  or  cold  water  may  be 
applied  to  the  head  and  spinal  cord  and 
whiskey  in  six-ounce  doses  given  with 
half  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia 
may  be  administered. 

Minor  nervous  diseases — Among  the 
other  nervous  diseases  to  which  the 
horse  is  subject,  mention  may  be  made 
of  apoplexy,  anemia  of  the  brain,  dropsy 
of  the  brain,  nervous  spasms  affecting 
various  parts  of  the  body,  epilepsy, 
paralysis,   spinal   congestion,   nerve   tu- 


mors, electric  shock  and  chorea  or  St 
Vitus'  dance.  The  last  named  trouble 
is  characterized  by  involuntary  muscu- 
lar contractions  affecting  different  parts 
of  the  body.  Stringhalt  is  sometimes 
considered  as  a  form  of  chorea.  In 
cases  of  stringhalt,  one  or  both  of  the 
hind  legs  may  be  suddenly  jerked  up  to 
a  much  greater  height  than  is  usual  in 
walking.  The  disease  rarely  affects  the 
front  legs.  The  symptoms  usually  be- 
come more  pronounced  in  old  age. 
There  is  little  success  to  be  expected 
from  treatment  of  this  trouble.  Occa- 
sionally some  benefit  is  derived  from 
giving  iodide  of  iron  in  doses  of  1  dram. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD  SYSTEM 

Nearly  all  of  the  troubles  which  come 
under  this  head  are  difficult  to  recog- 
nize, except  for  the  trained  veterinarian, 
and  are  not  easily  treated.  A  number 
of  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  heart 
are  known,  affecting  the  muscle  proper, 
the  external  covering  or  the  internal 
covering.  The  symptoms  of  inflamma- 
tion of  the  heart  may  include  a  chill, 
sudden  increase  in  temperature  and  ir- 
regular heart  sounds  which  may  be  noted 
by  placing  the  ear  over  the  heart  on  the 
left  side  of  the  animal.  The  horse  may 
also  be  affected  with  pericarditis,  val- 
vular disease  of  the  heart,  palpitation, 
fainting,  enlargement  of  the  heart, 
fatty  degeneration,  arterial  weakness, 
varicose  veins  and  other  similar  troubles 
which  closely  resemble  in  their  symp- 
toms the  same  diseases  in  man. 

Purpura  hemorrhagica — This  disease 
ordinarily  occurs  as  a  sequel  to  stran- 
gles, influenza  or  some  other  infectious 
and  debilitating  trouble.  It  may,  how- 
ever, occur  as  a  primary  and  independ- 
ent disease.  Swellings  suddenly  ap- 
pear on  various  parts  of  the  body,  head, 
lips,  legs,  belly,  etc.  The  swellings  are 
not  very  painful  to  the  touch,  but  may 
acquire  large  size.  The  nostrils  may  be- 
come so  badly  swollen  as  almost  to  be 
closed.  In  the  mouth  and  nostrils  dark 
red  or  purple  spots  may  be  seen  and  a 
blood-colored  discharge  may  take  place 
from  the  nose.  This  trouble  is  best 
treated  by  the  use  of  sulphate  of  iron 
in  one-dram  doses  every  six  hours  or  by 
giving  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  one- 
dram  doses,  together  with  half  an  ounce 
of  tincture  of  ginger  and  2  drams  of 
fluid  extract  of  red  cinchona  bark.  If 
colloidal    silver    can   be    obtained,    this 


Diseases  of  animals 


lot 


remedy  will  give  excellent  results  if  ad- 
ministered in  doses  of  5  to  12  grains  by 
intra-venous  injections. 

LAMENESS 

On  account  of  the  unusual  exposure 
to  strains,  the  horse  is  subject  to  more 
forms  of  lameness  than  any  other  of 
our  domestic  animals.  Lameness  may  be 
due  to  strains  of  the  muscles,  ligaments 
or  the  joint  capsules  in  any  part  of  the 
leg    or     shoulder     and    pelvic     girdles. 


Splints  are  bony  enlargements  which 
occur  between  the  hock  and  fetlock 
joints  on  the  inside  of  the  leg.  They 
may  vary  greatly  in  size  in  different 
horses.  Most  frequently  they  appear  on 
the  fore  leg.  Splints  often  accompany 
lameness  which  is  not  a  continuous 
trouble  but  becomes  more  pronounced 
after  considerable  exercise.  Since 
splints  are  relatively  harmless,  it  is  not 
desirable  to  interfere  by  means  of  reme- 
dial   measures   unless   they   become   an 


Fig.   55 — A  FORM  OF  SLING  FOR  USE  IN  TREATING    CERTAIN    DISEASES 


Lameness,  as  ordinarily  understood, 
means  any  irregularity  of  movement 
in  the  horse  due  to  some  disabling 
of  the  organs  of  locomotion.  Ordina- 
rily it  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to 
detect  the  exact  seat  of  lameness  in 
a  horse  and  the  methods  by  which  diag- 
nosis is  made  in  different  kinds  of  lame- 
ness cannot  be  described  in  this  place. 
We  may  briefly  mention  a  number  of  the 
common  forms  of  lameness  in  horses,  to- 
gether with  notes  on  their  treatment. 


actual  cause  of  lameness.  Tincture  of 
iodine  may  be  applied  to  the  inflamed 
parts  several  times  daily  and  if  this 
method  docs  not  give  results,  resort  may 
be  had  to  blistering  by  means  of  Span- 
ish fly.  Splint  is  especially  common 
in  cities,  where  it  is  a  rare  thing  to  find 
a  horse  wheh  does  not  show  one  or 
more. 

Ring-bones — This  term  is  used  to  de- 
note an  enlargement  of  the  bone  around 
the  coronet.    The  bony  ring  may  occupy 


108 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


several  positions  with  regard  to  its 
height  from  the  hoof,  giving  rise  to 
high,  middle  and  low  ring-bones.  The 
disease  may  result  from  severe  labor, 
bruises,  sprains  or  injuries  to  the  liga- 
ments. Apparently,  also,  ring-bone  may 
be  partly  of  a  hereditary  nature  or  at 
least  the  tendency  seems  to  be  inherited 
to  develop  ring-bone.  This  trouble  is 
rather  more  serious  than  splints.  It 
causes  a  defect  which  must  lead  to  the 
rejection  of  a  horse  on  account  of  un- 
soundness even  if  no  actual  lameness  is 
present.  Eing-bone  may  be  largely  pre- 
vented by  the  use  of  well  balanced  ra- 
tions and  care  in  trimming  the  hoofs  of 
young  colts  so  that  the  foot  is  always 
properly  balanced.  Even  after  ring- 
bone has  developed,  it  is  sometimes  pos- 
sible to  cure  it  by  proper  shoeing  so  as 
to  straighten  the  axis  of  the  foot.  In 
many  cases  relief  or  cure  is  obtained  by 
the  use  of  sharp  blisters  of  cantharides 
and  biniodide  of  mercury.  The  actual 
cautery  is  also  employed  in  treating  this 
disease.  If  none  of  these  treatments 
bring  the  desired  results,  the  trouble 
may  be  remedied  by  the  operation  known 
a3  neurectomy,  which  consists  in  sever- 
ing the  plantar  or  median  nerve. 

Bone  spavin  is  a  bony  outgrowth  of 
the  hock  joint.  Enlargement  usually 
appears  on  the  front  and  inner  side  of 
the  joint,  but  may  sometimes  occur  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  hock.  In  certain 
cases  there  is  no  enlargement  of  the 
joint  which  may  be  detected  by  sight  or 
touch.  Such  cases  of  spavin  are  due  to 
partial  union  of  the  bones  which  con- 
stitute the  joint.  Bone  spavin  inter- 
feres in  a  serious  manner  with  the 
usefulness  of  the  affected  horse.  The  lo- 
cation of  the  enlargement  gives  rise  to 
the  terms  high,  outside,  or  external 
spavin.  Spavin  as  a  rule  is  due  to 
bruises  or  strains,  particularly  in  vio- 
lent efforts  put  forth  in  jumping,  trot- 
ting or  galloping.  After  a  spavin  has 
become  thoroughly  established,  the  us- 
ual remedies  are  not  very  satisfactory. 
Horses  should  at  once  be  turned  out  to 
pasture  and  allowed  to  rest  for  not  less 
than  one  month.  Some  benefit  may  be 
expected,  especially  in  the  early  stages 
of  the  disease,  by  the  use  of  astringent 
liniments  such  as  iodine  or  from  freely 
cauterizing  with  a  firing  iron. 

Side  bones — On  either  side  of  the 
coffin  bone  there  is  a  cartilage  which 
may  in  certain   cases  become  hardened 


by  deposits  of  mineral  matters  which 
may  thus  lead  to  lameness.  Side  bones 
are  situated  on  one  or  both  sides  of  the 
leg  and  bulge  above  the  upper  border  of 
the  hoof.  They  may  be  the  result  of  in- 
flamed conditions,  bruises,  or  may  follow 
troubles  like  corns,  quittor  or  quarter 
crack.  The  treatment  usually  recom- 
mended for  side  bones  consists  in  the 
free  use  of  cold  foot  baths  and  tincture 
of  iodine  applied  to  the  swollen  parts. 
Minor  difficulties  which  cause  lame- 
ness— In  addition  to  these  bone  dis- 
eases which  may  cause  lameness,  the 
horse  is  also  subject  to  fractures  of  bones 
in  various  parts  of  the  body,  the  symp- 
toms and  conditions  naturally  varying 
with  the  part  affected.  Lameness  may 
also  be  caused  by  various  troubles  lo- 
cated in  or  around  the  joints.  For  ex- 
ample, wind  gall  is  a  name  given  to  the 
enlargement  of  the  joint  sack  at  the 
back   part   of  the   fetlock   joint.      They 


Fig.    56 — QUARTER   CRACK   TREATED   BY 
CLAMPING    WITH     NAILS 

appear  in  the  form  of  soft  tumors  of 
varying  size  and  are  caused  by  strains, 
jumping  or  bruises.  Sometimes  the 
trouble  may  be  checked  by  the  long  con- 
tinued application  of  cold  water.  Pres- 
sure bandages  may  also  be  used  and 
liniments  and  blisters   applied. 

The  bog  spavin,  blood  spavin  and 
thoroughpin  are  sometimes  confused. 
Blood  spavin  is  located  in  front  and  on 
the  inside  of  the  hock  and  is  merely 
a  varicose  condition  of  the  vein.  Bog 
spavin  is  a  round,  smooth  tumor  in 
front  and  on  the  inside  of  the  hock. 
Under  pressure  it  disappears  and  re- 
appears on  the  outside  and  back  of  the 
hock.  Thoroughpin  is  found  at  the  back 
and  top  of  the  hock.     The  treatment 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


109 


recommended  by  Liautard  consists  in 
deep  and  thorough  cauterization.  Lame- 
ness may  also  be  caused  by  broken 
knees,  inflammation  of  the  joints  and 
dislocations,  'straining  of  the  shoulder 
known  as  sweeny,  muscular  strains, 
sprains  of  the  suspensory  ligament  and 
by  conditions  which  give  rise  to  knuck- 
ling of  the  fetlock,  sprung  knees,  curb, 
capped  elbow,  capped  knee  or  capped 
hock. 

Among  the  various  troubles  located 
in  the  foot,  ankle  and  fetlock  of  the 
horse,  mention  may  be  made  of  several 
with  a  brief  description  of  a  few  of  the 
more  important  ones.  Thus,  the  foot 
may  show  a  faulty  conformation  known 
as  flat  foot,  club  foot  or  crooked  foot. 
The  horse  may  interfere  or  strike  one 
foot  against  the  opposite  leg  as  the  re- 
sult of  faulty  conformation  of  the  foot. 
Again,  a  partial  dislocation  of  the  fet- 
lock joint  may  lead  to  knuckling  or 
cocked  ankles.  Wounds  and  more  or 
less  serious  injuries  may  be  produced 
by  overreaching,  especially  in  trotting 
and  running  horses,  or  from  calk  wounds 
on  either  the  fore  or  hind  feet.  Occa- 
sionally, also,  the  feet  become  injured  by 
frost  bite. 

Quittor  is  a  term  applied  to  a  degen- 
eration of  certain  tissues  of  the  foot, 
followed  by  the  formation  of  pus. 
The  disease  is  due  to  bruises  or  wounds 
of  the  coronet  or  other  parts  of  the 
foot.  Quittor  causes  more  or  less  se- 
rious lameness.  It  may  be  treated  most 
successfully  by  a  surgical  operation, 
removal  of  all  of  the  degenerated  mate- 
rial, as  well  as  pus,  and  treating  the 
parts  in  a  thoroughly  antiseptic  man- 
ner. 

Corns — Much  trouble  is  sometimes 
experienced  from  corns  which  consist 
in  injury  to  the  horn  of  the  foot  involv- 
ing the  soft  tissues  beneath.  Pus  may 
form  and  the  foot  may  become  exceed- 
ingly sensitive.  As  a  rule,  heavy  horses 
working  on  rough  streets  are  most  lia- 
ble to  this  disease.  Mules  rarely  have 
corns  and  this  seems  to  indicate  that 
the  mule's  foot  is  best  adapted  to  receiv- 
ing bruises  upon  the  hard  pavement 
without  endangering  the  tissues  under- 
neath the  horn  of  the  foot.  The  trouble 
may  sometimes  be  remedied  merely  by 
removing  the  shoes  and  turning  the  horse 
to  pasture.  If  pus  is  formed,  however,  it 
is  necessary  to  open  the  cavity  and  cleanse 
the  affected  part.    The  feet  are  also  sub- 


ject to  sand  cracks,  quarter  cracks,  con- 
tracted heels  and  founder  or  lammitis. 
The  last  named  disease  is  a  general  in- 
flammation of  the  sensitive  tissue  of  the 
foot  and  may  be  due  to  bruises,  wounds 
or  direct  injury  to  the  hoof,  or  may  re- 
sult as  a  sequel  to  some  infectious  dis- 
ease. It  may  affect  all  of  the  feet,  or  one 
or  more,  and  may  assume  an  acute  or 
chronic  form.     The  treatment  varies  in 
different  cases  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  trouble.     In  some  cases  surgical 
interference  must  be  resorted  to,  but  if 
the  early  stages  of  the  disease  are  no- 
ticed,   cold   foot    baths    and    antiseptics 
applied  to  the  foot  are  sometimes  suffi- 
cient to  correct  the  trouble. 
DISEASES  OF  THE  SKIN 
.  Eczema  is  often  the  result  of  indiges- 
tion and  may  be  best  treated  by  the  use 
of  large  doses  of  laxatives,  followed  by 
a  daily  dose  of  20  grains  nux  vomica 
and    V2    ounce    gentian    root.      A    sim- 
ilar  treatment   may  be   adopted   in  the 
case  of  nettle  rash  and  scaly  skin  dis- 
ease. _  In  the  case  of  herpes,  which  oc- 
curs  in   the  form  of  skin   eruptions  in 
circular    areas,    zinc    ointment    usually 
gives    satisfactory    results.      Grease    or 
canker  is  a  specific  disease  of  the  heels 
of  horses  and  is  commonly  due  to  a  par- 
asitic fungus.     In  treating  this  trouble 
it  is  necessary  to  cleanse  the  parts  thor- 
oughly  and   protect   them   against  mud 
and  filth  by  the  application  of  bandages. 
The  affected  parts  may  be  dressed  with 
a  mixture  containing  1  ounce  vaseline, 
2  drams  zinc  oxide  and  20  drops  iodized 
phenol.     The  skin  of  the  horse  is  also 
subject    to    erysipelas,    horse    pox,    the 
growth  of  warts,  ringworm  and  mange. 
The  symptoms  of  mange  are  incessant 
itching  and  rubbing.     The  treatment  of 
this   disease   should    consist   in    the   re- 
moval of  the  scabs  by  means  of  soapsuds 
anda  thorough  application  of  some  in- 
secticide, preferably  mixtures  similar  to 
the  dips  used  for  sheep  scab.     Ordina- 
rily the  trouble  may  be  prevented  by  a 
thorough  application  of  a  decoction  of 
V-/2  ounces  tobacco  in  2  pints  of  water. 
Fistula  is   a  term   used  to   designate 
pipes  or  tubes  leading  from  cavities  in 
the  muscles  to  the  surface  of  the  body, 
through    which     a     constant     discharge 
takes    place.      These    tubes    are   usually 
lined  by  a  false  membrane  and  do  not 
heal.      Fistula   may  occur  on   any  part 
of  the  body  but  is  most  common  on  the 
withers  or  poll.     In  the  latter  situation 


110 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


fistula  is  known  as  poll  evil.  Both  fis- 
tulous withers  and  poll  evil  are  due  to 
blows  or  rubbing  from  improperly  fit- 
ting saddle  or  harness.  The  muscles  at 
these  points  are  so  arranged  that  any 
pus  which  forms  at  the  highest  point 
of  the  muscle  has  a  tendency  to  burrow 
more  deeply  rather  than  to  make  its  way 
to  the  surface,  the  result  being  a  run- 
ning sore  in  every  case.  If  this  trouble 
is  noticed  in  the  early  stages,  it  may  be 
successfully  treated  by  removing  the 
whole  false  membrane  with  a  knife.  In 
long  standing  cases,  however,  it  is  best 
to  make  an  opening  to  the  outside  at  a 
point  slightly  lower  than  the  bottom 
of  the  pocket  which  contains  the  pus. 
This  operation  establishes  a  free  drain- 
age to  the  outside,  and  the  opening  may 
be  prevented  from  healing  too  soon  by 
tying  a  string  through  the  wound.  The 
healing  process  may  then  be  brought 
about  gradually  by  repeated  washing  of 
the  cavity  with  strong,  antiseptic  solu- 
tions such  as  blue  vitriol,  corrosive  sub- 
limate or  carbolic  acid.  Before  making 
the  opening  to  the  outside,  it  is  some- 
times desirable  to  place  a  stick  of  lunar 
caustic  or  a  small  quantity  of  blue  vit- 
riol in  the  upper  natural  opening  of  the 
fistula  in  order  to  destroy  the  false  mem- 
brane. 

Wounds — Too  little  attention  is  given 
to  the  treatment  of  wounds  in  farm  ani- 
mals, particularly  in  horses  and  mules. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  various 
diseases,  especially  lockjaw,  may  be  con- 
tracted through  fresh  wounds  and  there 
is  always  some  danger  of  blood  poison- 
ing. Moreover,  even  shallow  wounds 
may  become  exceedingly  sore  and  cause 
a  great  amount  of  pain  and  worry  to  the 
horse.  Where  cut  surfaces  are  kept  per- 
fectly clean,  the  wound  heals  without 
the  formation  of  pus.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances,  however,  this  is  impossi- 
ble with  farm  animals.  Nevertheless, 
whenever  an  animal  receives  a  wound, 
an  effort  should  be  made  to  treat  it  so 
as  to  at  least  prevent  the  development 
of  dangerous  bacteria.  For  this  purpose 
corrosive  sublimate  may  be  used  at  the 
rate  of  one  part  in  a  thousand  parts  of 
water;  or  a  1  per  cent  solution  of 
carbolic  acid,  a  2  per  cent  solution  of 
lysol,  formalin  or  creolin.  If  the  wound 
is  so  situated  that  it  cannot  be  con- 
veniently bandaged,  it  may  be  well  to 
keep  the  surface  covered  with  iodoform 
or  some  other  dry  antiseptic.    Attention 


should  also  be  given  to  wounds  to  pre- 
vent flies  from  depositing  their  eggs  in 
such  places. 

Big  head,  also  called  osteroporsis,  is 
a  disease  in  which  the  bones  become  less 
hard  and  compact  by  reason  of  an  in- 
crease of  the  spaces  filled  with  marrow 
and  soft  tissues.  The  enlargement  of 
the  head  is  ordinarily  the  most  conspic- 
uous symptom  and  usually  a  weakness 
of  the  back  is  noticed  and  a  gradual 
change  in  the  ribs  so  that  the  horse 
becomes  flat  sided.  Lameness  appears 
suddenly  and  accompanies  all  the  other 
processes  of  the  disease.-  Horses,  mules 
and  perhaps  other  animals  are  subject 
to  this  trouble.  Animals  over  eight 
years  of  age  are  less  susceptible  than 
younger  horses.  One  attack  of  the  dis- 
ease does  not  confer  immunity  and  it 
is  probable  that  an  animal  never  re- 
covers entirely  from  the  disease.  In 
some  localities  this  disease  appears  to 
be  partly  due  to  malnutrition  and  may 
be  corrected  to  some  extent  by  rest  and 
the  use  of  lime  and  other  mineral  mat- 
ters in  the  drinking  water  or  feed. 


Fig.    57 HORSE    BOTS    IN    STOMACH 

Parasitic  troubles — Horses  are  at- 
tacked by  a  number  of  insects  and  para- 
sitic worms,  but  particular  mention  may 
be  made  in  this  place  of  two  insects 
which  cause  more  or  less  trouble  and 
are  very  frequently  brought  to  the  at- 
tention of  horse  owners.  The  botfly, 
in  the  adult  stage,  is  about  %  of  an 
inch  long,  with  transparent  wings,  bear- 
ing dark  spots.  The  bot  is  hairy,  the 
head  brown,  with  a  white  front,  and  the 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


111 


body  brown  with  three  rows  of  black 
spots.  Prom  June  to  October  the  flies 
lay  their  eggs  on  the  hair  of  the  horse 
in  a  position  where  the  animal  can  reach 
them  by  bitii.g  or  licking.  The  eggs  are 
thus  taken  into  the  stomach,  where  the 
young  maggotc  hatch  and  attach  them- 
selves to  the  walls  of  the  stomach.  Here 
they  remain  until  they  become  full 
grown,  when  they  loosen  themselves  and 
pass   out   of   the  feces.      Some   experi- 


Fig.    58 — NORMAL    PRESENTATION  OP    COLT 

ments  indicate  that  bi-sulphide  of  car- 
bon administered  in  small  doses  in  cap- 
sules has  a  beneficial  effect  ir  expelling 
bots,  but  as  a  rule  the  administration  of 
drugs  to  destroy  or  expel  these  parasites 
is  quite  unnecessary.  Horses  should  he 
thoroughly  groomed  in  order  to  remove 
or  destroy  the  eggs  and  prevent  their  en- 
tering the  stomach. 

The  screw  worm  fly  is  somewhat 
larger  than  the  common  house  fly,  but 
resembles  the  latter  in  general  appear- 
ance.     The    color    is    a    metallic    green, 


Fig.  59 — another   normal  presentation 

OF    COLT 

with  three  black  stripes  on  the  back.  The 
eggs  of  the  screw  worm  fly  are  laid  in 
wounds  or  natural  openings  of  animals, 
or  of  man,  and  the  grubs,  after  hatching, 
bore  into  the  flesh,  making  deeper 
wounds.  Infested  animals,  if  untreated, 
may  die  of  blood  poisoning.  Tar,  grease 
or  fish  oil  on  wounds  will  sometimes  as- 
sist in  keeping  the  flies  away.  If  wounds 


become  infested,  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
move the  maggots  and  treat  the  surface 
with  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
or  crude  carbolic  acid. 

DISEASES  OF  MULES 

As  already  indicated  in  the  discussion 
of  mule  raising,  these  animals  are  sub- 
ject to  the  same  diseases  which  affect 
horses.  Glanders  is  a  very  fatal  dis- 
ease of  mules  and  spreads  rapidly  among 
them.  They  are  also  subject  to  colic, 
anthrax,  surra,  mange  and  various  other 
troubles.  Corns  are  not  as  often  ob- 
served in  mules  as  in  horses  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  feet  have  a  form  which 
better  protects  them  against  bruises 
than  is  the  case  with  horses.  Likewise, 
poll  evil  is  less  common  in  mules  than 
in  horses  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
they  seldom  throw  up  the  head  so  as  to 
bruise  it.  The  diseases  to  which  mules 
are  susceptible  may  be  treated  in  the 
same  way  as  with  horses. 

DISEASES  OF  CATTLE 

The  diseases  to  which  cattle  are  sub- 
ject are  in  some  respects  of  more  im- 
mediate concern  to  man  than  those  of 
any  other  of  our  farm  animals.  This 
is  particularly  true  for  the  reason  that 
man  is  not  only  closely  associated  with 
cattle,  coming  in  physical  contact  with 
them  nearly  every  day,  but  also  for  the 
reason  that  Ave  use  the  meat  and  milk  as 
standard  articles  of  food.  The  meat 
may  not  only  be  infected  with  certain 
bacterial  and  animal  parasites,  but  may 
also  undergo  changes  as  a  direct  result 
of  bacterial  infection,  leading  to  more  or 
less  serious  trouble  in  man.  Moreover, 
milk  is  one  of  the  very  best  media  in 
which  bacteria  can  multiply  rapidly;  it 
also  carries  bacteria  in  some  cases  di- 
rectly from  the  cow.  Thus,  the  milk  of 
tuberculous  cows,  or  those  suffering 
from  foot  and  mouth  disease,  is  a  dan- 
gerous article  of  food.  As  already  in- 
dicated, any  bacteria  which  may  gain 
entrance  to  the  milk  after  its  removal 
from  the  cow  may  also  multiply  and 
render  the  milk  dangerous  for  human 
consumption.  Sanitary  officers  are 
therefore  under  heavy  obligation  to  pro- 
tect man  against  the  use  of  infected 
food  products  from  cattle. 

Tuberculosis — Among  the  various  dis- 
eases which  afflict  farm  animals,  there 
is  none  of  such  transcendent  importance 
as  tuberculosis,  either  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  losses  which  it  causes  to 


112 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


i  animal  industry,  or  from  that  of  danger 
to  human  health.  This  disease  has  been 
known  since  the  dawn  of  history  as  one 
jof  the  plagues  of  man  and  animals. 
More  time  has  been  devoted,  especially 
in  recent  years,  to  the  study  of  tuber- 
culosis than  to  any  other  animal  dis- 
ease. This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that 
tuberculosis  may  attack  all  of  the  do- 
mestic animals  and  various  wild  species 
of  animals,  as  well  as  man,  and  it  is 
therefore  of  more  general  concern  to  the 
human  race  than  the  diseases  which 
affect  only  the  lower  animals. 

Conflicting  opinions — The  subject 
of  tuberculosis  has  been  brought  prom- 
inently before  the  attention  of  the  whole 


of  controversy  between  Koch  and  his 
disciples  on  the  one  side  and  the  oppo- 
site school  on  the  other  side;  and  also 
with  all  other  matters  relating  to  the 
nature  and  prevention  of  the  disease. 

Tuberculosis,  also  known  as  consump- 
tion, phthisis,  pearl  disease,  tubercular- 
pneumonia,  tubercular-garget  tubercu- 
lar-meningitis, and  by  various  other 
names,  is,  as  already  stated,  one  of  the 
oldest  diseases  of  which  there  is  defi- 
nite record  in  literature.  There  is  per- 
haps no  subject  in  the  whole  field  of 
human  or  veterinary  medicine  which 
has  occasioned  more  extensive  or  more 
bitter  controversy  than  this  disease. 
Not  only  has  the  existence  of  the  tuber- 


60 — ADVANCED  CASE  OF  TUBERCULOSIS,  N.  M.  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


reading  public  not  only  on  account  of 
the  great  prevalence  of  the  disease,  but 
also  on  account  of  the  wide  difference 
of  opinion  which  prevails  regarding  its 
nature  and  infectiousness.  The  con- 
troversy concerning  tuberculosis  as- 
sumed a  particularly  acute  stage  after 
the  announcement  of  Dr.  Koch,  at  the 
British  Congress  on  Tuberculosis  in 
1901,  to  the  effect  that  bovine  and 
human  tuberculosis  are  two  distinct  dis- 
eases, not  capable  of  intertransmission 
between  man  and  animals.  Since  that 
time,  the  already  large  mass  of  litera- 
ture on  tuberculosis  has  been  increased 
by  the  appearance  of  thousands  of  arti- 
cles dealing  with  the  immediate  points 


cle  bacillus  been  called  in  question,  but 
even  the  existence  of  the  disease  itself 
has  been  ridiculed  at  times  and  consid- 
ered as  chiefly  imaginary.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  extent  and  dangers  of  the  dis- 
ease have,  by  some  writers,  been  so  exag- 
gerated and  distorted  as  to  make  it  ap- 
pear strange  that  any  animal  or  man 
escapes  infection. 

Points  to  be  decided — The  most  im- 
portant questions  in  the  mind  of  practi- 
cal farmers  regarding  tuberculosis  may 
be  stated  as  follows:  Is  the  disease  a 
specific  affection?  Are  there  several 
distinct  forms  of  tuberculosis;  for  ex- 
ample, one  in  cattle,  one  in  man,  one  in 
birds  and  one  in  cold  blooded  animals,  or 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


113 


are  all  forms  of  tuberculosis  which  oc- 
cur in  domestic  animals  and  man  mere 
variations  of  one  and  the  same  disease, 
which  may  be  transmitted  from  animals 
to  man  and  from  man  to  animals?  If 
transmission  between  man  and  animals 
is  possible,  to  what  extent  does  this  oc- 
cur? Is  the  consumption  of  milk  and 
meat  of  tuberculous  animals  dangerous? 
What  is  the  practical  value  and  relia- 
bility of  the  tuberculin   test   and  what 


are  the  best  methods  for  adoption  on  a 
large  scale  to  control  or  eradicate  the 
disease  ? 

Opinions  favor  contagion — Summa- 
rizing the  almost  innumerable  articles 
on  tuberculosis,  it  may  be  stated  that,  as 
the  result  of  extensive  and  careful 
studies  and  experiments  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  trained  investigators,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  tuberculosis  is  a  contagions 
disease,  due  to  the  presence  of  the  tuber- 


cle bacillus  and  that  the  disease  attacks 
a  greater  number  of  animals  than  any 
other  disease.  The  tubercle  bacillus  may 
be  isolated  from  diseased  tissues,  stud- 
ied in  pure  cultures  and  used  for  inoc- 
ulation of  laboratory  animals  or  ordi- 
nary farm  animals,  in  which  the  disease 
is  invariably  produced  as  the  result  of 
inoculation.  The  tubercle  bacillus  is 
also  present  in  actively  developing  tuber- 
cles in  animals  affected  with  the  disease. 
Dispute  as  to  wholesomeness  op 
meat  and  milk — Kef  erring  next  to  the 
disputed  point  regarding  the  unity  or 
plurality  of  the  disease,  it  should  be 
said  that  Koch  and  his  disciples  still 
maintain  that  the  bovine  and  the  human 
forms  of  the  bacillus  are  distinct  and 
that  human  tuberculosis  is  rarely  trans- 
mitted to  cattle.  The  Koch  school  also 
maintains  that  bovine  tuberculosis  is  so 
different  from  the  human  form  that 
there  is  practically  no  danger  in  eating 
the  meat  of  tuberculous  cattle  and  little 
or  no  danger  in  drinking  the  milk  of 
tuberculous  cows.  At  the  otber  extreme 
we  have  Von  Behring  and  Lis  disciples, 
who  assert  that  human  tuberculosis  is 
in  most  instances  acquired  from  cattle, 
usually  by  drinking  the  milk  of  tubercu- 
lous cows  at  an  early  age.  It  is  main- 
tained that  children  thus  infected  may 
not  develop  apparent  symptoms  of  the 
disease  until  they  reach  an  adult  age. 
Between  these  two  extremes  we  have 
various  gradations  of  opinion.  The 
matter  is  fortunately  not  left  in  such 
an  unsatisfactory  state  as  would  be  in- 
dicated by  these  extreme  positions. 
Hundreds  of  the  most  careful  experi- 
ments have  shown  beyond  question  that 
tubercle  bacilli  obtained  from  man  may 
produce  the  disease  when  inoculated  into 
cattle.  There  is  also  a  mass  of  circum- 
stantial evidence  sufficient  to  convince 
the  ordinary  individual  that  the  milk 
of  tuberculous  cows  is  dangerous  and 
capable  of  infecting  children  or  even 
adults.  The  tubercle  bacilli  may  be 
found  in  such  milk  and  the  milk  of 
tuberculous  cows  produces  the  disease 
in  animals  after  inoculation,  and  also 
in  pigs  and  calves  when  they  are  al- 
lowed to  drink  it.  According  to  recent 
experiments,  however,  it  appears  that 
under  ordinary  circumstances  both  ani- 
mals and  man  become  infected,  in  a 
majority  of  cases,  by  taking  the  tuber- 
cle bacilli  into  the  alimentary  tract  in 
the  food,  rather  than  by  taking  bacilli 
into  the  lungs  with  the  inspired  air. 


114 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Two  forms  of  disease — Quite  re- 
cently the  announcement  has  been  made 
from  several  sources  that  there  are  two 
forms  of  tuberculosis,  both  of  which 
may  attack  man.  Much  evidence  has 
been  presented  to  show  that  the  two 
forms  of  the  disease  may  coexist  in  the 
human  patient  or  in  one  of  the  domes- 
tic animals.  Dr.  Raw  and  others  have 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  tbe  ordinary 
form  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis  affects 
primarily  the  lungs  and  is  due  to  human 
tubercle  bacilli;  while  the  intestinal 
form  of  tuberculosis  is  largely  due  to 
bovine  tubercle  bacilli,  whether  it  oc- 
curs in  man  or  animals.  Essentially 
the  same  results  have  been  obtained  by 
the  German  Imperial  Health  Office, 
Theobald    Smith    and    other    investiga- 


organs  the  disease  is  characterized  by 
the  development  of  tubercles  varying  in 
size  from  that  of  a  millet  seed  to  that 
of  a  hen's  egg  or  greater.  The  contents 
of  these  tubercles  ultimately  change 
into  a  cheesy  or  calcareous  mass  and 
such  tubercles  may  be  found  in  the  lungs, 
liver,  spleen  and  intestines.  As  soon  as 
a  case  appears  which  is  recognizable 
by  external  symptoms,  it  is  desirable  to 
apply  the  tuberculin  test  to  the  whole 
herd  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
whether  the  disease  has  spread  to  other 
animals. 

Prevention  of  the  disease — This 
brings  up  the  most  important  side  of  the 
question,  namely,  that  of  preventing  the 
disease.  In  the  work  of  eradication, 
tuberculin    is    a    very   valuable   reagent. 


62 — BEEF,    TUBERCULOUS    RIB    ROAST.    MINNESOTA 
EXPERIMENT     STATION 


tors.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the 
human  and  bovine  tubercle  bacilli  differ 
in  many  respects,  the  bovine  form  be- 
ing more  virulent  than  the  human  form 
and  showing  a  greater  tendency  to  pro- 
duce infection  of  the  intestines  and 
lymphatic  glands. 

The  symptoms  of  the  disease  in  cat- 
tle are  often  very  difficult  to  recognize 
in  the  early  stages.  The  first  noticeable 
symptom  of  a  chronic  case  is  a  dry 
cough.  The  condition  of  the  animal 
slowly  deteriorates  and  there  is  a  loss 
of  flesh,  accompanied  wi+h  an  unhealthy 
appearance  of  the  coat.  The  disease 
affects  nearly  all  of  the  organs  and  tis- 
sues of  the  body,  but  in  individual  cases 
may  be  confined  to  one  organ  or  a  set 
of  neighboring  organs.     In  the  internal 


This  substance  contains  the  toxin  or 
poisonous  principle  of  the  tubercle  ba- 
cillus but  none  of  the  living  bacilli.  It 
cannot,  therefore,  cause  the  disease  in 
living  animals.  When  inoculated  into 
healthy  cattle  it  produces  no  reaction 
of  any  note.  In  tuberculous  cattle,  how- 
ever, it  causes  an  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture of  one  to  three  degrees,  together 
with  swelling  at  the  point  of  inocula- 
tion. In  making  the  tuberculin  test  the 
temperature  of  the  animal  should  be 
taken  at  intervals  of  about  two  hours, 
for  four  or  five  times  in  order  to  de- 
termine the  average  normal  temperature 
of  each  animal.  After  inoculation  with 
tuberculin,  the  temperature  is  again 
taken  at  intervals  of  two  hours  or  less 
and  if  an  elevation  of  two  degrees  is 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


115 


noted,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that 
the  animal  is  tuberculous.  The  great 
value  of  tuberculin,  therefore,  lies  in 
the  fact  that  it  enables  us  to  recognize 
tuberculosis  in  animals  before  any  ex- 
ternal symptoms  appear. 

One  of  the  surprising  facts  in  con- 
nection with  tuberculosis  is  that  an  ani- 
mal may  be  affected  for  a  year  or  two 
without  losing  weight  and  without 
showing  any  visible  signs  of  the  disease. 
During  this  time,  however,  it  may  spread 
tuberculosis  throughout  the  herd. 

Eradication  of  the  disease — The  sys- 
tem recommended  by  Bang,  of  Den- 
mark, for  the  eradication  of  tuberculo- 
sis, consists  in  applying  the  tuberculin 
test  to  all  cattle  in  the  herd,  separating 
those  which  react  from  those  which  do 
not  react  and  preventing  the  two  herds 
from  subsequently  coming  in  contact. 
The  milk  of  reacting  cows  is  sterilized 
before  using  as  food  for  calves  or  man. 
In  this  way  tuberculous  cows  may  be 
used  for  breeding  purposes  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  and  the  loss  to  the  farmer 
is  much  less  than  would  be  the  case  if 
he  slaughtered  all  reacting  eattle  at 
once. 

In  localities  where  the  percentage  of 
tuberculosis  is  high,  Ostertag  recom- 
mends modification  of  this  system,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  reacting  and  non- 
reacting  animals  are  not  separated,  since 
this  involves  so  much  extra  work.  The 
tuberculin  test  is  applied  frequently  and 
the  milk  of  all  reacting  cows  is  steril- 
ized before  being  used.  In  this  way 
the  calves  are  prevented  from  becoming 
infected. 

During  the  past  five  or  six  years,  de 
Schweinitz,  Von  Behring,  Pearson, 
Arloing  and  others  have  worked  out  a 
system  of  preventive  vaccination  against 
tuberculosis.  This  scheme  consists  in 
using  tubercle  bacilli  of  low  virulence, 
preferably  obtained  from  man,  for  the 
purpose  of  inoculating  young,  healthy 
calves.  As  a  result  of  this  inocula- 
tion a  mild  form  of  the  disease  is  pro- 
duced; the  calves  may  cough  for  a  few 
weeks  and  show  some  loss  of  flesh ;  later 
they  recover  and  are  thereafter  immune 
to  tuberculosis.  This  method  has  al- 
ready been  tried  on  more  than  10,000 
young  cattle,  with  quite  satisfactory  re- 
sults, and  appears  to  be  gaining  ground 
wherever  it  has  been  tried. 

Sanitation  a  preventive — Cattle  kept 
under     sanitary     conditions     are     less 


liable  to  become  infected  than  those 
which  are  maintained  almost  continu- 
ally in  filthy  barns  without  proper  light 
or  ventilation.  Under  range  conditions, 
where  cattle  are  outdoors  nearly  all  of 
the  time,  tuberculosis  is  almost  un- 
known. In  herds  kept  under  unsatis- 
factory conditions,  however,  the  disease 
may  affect  from  50  to  95  per  cent  of  the 
herd.  The  extent  of  infection  in  the 
United  States  cannot  be  stated  with  any 
certainty  but  probably  ranges  from  20 
to  30  per  cent,  while  in  Europe  it  is 
considerably  higher 

Milk  is  UNWHOLEfOME — With  regard 
to  the  milk  of  tuberculous  cows,  it  has 
been  shown  beyond  question  that,  in  a 
majority  of  cases,  the  milk  does  not 
contain  tubercle  bacilli.  They  may  be 
present,  however,  at  any  moment  and 
such  milk  cannot,  therefore,  be  con- 
sidered as  safe  under  any  conditions  ex- 
cept after  sterilization  or  some  other 
treatment.  Recently  Von  Behring  has 
recommended  that  the  milk  of  tubercu- 
lous cows  be  treated  with  formalin  to 
the  extent  of  1  part  in  20,000  to 
40,000  parts.  It  is  argued  that  in  this 
way  the  tubercle  bacilli  arc  killed  with- 
out destroying  the  vaccinating  property 
of  such  milk.  It  may  be  possible  that 
the  continued  use  of  tuberculous  milk 
treated  with  formalin  may  ultimately 
produce  some  immunity  in  man. 

Contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  [s  a 
specific  disease  affecting  cattle,  but  nut 
other^  animals,  and  is  characterized  by 
an  inflammation  of  the  lungs  and 
pleura,  leading  to  death  in  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  cases  and  spreading  rapidly 
among  all  exposed  cattle.  Fortunately, 
this  disease  does  not  exist  at  present  in 
the  United  States,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
it  will  never  occur  again.  At  one  time 
it  prevailed  extensively,  but  it  was  erad- 
icated by  the  efforts  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  and  no  case  has  been 
known  in  the  United  States  since  1S92. 

Rinderpest,  also  known  as  cattle 
plague,  is  an  infectious  disease  attack- 
ing chiefly  the  digestive  organs.  It  is 
not  known  in  the  United  States,  but  has 
prevailed  to  an  alarming  extent  in  the 
Philippines.  The  micro-organism  of 
this  disease  has  not  been  isolated,  but 
the  virus  may  be  transmitted  from  one 
animal  to  another,  either  directly  or 
indirectly.  The  symptoms  are  high 
fever,  repeated  chills,  rapid  pulse,  great 
debility,  drooping  of  the  ears,  rapid  fall- 


116 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


ing  off  in  the  milk  yield,  reddening  of 
the  mucous  membranes,  persistent  diar- 
rhea and  coughing.  After  death  in- 
flamed patches  and  ulcers  are  found  in 
the  digestive  organs.  No  satisfactory 
treatment  for  this  disease  is  known,  hut 
a  preventive  inoculation  has  been  used 
with  fine  results.  This  may  be  effected 
by  means  of  pure  bile  from  an  animal 
which  has  recovered,  by  the  use  of  bile 
followed  by  virulent  blood,  or  by  the 
simultaneous  inoculation  of  serum  and 
virulent  blood. 

Foot  and  mouth  disease,  also  known 
as  aphthous  fever,  occurs  throughout 
Europe  and  other  foreign  countries. 
Strict  quarantine  measures,  however, 
prevented  the  introduction  of  the  dis- 
ease into  this  country  until  1903,  when 
a  serious  outbreak  occurred  in  New 
England.  The  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, in  connection  with  state  veter- 
inary authorities,  at  once  began  the 
campaign  of  quarantine  and  eradica- 
tion and  carried  it  out  with  complete 
success.  The  method  consisted  in  kill- 
ing and  burying  or  burning  all  diseased 
animals,  for  which  an  indemnity  was 
paid  to  the  owners.  Foot  and  mouth 
disease  is  highly  infectious,  the  virus 
being  found  in  eruptions,  on  the  mouth 
and  on  the  feet,  as  well  as  in  the  milk. 
It  is  most  prevalent  in  cattle  and  hogs, 


jz££2££LJ£L&. 


Fig.    63 INCREASED    SALIVATION    IN 

FOOT-AND-MOUTH     DISEASE 

but  also  affects  goats,  sheep  and  more 
rarely  other  farm  animals,  as  well  as 
man.  The  chief  symptoms  are  high 
fever,  loss  of  appetite,  slobbering,  erup- 
tion of  yellowish  blisters  in  the  mouth 
and  on  the  tongue  .and  lips  as  well  as 
on  the  feet  and  udder.  The  blisters 
burst  and  a  stringy  discharge  takes 
place.  Ordinarily,  cattle  recover  within 
10    to    20    days,    unless    complications 


occur.  The  milk  of  affected  cows  is 
very  dangerous  for  children  or  for  calves 
and  pigs.  On  account  of  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  the  disease  spreads,  it 
is  best  to  destroy  all  affected  animals  at 
once.  A  method  of  preventive  vaccina- 
tion has  been  devised,  but  the  immunity 
thus  produced  is  of  short  duration. 
Certain  Italian  investigators  claim  to 
have  had  good  results  from  intravenous 
injections  of  corrosive  sublimate,  but 
this  needs  confirmation. 


Fig.    64 FOOT    AND    MOUTH    DISEASE 

AFFECTING   THE    UDDER 

Hemorrhagic  septicemia  is  a  highly 
fatal  and  infectious  disease,  due  to  the 
presence  of  a  specific  micro-organism. 
The  disease  occurs  in  various  foreign 
countries  aud  prevails  to  some  extent  in 
certain  parts  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  often  confused  with  corn  stalk  dis- 
ease or  anthrax.  In  the  cutaneous  form 
of  the  disease,  the  tongue,  throat,  dew- 
lap and  lower  part  of  the  legs  swell,  the 
appetite  is  lost  and  the  milk  secretion 
stops.  There  is  a  high  temperature  and 
difficulty  in  swallowing.  The  discharge 
from  the  nostrils  may  be  bloody.  In 
the  pulmonary  form  of  the  disease  the 
symptoms  are  those  of  croupous  pneu- 
monia and  bloody  urine  is  observed,  to- 
gether with  diarrhea.  After  death  red 
spots  are  observed  underneath  the  skin 
and  in  various  internal  organs.  There 
is  no  satisfactory  treatment  for  the  dis- 
ease and  the  only  thing  to  be  recom- 
mended at  present  is  the  immediate 
destruction  and  burying  of  affected  ani- 
mals, 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


117 


Rabies  occurs  in  cattle  as  well  as  in 
other  domestic  animals,  being  due  usu- 
ally to  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog.  (See 
under  Diseases  of  Dogs.) 

Cowpox,  also  known  as  variola,  is  an 
infectious  disease  of  cattle  characterized 
by  fever,  falling  off  in  the  milk  yield 
and  the  appearance  of  pustules  on  the 
teats  and  udder.  The  disease  ordinarily 
runs  a  harmless  course  and  is  quite  prev- 
alent, especially  in  the  eastern  states. 
It  is  not  transmitted,  except  by  contact. 
A  similar  disease  affects  horses  and 
sheep.  As  should  be  well  known,  the 
virus  obtained  from  the  pustules  of  cow- 
pox  is  used  in  vaccinating  man  against 
smallpox.  This  virus  produces  a  mild 
form  of  the  disease,  from  which  man 
recovers  in  a  few  weeks  and  is  then 
immune  to  smallpox.  If  it  becomes  nec- 
essary to  treat  the  teats  and  udders  of 
cows,  good  results  may  be  obtained  from 
the  use  of  some  antiseptic  wash  or  oint- 
ment such  as  carbolized  vaseline  or  iodo- 
form ointment. 

Actinomycosis,  also  called  lumpy  jaw, 
big  jaw  and  wooden  tongue  is  an  infec- 
tious disease  due  to  the  ray  fungus.  This 
fungus  causes  local  tumors  in  the  bones 
and  other  tissues.  The  disease  is  com- 
mon in  cattle,  but  affects  also  the  pig, 
sheep,  horse,  deer  and  man.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  fungus  may  be  detected  by 
the  naked  eye  in  the  form  of  minute 
yellow  spots.  The  most  common  loca- 
tion of  the  disease  in  cattle  is  in  the 
bones  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaw,  the 
salivary  glands  and  the  throat.  Tumors 
may  also  be  found  on  the  tongue,  and 
the  disease  is  occasionally  observed  in 
the  lungs  and  intestines,  where  it  may 
sometimes  be  mistaken  for  tuberculosis. 
Big  jaw  is  apparently  contracted  in 
minute  skin  wounds  or  through  dis- 
eased and  decaying  teeth.  The  fact  that 
most  cases  appear  in  the  head  indicates 
an  infection  through  the  teeth  or  mu- 
cous membrane  of  the  mouth.  The  first 
treatment  adopted  for  this  disease  was 
the  removal  of  the  tumors  and  cauteriz- 
ing with  hot  irons  or  chemicals.  Sub- 
sequently, it  was  found  that  iodide  of 
potash  in  eight  to  twelve-gram  doses  re- 
peated daily  for  five  or  six  days  and 
again  for  a  similar  period  after  an 
interval  of  two  or  three  days  gives  com- 
plete success.  The  drug  should  be  ad- 
ministered in  water  in  the  form  of  a 
drench.  It  is  quite  uncertain  whether 
this  disease  is  directly  communicated  to 


man  in  eating  the  meat  of  cattle  affected 
with  lumpy  jaw.  Where  the  head  alone 
is  affected  the  meat  is  not  condemned. 
A  generalized  case  of  lumpy  jaw,  how- 
ever, is  sufficient  to  cause  condemna- 
tion. 

Anthrax  js  m0st  common  in  cattle 
and  sheep,  but  also  affects  other  domes- 
tic animals  and  may  be  transmitted  to 
man.  (See  under  Diseases  of  the  Horse.) 

Blackleg,  also  known  as  quarter-ill, 
black  quarter,  symptomatic  anthrax  and 
charbon  in  the  southern  states,  is  a 
highly  infectious  disease  of  young  cat- 
tle _  characterized  by  external  swellings 
which  give  forth  a  crackling  sound  when 
stroked.  Cattle  are  most  susceptible  be- 
tween the  ages  of  six  months  and  two 
years.  The  disease  also  affects  sheep 
and  goats,  but  other  domestic  animals, 
as  well  as  man  are  immune.  Blackleg 
ordinarily  runs  a  rapid  and  fatal  course. 
The  dry  spores  of  the  blackleg  bacillus 
may  be  carried  in  hay  or  other  feed  and 
may  thus  affect  cattle,  but  the  bacillus 
ordinarily  gains  entrance  to  the  body 
through  wounds  in  the  skin,  mouth 
tongue  or  throat.  Affected  animals  rap- 
idly lose  weight,  become  dull  and  show 
a  high  fever.  A  stiffness  or  lameness 
of  the  legs  takes  place  as  the  result  of 
muscular  swellings  and  death  occurs  in 
one  and  a  half  days  after  the  appear- 
ance of  the  first  symptoms.  Blackleg 
may  be  readily  distinguished  from 
anthrax  by  the  presence  of  crackling 
tumors,  which  contain  gas.  In  anthrax 
the  spleen  is  greatly  enlarged  and  the 
blood  does  not  clot  readily,  while  in 
backleg  the  spleen  is  not  affected  and 
the  blood  clots  within  the  usual  time. 
Treatment  for  blackleg  is  not  to  be  rec- 
ommended, since  it  is  of  little  avail. 
Excellent  results,  however,  have  at- 
tended the  use  of  vaccination  in  pre- 
venting the  development  of  this  disease. 
Vaccine  for  this  purpose  is  produced  by 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  has 
been  distributed  to  the  extent  of  several 
million  doses.  The  reports  received  from 
different  parts  of  the  country  indicate 
it  as  a  practical  and  efficient  means  of 
controlling  the  disease.  Throughout 
the  blackleg  areas  in  this  country  the 
amount  of  infection  is  usually  from  10 
to  20  per  cent  with  death  in  almost  all 
cases.  After  the  use  of  blackleg  vac- 
cine, however,  the  loss  from  this  disease 
is  reduced  to  less  than  1  per  cent, 


118 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Calf  diphtheria — This  disease  is  also 
known  as  necrotic  inflammation  of  the 
mouth  and  occurs  in  young  cattle,  caus- 
ing ulcers  and  canker  patches  in  the 
mouth.  The  disease  is  due  to  the  necro- 
sis bacillus.  Ordinarily  it  is  local,  af- 
fecting only  the  mouth  and  pharynx, 
but  in  serious  cases  there  is  considerable 
fever,  a  dribbling  of  saliva  and  loss  of 
appetite.  Occasionally  the  nostrils  are 
affected.  Diseased  animals  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  herd  at 
once  and  the  mouth  should  be  washed 
with  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  creolhi 
or  a  1  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

Malignant  catarrh  is  an  infectious 
disease  of  the  respiratory  and  digestive 


a  2  per  cent  solution  of  creolin  or  a 
2  to  4  per  cent  solution  of  lysol  as  a 
mouth    wash,    in   the   early   stages. 

Malignant  edema  is  a  form  of  gan- 
grenous speticemia  which  affects  nearly 
all  domestic  animals,  as  well  as  man. 
The  hind  legs  are  dragged  forward  in  a 
stiff  manner  and  trembling  appears  in 
various  muscles.  A  high  fever  accom- 
panies the  disease,  together  with  swel- 
lings at  the  point  of  infection,  which 
crackle  on  pressure.  The  disease  may  be 
distinguished  from  blackleg,  however, 
by  the  fact  that  it  appears  in  isolated 
cases  and  never  as  an  epizootic.  The 
best  treatment  is  surgical,  consisting 
in  an  opening  of  the  swellings  and  an 


Pig.     05 — CASE     OF     TEXAS     FEVER 


organs  and  fortunately  is  not  common 
in  the  United  States,  except  occasion- 
ally in  Minnesota,  New  York  and  New 
Jersey.  The  disease  is  ushered  in  with 
a  chill,  followed  by  fever,  drooping  of 
the  head  and  quivering  of  the  muscles 
in  various  parts  of  the  body.  The  eye- 
lids become  inflamed  and  discharge  quite 
freely.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth,  nose  and  throat,  as  well  as  the 
other  respiratory  passages,  is  also  af- 
fected, and  often,  also,  the  intestines. 
The  mortality  from  this  disease  ranges 
from  50  to  90  per  cent.  There  is  no 
satisfactory  treatment,  but  some  bene- 
fit  may   be    derived   from    the    use    of 


application    of   a    30    per    cent    solution 
of  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 

Texas  fever,  also  known  as  southern 
cattle  fever,  splenetic  fever,  red  water, 
etc,  is  a  disease  of  the  blood  due  to  a 
blood  parasite  which  destroys  the  red 
corpuscles  and  which  is  carried  from 
one  animal  to  another  by  means  of  the 
cattle  tick.  This  disease  occurs  every- 
where in  the  United  States  south  of  the 
quarantine  line,  which  runs  an  irregu- 
lar course  from  Virginia  to  California. 
The  disease  also  occurs  in  South  Amer- 
ica, Europe,  South  Africa  and  else- 
where.    In   the   English    colonies    it   is 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


119 


commonly  known  as  red  water,  on  ac- 
count of  the  excretion  of  bloody  urine 
due  to  the  destruction  of  the  blood  cor- 
puscles. Texas  fever  was  first  men- 
tioned in  this  country  in  1S14  and  grad- 
ually attracted  so  much  attention  that 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  finally 
took  up  the  study  of  the  disease,  prov- 
ing for  the  first  time  that  it  could  be 
transmitted  only  by  means  of  the  cattle 
tick.  It  was  soon  found  that  south- 
ern cattle  are  immune  for  the  reason 
that  they  become  infested  with  ticks  in 
early  life,  developing  a  mild  form  of 
the  disease.  A  fever  develops  and  the 
animal  becomes  depressed  and  loses  ap- 
petite. Constipation  is  often  observed, 
followed  by  diarrhea.  The  red  blood 
corpuscles  become  dissolved  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
blood  appears  in  the  urine  during  the 
later  stages.  The  first  symptoms  usu- 
ally appear  within  nine  to  14  days 
and  the  disease  is  ordinarily  fatal.  The 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  a  num- 
ber of  agricultural  experiment  stations 
have  perfected  a  means  of  producing 
immunity  by  inoculating  northern  cat- 
tle with  the  blood  of  recovered  southern 
cattle.  For  this  purpose  a  small  quan- 
tity of  defibrinated  blood  is  used,  and 
after  a  period  of  eight  or  nine  days  an 
inoculation  fever  appears,  which  persists 
for  seven  or  eight  days,  with  an  average 
temperature    of    104°    F;    after    another 


Fig.     66 TEXAS     FEVER     QUARANTINE     LINE 

period  of  25  to  30  days,  a  second  fever 
period  may  appear  for  about  a  week. 
Occasionally  a  third  attack  of  fever  oc- 
curs. In  95  per  cent  of  cases  the  results 
are  quite  satisfactory  in  that  treated 
animals  become  perfectly  immune.  It 
is  best,  however,  to  let  them  become  in- 
fested with  ticks  slowly  after  they  are 
shipped  South.  If  tick-free  pastures  can 
be  found  in  the  South,  it  is  still  better 
\to  ship  the  animals  before  inoculation. 


It  has  also  been  found  possible  to  vac- 
cinate cattle  with  blood  obtained  from 
engorged  ticks  taken  from  southern  cat- 
tle. The  ticks  may  thus  be  used  as  a 
vehicle  in  which  to  ship  the  blood  long 
distances. 

Evers  has  had  some  success  in  inject- 
ing hemoglobin  into  diseased  cattle  and 
this  treatment  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
the  hemoglobin,  or  red  coloring  matter 
of  the  blood,  is  destroyed  by  the  Texas 
fever  parasite  and  its  replacement  by 
artificial  means  helps  to  tide  the  ani- 
mals over  the  acute  stage  of  the  disease. 


Fig.  67 CATTLE  TICKS 

FEMALE  MALE 

Preventive  measures — While  the  in- 
oculation method  is  perfectly  successful 
in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  it  suffers 
from  certain  disadvantages.  It  requires 
for  its  successful  operation  the  perpetu- 
ation of  the  disease  in  the  southern 
states.  Since  it  is  *Certain  that  Texas 
fever  depends  entirely  upon  the  cattle 
tick  for  its  continuance,  much  attention 
has  been  given  lately  to  the  problem  of 
eradicating  the  tick,  and  striking  re- 
sults have  been  obtained  by  Butler, 
Morgan  and  others  along  this  line.  But- 
ler has  successfully  eradicated  the  tick 
from  ten  counties  of  North  Carolina 
and  has  placed  these  counties  above  the 
quarantine  line.  Similar  results  have 
been  obtained  in  Tennessee,  Louisiana 
and  elsewhere.  The  method  of  extermi- 
nation is  based  on  a  system  of  rotation 
of  pastures  and  starvation  of  the  ticks. 
The  ticks  cannot  live  more  than  a  year 
without  some  animal  blood  as  suste- 
nance. For  this  reason  a  rotation  of 
pastures,  with  cultivation  of  the  old 
pastures,  will  gradually  destroy  the 
ticks.  In  North  Carolina  it  has  been 
found  that  this  can  be  done  at  an  ex- 
pense of  not  more  than  $6.00  per  farm. 
The  method  appears  to  be  so  possible  of 
general  application  that  an  appropria- 
tion has  recently  been   made  to  enable 


120 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  to  take 
up  this  work  in  co-operation  with  state 
authorities. 

The  cattle  tick  is  reddish  and  flat- 
tened. When  gorged  with  blood  the  ticks 
are  nearly  as  deep  as  wide.  Other  spe- 
cies of  ticks  are  not  concerned  in  trans- 
mitting Texas  fever  in  this  country. 
The  ticks  appear  on  cattle  about  the 
first  of  June.  When  mature  they  drop 
to  the  ground  and  deposit  their  eggs, 
which  hatch  in  about  25  days,  after 
which  the  young  ticks  attach  themselves 
to  grass  and  weeds  from  which  location 
they  infest  cattle.  Aside  from  the  fact 
that  ticks  carry  Texas  fever,  their  pres- 


Mycotic  stomatitis  js  a  disease  of  the 
mouth  and  feet  of  cattle  and  has  ap- 
peared in  the  summer  and  fall  in  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  country  duriug  the 
last  five  years.  It  has  caused  much 
alarm  in  some  localities  on  account  of 
its  resemblance  to  foot  and  mouth  dis- 
ease. It  is  noninfectious  and  is  due  to 
eating  moldy  food.  The  symptoms  are 
loss  of  appetite,  dribbling  of  the  saliva 
and  inability  to  eat.  Sores  appear  in 
the  mouth  and  occasionally  on  the  feet 
and  teats.  It  is  not  a  serious  disease 
and  should  be  treated  with  antiseptic 
washes  such  as  a  2  per  cent  solution 
of  creolin  or  carbolic  acid. 


Fig.    68 — CATTLE    TICKS.      EXCESSIVE    INFESTATION   OF   SKIN 


ence  on  cattle  in  large  numbers  causes 
anemia,  loss  of  weight,  stunting  and,  in 
serious  cases,  death.  Badly  infested 
cows,  according  to  Mayer,  do  not  breed 
until  three  or  four  years  of  age  and 
steers  fail  by  two  hundred  pounds  of 
reaching  their  normal  size. 

Nagana  is  an  infectious  blood  disease 
attacking  cattle  and  horses  and  probably 
transmitted  only  by  the  bite  of  the 
tsetse  fly.  According  to  most  authori- 
ties it  does  not  occur  in  any  of  our  pos- 
sessions, but  Musgrave  and  Clegg  claim 
it  is  identical  with  surra;  this  is  based 
on  their  investigations  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands. 


ANIMAL    PARASITES 

Cattle  are  subject  to  infestation 
with  flukes,  bladder  worms,  tapeworms, 
round  worms,  mites,  ticks  and  insects. 
Most  of  the  external  parasites  may  be 
destroyed  by  dipping.  The  internal  par- 
asites, especially  stomach  worms,  are  to 
be  treated  with  drenches  of  a  1  per 
cent  solution  of  creosote  or  gasoline,  as 
recommended  for  lambs.  There  is  no 
satisfactory  treatment  of  liver  flukes. 
In  Missouri  and  certain  other  central 
states,  cattle  are  sometimes  infested  with 
a  parasitic  worm  similar  to  that  which 
causes  nodule  disease  of  sheep  and 
known    as    Oesophagostomum   inflatum. 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


121 


This  and  other  intestinal  parasites  are 
best  prevented  by  a  frequent  change  of 
pasture  and  by  avoiding  the  use  of  wet, 
improperly  drained  pastures. 

Warble  flies  appear  from  June  to 
September  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the 
skin,  from  which  they  are  licked  off  by 
the  cattle  and  the  grubs  on  hatching 
bore  through  the  tissues  of  the  body, 
finally  appearing  under  the  skin.  Upon 
reaching  full  size,  the  grub  emerges  from 
the  skin  and  falls  to  the  ground.  The 
chief  injury  from  warble  flies  is  done 
to  the  hides  and  this  loss  is  consider- 
able. In  preventing  the  attacks  of  the 
insect,  the  backs  of  cattle  may  be  treated 
with  kerosene,  train  oil  or  fish  oil.  The 
grubs  may  also  be  squeezed  out  and  de- 


killed  by  spraying  with  kerosene  emul- 
sion and  this  remedy  has,  in  a  number 
of  localities,  given  the  best  results. 

Buffalo  gnat  (Simulium  pecuarum) 
occurs  most  abundantly  along  the  lower 
Mississippi  valley,  where  it  breeds  in 
stagnant  water  and  sometimes  appears  in 
enormous  numbers,  driving  cattle  away 
from  their  grazing  ground.  A  plague 
of  flies  usually  lasts  for  five  or  six  weeks. 
Smudges  have  proved  the  best  method 
of  protecting  animals  in  the  field  against 
the  Buffalo  gnat. 

Mange  or  scabies  is  a  disease  of  cat- 
tle due  to  a  mite  closely  related  to  that 
which  causes  sheep  scab.  The  disease  is 
gonerally  distributed  through  Kansas, 
Nebraska,     Colorado,     Wyoming,     Mon- 


• 

■  -                                       '  ■-•-  o  '  ''■■■ 

'    .             *-■;''» 

i 

'      ■.'■__ 

:.-J< 

Fig.    69 — TICKS    ON    CATTLE    SKIN 


stroyed  or  killed  by  smearing  the  open- 
ing in  the  skin  with  grease  mixed  with 
sulphur. 

The  horn  fly  (Haematohia  serrata) 
has  become  quite  generally  distributed 
over  the  country.  It  is  smaller  than  the 
house  fly,  but  quite  closely  resembles 
it.  The  horn  fly  appears  in  swarms  and 
has  the  habit  of  collecting  on  the  base 
of  the  horns  from  which  fact  the  name 
has  arisen.  They  attack  cattle  on  the 
flanks  and  shoulders,  where  they  are  not 
easily  warded  off.  A  mixture  of  2 
parts  cottonseed  oil  or  fish  oil  and  1 
part  pine  tar  may  be  applied  to  the 
flanks,  back  and  horns  at  milking  time, 
in  order  to  keep  off  the  flies.  This  ap- 
plication must  be  repeated  every  week 
or  10  days.     The  swarms  of  flies  may  be 


tana  and  elsewhere.  It  is  first  recog- 
nized by  the  cattle  rubbing  themselves, 
and  gradually  extends  from  the  shoul- 
ders back  over  the  body.  It  is  believed 
that  the  disease  affected  buffalo  as  well 
as  cattle  and  it  has  been  known  in  Mon- 
tana for  the  past  30  years.  The  only 
successful  way  of  treating  this  disease 
is  by  dipping  and  for  this  purpose  a 
lime  and  sulphur  dip  containing  21 
pounds  sulphur  and  163/4  pounds  of 
lime  per  100  gallons  of  water  is  best. 
Cattle  should  be  dipped  twice  in  the 
spring  and  again  twice  in  the  fall,  the 
fall  application  being  more  important. 
The  interval  between  the  two  dippings, 
either  in  the  spring  or  fall,  should  be 
about  two  weeks.     During  1906  Peters 


122 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


had  excellent  results  from  spraying  cat- 
tle with  a  25  per  cent  mixture  of  crude 
oil  in  water. 

Corn  stalk  disease  affects  cattle  and 
sometimes  horses  and  sheep.  The  cause 
of  the  disease  is  not  known.  The  symp- 
toms are  digestive  disturbances,  accom- 
panied with  delirium  and  unconscious- 
ness and  death  commonly  occurs  within 
24  hours.  The  disease  has  been  supposed 
by  some  to  be  due  to  corn  smut,  to  the 
Burrill  disease  of  corn,  to  some  poison 
like  nitrate  of  potash  contained  in  the 
corn  and  to  various  other  conditions  of 
corn.  Recently,  certain  investigators 
have  claimed  that  corn  stalk  disease  is 


may  be  adopted  for  ulcerated  sore  mouth 
and  sore  throat.  If  cattle  become  choked 
with  some  solid  food  material,  the  ob- 
struction may  be  crushed  by  the  hand, 
if  not  too  hard,  or  forced  on  into  the 
stomach  by  pressure;  or,  if  this  is  im- 
possible, the  probang  may  be  used  as 
recommended  in  Diseases  of  the  Horse. 
Bloat  in  cattle  is  a  very  common 
trouble,  especially  after  eating  green 
alfalfa  or  clover.  If  observed  in  its 
first  stages,  this  trouble  may  be  checked 
by  large  doses  of  soda  or  melted  lard; 
otherwise  it  may  be  necessary  to  punc- 
ture the  stomach  by  means  of  a  knife 
or  a  trocar  and  canula.     Tbe  point  for 


Fig.    TO DIPPING    CATTLE    FOR    MANGE 


only  one  form  of  hemorrhagic  septi- 
cemia. At  times  chemical  analysis 
shows  a  large  amount  of  nitrate  of  pot- 
ash in  corn  and  occasionally  corn  smut 
may  be  harmful,  but  some  experiments 
have  shown  it  to  be  quite  inert.  This 
disease   needs   further   investigation. 

DISEASES   OF   THE   DIGESTIVE   OR- 
GANS 

Wounds  in  the  mouth  which  lead  to 
sore  mouth  may  best  be  treated  with  an- 
tiseptic washes,  such  as  permanganate 
of  potash  at  the  rate  of  1  dram  in  a 
pint  of  water,  or  with  a  1  per  cent  so- 
lution of  creolm.     A  similar  treatment 


puncturing  is  located  equally  distant 
from  the  last  rib,  the  hip  bone  and  the 
transverse  process  of  the  vertebras  on 
the  left  side.  At  th;s  point  the  stomach 
is  united  with  the  body  wall  and  no 
danger  attends  the  operation.  The 
canula  may  be  left  in  until  all  the  gas 
has  escaped,  after  which  soda  or  am- 
monia may  be  administered  to  prevent 
further  fermentation, 

Loss  of  cud — Whenever  cattle  are  seri- 
ously sick,  they  stop  chewing  the  cud 
and  for  this  reason  the  notion  com- 
monly prevails  that  they  have  lost  the 
cud.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  loss  of 
end,  in  the  ordinary  sense,  but  if  cattle 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


123 


do  not  ruminate  it  indicates  that  some- 
thing is  wrong  in  some  respect  or  other 
and  attention  should  be  given  to  them. 
Indigestion  in  cattle  may  be  due  to 
overloading  the  stomach,  the  use  of 
moldy  or  damaged  food,  drinking  too 
much  cold  water  after  a  long  period 
of  thirsting  or  the  use  of  an  improperly 
balanced  ration.  The  rational  system  of 
correcting  this  trouble  obviously  con- 
sists in  giving  attention  to  the  diet.  In 
more  serious  cases  followed  by  diarrhea 
or  dysentery  good  results  are  usually 
obtained  by  administering  castor  oil  in 


■win  mi intwaaywam"  -  i 


yy 


Fij 


i  1 — CAGE     FOR     DIPPING     CATTLE, 
N.     D.     EXPERIMENT     STATION 


one-pint  doses  followed  by  half  an  ounce 
of  tincture  of  opium  or  tannopin  in 
doses  of  30  grains. 

Poisons  of  vegetable  or  mineral  ori- 
gin are  treated  below  in  a  special  sec- 
tion of  this  chapter. 

DISEASES      OF     THE     BLOOD     VES- 
SELS AND  LYMPHATICS 

Quite  frequently  cases  of  pericardi- 
tis occur  in  cattle  as  the  result  of  punc- 
ture from  sharp  foreign  bodies  swal- 
lowed into  the  paunch.  Strangely 
enough,  cattle  sometimes  swallow  quite 
long  pieces  of  sharp  wire,  or  even  hat 
pins,  which  cause  such  accidents.  There 
is     obviously     no     treatment     for     this 


trouble.  In  case  of  bleeding,  the  hem- 
orrhage may  usually  be  checked  by  a 
continued  application  of  cold  water,  ice, 
tow,  lint  or  sponges.  In  some  cases  it 
may  be  necessary  to  apply  a  hot  iron 
or  to  tie  a  ligature  around  severed  blood 
vessels. 


SPRING  TRAP  SPRUNG    SPRING  TRAP  SET 
Fig.  72 — TRAP  TO  PLUNGE  CATTLE  INTO  VAT 

DISEASES    OF    THE    RESPIRATORY 
ORGANS 

Cattle  are  occasionally  afflicted  with 
catarrh,  which  should  be  treated  by  plac- 
ing them  in  well  ventilated  stables  pro- 
tected against  sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature and  giving  niter  in  one  to  two- 
ounce  doses  followed  by  stimulants.  In 
case  of  bronchitis,  relief  is  usually  ob- 
tained by  blanketing  the  animals  and 
giving  iy2   ounces   niter,  2   ounces  aro- 


', 

• 

I 

7  n 

*  -ir'.-.s — : 

:•• 

Fig.     73 LANGEDAHL    DIPPING     PLANT. 

STEER    JUST    LEAVING    CAGE 

matic  ammonia  and  2  drams  of  camphor 
in  a  pint  of  linseed  tea  every  four  hours. 
Verminous  bronchitis  is  usually  due 
to  infestation  with  Strongylus  micrurus, 
a  small  round  worm  which  is  parasitic 
in  the  windpipe  and  bronchial  tubes. 
This  trouble  may  be  treated  by  placing 
the  cattle  in  a  dry  stable  and  subject- 
ing them  to  the  fumes  of  chlorine  gas. 


124 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


DISEASES      OP      THE      NERVOUS 
SYSTEM 

Cattle,  like  other  domestic  animals, 
are  subject  to  rabies,  sunstroke  (see  un- 
der Diseases  of  the  Horse)  epilepsy, 
staggers  and  other  similar  troubles. 
The  disease  known  as  staggers  or  inflam- 
mation of  the  brain  is  to  be  recognized 
by  the  appearance  of  frenzy,  or  exces- 
sive dullness  in  some  cases,  trembling 
and  spasms  of  the  muscles,  followed  by 
delirium  in  most  cases.  This  trouble 
rarely  yields  to  treatment,  but  some  ben- 
efit may  be  derived  from  the  use  of  a 
purgative  followed  by  iodide  of  potash 
in  two-dram  doses  twice  daily. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    URINARY    OR- 
GANS 

Diabetes  in  cattle  is  usually  due  to  an 
over-dosing  with  drugs  and  feeding 
moldy,   frozen   or   otherwise   unsuitable 


Fig. 


r4 DERRICK  FOR  LOWERING  CAGE 

INTO   DIPPING    VAT 


food.  The  best  treatment  consists  in  a 
change  of  diet  and  the  administration 
of  a  mixture  containing  2  drams  each 
of  sulphate  of  iron  and  iodide  of  pot- 
ash. Bloody  urine  may  be  a  symptom 
of  Texas  fever,  but  if  it  occurs  as  an 
independent  disease  it  may  be  treated 
by  giving  J/2  dram  quinine  and  2 
drams  muriate  of  iron  in  a  pint  of 
water  three  times  a  day.  The  presence 
of  sugar  or  albumen  in  the  urine  indi- 
cates an  improper  ration  and  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  diet.  Stones 
sometimes  develop  in  the  bladder  and 
other  parts  of  the  urinary  passages. 
This  trouble  may  be  treated  by  surgical 


operations  in  cases  where  the  value  of 
the  animal  is  sufficient  to  warrant  the 
expense.  Otherwise  treatment  is  very 
unsatisfactory. 


Fig.     75 — DIPPING     CAGE     FOR     CATTLE 

DISEASES  OF  THE  REPRODUCTIVE 
ORGANS 

The  subject  of  sterility  or  barrenness 
and  artificial  impregnation  will  be  dis- 
cussed later  in  this  chapter. 


Fig.  76 — VAT  FOR  DIPPING  CATTLE 

Abortion — One    of    the    most    serious 
diseases  with  which  the  cattle  raiser  has 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


125 


to  deal,  in  some  localities,  is  abortion. 
This  trouble  may  be  due  to  eating  moldy 
or  ergotized  feed,  to  undue  exposure, 
fright,  worry,  bruises  or  the  existence 
of  some  serious  disease.  The  most 
troublesome  form  of  abortion  is  of  a 
specific,  infectious  nature  and  is  trans- 
mitted from  one  animal  to  another,  par- 
ticularly as  a  result  of  copulation.    The 


Fig. 


77 — NORMAL     PRESENTATION     OF 
CALF 


only  satisfactory  method  of  preventing 
this  trouble  consists  in  the  thorough  ap- 
plication of  antiseptic  washes  to  sus- 
pected bulls  and  the  use  of  similar  anti- 
septics as  vaginal  douches  in  all  aborting 
cows.  The  aborted  calf  and  the  mem- 
branes must  be  destroyed  at  once  and 
all  parts  of  the  stall  which  may  have 
become  contaminated  should  be  thor- 
oughly disinfected.  It  is  best  not  to  use 
for  breeding  purposes  any  animal  which 
has  once  aborted. 


Fig.   78 — APPARATUS   FOR   PUMPING   AIR  IN- 
TO THE  UDDER  IN  CASES  OF  MILK  FEVER 

Retained  afterbirth— The  cow  is  par- 
ticularly subject  to  this  trouble.  If  the 
membranes  do  not  naturally  come  away 
within  a  few  hours  after  calving,  they 
should  be  removed  by  hand.  This  may 
best  be  done  by  twisting  a  wisp  of  straw 
in  the  projecting  membranes  and  twist- 


ing the  whole  mass,  pulling  steadily  at 
the  same  time  but  not  too  hard.  If  the 
membranes  have  been  retained  long 
enough  for  decomposition  to  begin,  it  is 
necessary  to  give  a  full  vaginal  douche 
containing  an  antiseptic  such  as  cor- 
rosive sublimate  1  part  to  1000  in  water, 
1  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution,  or  a  1 
per  cent  solution  of  creolin. 

Milk  fever_One  of  the  troubles  which 
dairymen  fear  most  is  milk  fever.  Until 
Schmidt's  treatment  for  this  disease 
was  devised  the  majority  of  affected 
cows  died.  Recently,  however,  a  satis- 
factory treatment  has  been  found.  Milk 
fever  may  be  due  to  too  close  confine- 
ment in  unsanitary  stables,  high  tem- 
perature in  the  stable,  constipation  and 
various  other  predisposing  causes,  but 
except  in  rare  instances  the  disease  oc- 
curs within  a  short  time  after  calving. 
It  seems,  therefore,  to  be  connected  with 
this  event.  In  the  acute  form  of  milk 
fever  there  is  a  sudden  languor,  uncer- 
tain gait,  staggering,  dilated  pupils, 
hard  pulse  and  elevation  of  temperature. 
The  cow  lies  on  her  breastbone,  with 
the  feet  under  the  body.  In  the  most 
violent  form  of  milk  fever  there  is  re- 


^EIZ^ 


Fig.     79 ANOTHER     MILK     FEVER 

APPARATUS 

ally  no  fever  at  all ;  in  fact  the  tempera- 
ture may  be  lower  than  normal.  The  at- 
tack comes  on  slowly,  but  weakness  in- 
creases until  the  cow  is  unable  to  stand. 
After  lying  down  she  may  live  for  two  or 
three  days  without  treatment.  Until 
recent  years  the  treatment  adopted  for 
milk  fever  consisted  in  the  use  of  pur- 
gatives, jce  bags  on  the  head  and  tincture 
of  aconite  given  internally,  followed  by 
stimulants  after  some  improvement 
was  noted.  This  line  of  treatment  was 
followed  by  that  devised  by  Schmidt, 
which  consists  in  the  injection  of  10 
grams  iodide  of  potash  into  the  udder 
as  soon  as  the  symptoms  are  noted.  In 
a  large  percentage  of  cases  recovery 
takes  place  after  this  treatment,  but  oc- 
casionally a  second  dose  may  be  neces- 
sary after  24  hours.     The   infusion  of 


126 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


iodide  of  potash  is  given  through  the 
milk  duct  of  each  teat,  without  injury 
to  the  tissues  of  the  udder.  From 
some  experiments  it  appears  that  good 
results  may  be  obtained  from  tbe 
hypodermic  use  of  iodide  of  potash 
and  also  from  the  injection  of  anti- 
septics such  as  lysol  into  the  udder. 
Quite  recently,  however,  a  very  effective 
treatment  has  been  found  in  the  injection 
of  oxygen  or  filtered,  atmospheric  air 
into  the  udder.  Special  apparatus  has 
been  devised  for  this  purpose,  which  may 
be  obtained  from  veterinary  dealers. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  to  pump  each 
quarter  of  the  udder  as  full  as  it  will 
stand  with  air,  after  which  the  udder 
may  be  kneaded  slightly.  Improvement 
is  ordinarily  shown  within  a  few  min- 
utes and  recovery  takes  place  within  a 
few  hours  in  95  per  cent  or  more  of 
cases. 

Garget  or  mammitis_Quite  com- 
monly in  heavy  milkers  the  udder  be- 
comes swollen,  hot  and  somewhat  tender, 
just  before   calving.    The  swelling  may 


Fig.  80 — COW  AFFECTED  WITH  MILK 
FEVER 

extend  slightly  forward,  along  the  belly. 
This  swelling  is  ordinarily  of  a  physio- 
logical nature  but  may  in  some  cases  be 
so  intense  as  to  require  treatment.  As 
a  rule  the  swelling  disappears  within  a 
few  days  after  calving  and  the  normal 
condition  is  regained  more  quickly  if 
the  calf  is  allowed  to  suck  the  cow.  At 
first,  if  the  congestion  persists  so  as  to 
lead  to  the  secretion  of  bloody  milk  and 
the  formation  of  pus  in  one  quarter  or 
more  of  the  udder,  it  may  be  desirable 
to  give  large  drinks  of  warm  water  and 
apply  hot  poultices  to  the  udder,  held 
in  place  by  means  of  straps  passing  over 
the  loins.  The  udder  should  be  care- 
fully milked  clean  and  if  the  milk  ducts 
become  closed,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
make  use  of  a  milk  tube.  This  should 
be  used  cautiously,  however,  so  as  not  to 


injure  the  tissue  of  the  udder  and 
should  be  perfectly  clean  before  insert- 
ing, otherwise  a  serious  inflammation 
and  gangrene  may  take  place. 

Contagious  mammitis — The  more  se- 
rious form  of  the  disease  is  known  as 
contagious  mammitis  and  is  due  to  in- 
fection with  bacteria.  In  these  cases  the 
inflammation  is  more  extensive  and  the 
trouble  requires  still  more  careful  treat- 
ment. In  milking  out  the  affected  quar- 
ter, care  should  be  exercised  to  collect 
all  the  milk  and  destroy  it  in  order  to 
prevent  infection.  The  hands  of  the 
milker  should  also  be  carefully  cleaned 
before  milking  another  cow.  The  milk 
may  be  drawn  through  a  milk  tube  or 
teat-dilator  and  the  milk  ducts  injected 
with  a  solution  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 
In  case  of  closure  of  the  milk  duct, 
which  may  occur  during  the  later  stages 
of  lactation,  it  may  be  treated  similarly 
if  the  trouble  persists. 

Joint  ill — This  disease  occurs  in  calves 
within  a  month  or  so  after  birth  and  is 
commonly  associated  with  disease  of  the 
navel.  The  symptoms  include  swelling 
of  one  or  more  joints,  lameness,  lack  of 
appetite,  high  fever  and  a  discharge  from 
the  navel.  Occasionally  other  symptoms 
are  noted.  The  disease  appears  to  be 
due  to  infection  through  the  navel  cord 
at  the  time  of  birth,  and  for  this  rea- 
son it  is  desirable  to  treat  the  navel  cord 
of  calves  with  an  antiseptic  solution  in 
order  to  prevent  infection.  If  the  dis- 
ease appears,  it  may  be  best  treated  by 
painting  the  navel  daily  with  tincture 
of  iodine  and  applying  the  same  remedy 
or  biniodide  of  mercury  to  the  swollen 
joints.  In  bad  cases  the  iodine  may  be 
injected  under  the  skin  of  swollen  joints 
by  means  of   a  hypodermic  syringe. 

Scouring  is  a  common  result  of  indi- 
gestion and  usually  indicates  an  im- 
proper ration.  Sour  milk,  especially  if 
it  is  given  cold,  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
scouring.  Sometimes  the  disease  is  con- 
tagious in  nature  and  occurs  in  an  epi- 
zootic form.  In  addition  to  the  quality 
of  the  milk,  the  condition  of  the  cow  at 
time  of  calving  may  have  something  to 
do  with  scouring.  Occasionally  scour- 
ing spreads  quite  rapidly  through  all  of 
the  calves  of  a  given  herd.  This  form 
of  the  disease  is  commonly  known  as 
white  scours  and  is  due  to  an  infection 
through  the  navel  cord.  In  fact,  white 
scours  may  be  merely  one  set  of  symp- 
toms directly  connected  with  joint  ill 
and  having  apparently  the  same  cause. 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


127 


In  preventing  this  trouble,  the  navel  cord 
may  be  washed  with  a  one  per  cent  so- 
lution of  carbolic  acid.  A  simpler  form 
of  scouring  of  a  noncontagious  nature 
may  be  checked  by  the  use  of  rye  bran, 
or  still  better  by  adding  formalin  to  the 
milk  at  the  rate  of  1  part  to  4000.  The 
latter  method  has  recently  been  recom- 
mended by  Klein  as  a  very  effective  rem- 
edy. 

Rickets,  also  known  as  rachitis,  is  an 
inflammatory  disease  of  the  bones  of 
young  calves  and  causes  thickening  of 
the  bones  and  lameness  of  the  calves. 
The  existence  of  the  disease  indicates 
an  improper  ration  and  may  be  corrected 
by  feeding  more  milk  and  adding  lime 
water  or  phosphate  of  lims  to  the  ruilk. 

Creeps,  0r  osteomalacia,  is  a  condition 
of  brittleness  or  softening  of  the  bone, 
which  occurs  among  adult  cattle.  It 
may  be  recognized  by  the  gradual  ema- 
ciation and  depraved  appetite  of  affected 
cattle,  combined  with  muscular  weakness 
and  bone  fractures.  Tbe  bones  may  be- 
come broken  in  lying  down  or  during 
the  ordinary  movements  of  the  animal. 
Treatment  should  consist  of  a  change  of 
food  and  the  addition  of  more  mineral 
matter,  such  as  lime  and  magnesium 
salts.  Cottonseed  meal  is  also  beneficial. 
Tbe  disease  occurs  chiefly  in  regions 
where  mineral  matters  are  deficient  in 
the  food. 


^ 

Fig.  81 — DEVICE  FOR  CASTING  CATTLE 

Rheumatism,  is  a  constitutional  dis- 
ease accompanied  with  lameness,  fever, 
inflammation  and  swelling  of  various 
parts  of  the  body,  particularly  the  joints. 
It  may  occur  where  cattle  are  kept  in 
damp,  insanitary  quarters.  The  treat- 
ment for  this  disease  should  obviously 
include  the  provision  of  a  dry  place  to 
lie.  This  need  not  be  in  warm  stables, 
but  wherever  the  cattle  are  kept  they 
should  not  be  compelled  to  lie  in  wet 
bedding  or  muddy  places.  Hot  applica- 
tions, friction  or  blisters  applied  to  af- 
fected joints  bring  some  relief. 


Minor  ailments—Cattle  are  also  af- 
fected with  foot  rot,  which  may  be 
treated  as  in  sheep;  eczema,  for  which 
Epsom  salts  may  be  given,  followed  by 
an  application  of  boric  acid  to  affected 
parts  at  the  rate  of  2  drams  in  8  ounces 
of  water;  and  keratitis,  or  inflammation 
of  the  cornea  of  the  eye,  to  be  treated  by 
placing  the  animal  in  a  dark  stable,  ad- 
ministering a  purgative  and  dusting 
calomel  into  the  affected  eye. 

DISEASES    OF    SWINE 

Swine  are  not  any  more  extensively 
afflicted  with  infectious  and  other  dis- 
eases than  would  be  expected  from  the 
conditions  under  which  they  are  ordi- 
narily raised.  The  hog  in  this  respect 
is  at  some  disadvantage  as  compared 
with  our  other  domesticated  animals. 
Swine  are  naturally  of  cleanly  habits, 
if  given  an  opportunity  to  keep  out  of 
mudholes  and  filth,  but  on  many  farms 
the  hog  houses  and  hog  yards  are  kept 
in  the  same  place  year  after  year,  with 
little  effort  to  clean  or  drain  the  yards. 
The  inevitable  result  is  the  gradual  ac- 
cumulation of  filth,  and  in  case  of  an 
outbreak  of  an  infectious  disease  tbe 
trouble  spreads  rapidly  from  one  animal 
to  another.  The  rapidity  with  which  in- 
fection spreads  among  hogs  is  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  take  much  of 
their  food  from  the  ground  and  the  food 
is  therefore  particularly  subject  to  con- 
tamination from  the  feces  and  other  dis- 
charges of  diseased  hogs  in  the  same 
yard. 

Swine  diseases  have  received  compar- 
atively little  attention  from  the  ordinary 
practicing  veterinarian,  partly  for  the 
reason  that  be  is  not  called  upon  to 
diagnose  hog  diseases  and  prescribe  rem- 
edies as  frequently  as  in  the  case  of 
horses  and  dairy  cows.  It  therefore 
comes  about  that  most  of  the  work  in 
the  investigation  of  hog  diseases  in  this 
country  has  been  done  by  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry  and  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations  in  states  where  hoc; 
raising  is  an  important  business.  The 
experiment  station  in  Indiana  has  given 
much  attention  to  the  diseases  of  hogs 
and  a  bulletin  dealing  exclusively  with 
this  subject  has  been  published  by  Craig 
and  Bitting.  In  this  bulletin  not  only 
the  important  infectious  diseases  of 
swine  are  treated,  hut  also  various  lesser 
troubles  to  which  hogs  are  subject.  At 
other  experiment  stations,  notably  in 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Iowa  and  Missouri,  a 
great  amount  of  work  has  been  done, 


128 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


particularly  on  hog  cholera  and  swine 
plague.  It  is  perhaps  best,  in  discussing 
swine  diseases,  to  start  with  the  most 
important  infectious  ones. 

Hog  cholera — In  the  corn  belt,  where 
hogs  are  raised  to  the  greatest  extent, 
hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  are  the 
most  discouraging  troubles  with  which 
the  hog  raiser  has  to  deal.  These  diseases 
may  occur  separately,  or  at  the  same 
time,  and  it  is  often  difficult  to  make  a 
diagnosis  between  them,  partly  for  the 
reason  that  the  hog  may  be  affected  with 
both  diseases  at  the  same  time.  In  fact, 
hog  cholera  and  swine  plague  quite  com- 
monly occur  in  conjunction,  spreading 
through  a  herd  of  hogs  and  attacking 
one  animal  after  another.  Hog  cholera 
has  not  been  known  for  a  long  time,  as 
compared  with  anthrax  or  tuberculosis. 
The  disease  was  referred  to  in  Ohio  in 


Fig.     82 — POSITION     ASSUMED     IN     HOG 
CHOLERA 

1833  and  in  the  southern  states  at  about 
the  same  time.  The  origin  of  hog  chol- 
era is  not  known.  Some  writers  seem 
to  believe  that  it  came  with  imported 
hogs  from  England  or  the  European  con- 
tinent. According  to  estimates  based  on 
losses  actually  reported,  it  appears  that 
the  swine  industry  suffers  to  the  extent 
of  $10,000,000  to  $25,000,000  annually 
from  the  ravages  of  hog  cholera.  In 
1896  the  loss  from  hog  cholera  was  esti- 
mated at  nearly  $50,000,000.  The  num- 
ber of  hogs  which  die  yearly  from  hog 
cholera  in  Indiana  alone  varies  from 
200,000  to  900,000. 

Confounded  with  swine  plague — In 
the  earlier  investigations  of  this  dis- 
ease, it  was  much  confused  with  swine 
plague;  in  fact,  swine  plague  and  hog 
cholera  were  supposed  to  be  different 
forms  of  the  same  disease.  In  typical 
cases,  ^  however,  hog  cholera  affects  the 
intestines  chiefly,  causing  ulcers  in  the 
intestinal  walls,  and  also  manifests  it- 
self in  the  form  of  reddened,  inflamed 


areas  on  the  ears,  throat,  chest  and 
flanks.  Swine  plague,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  more  likely  to  attack  the  lungs,  caus- 
ing a  form  of  pneumonia,  attended  with 
much  coughing. 


■'^J^T' 


Fig.   83 — chronic   hog   cholera,   show- 
ing  ulcers  in  large  intestine 

Symptoms — Hog  cholera  may  be  de- 
fined as  an  infectious,  malignant  disease, 
due  to  the  presence  of  the  hog  cholera 
bacillus  in  the  intestines.  The  most 
conspicuous  symptoms  are  loss  of  appe- 
tite, high  fever,  discharge  from  the  eyes, 
reddish  or  purplish  discoloration  of  the 
skin  and  constipation  followed  by  pro- 
fuse diarrhea,  which  persists  until  the 
death  of  the  animal.  The  temperature 
is  usually  from  one  to  three  degrees 
above  the  normal.  Affected  swine  ap- 
pear dull  and  lie  quietly  in  the  corner 
of  the  pen  or  yard,  frequently  huddling 
together  or  hiding  under  the  bedding. 
The  discharge  from  the  eyes  is  at  first 
watery,  but  later  becomes  thick  and 
yellow.  The  gait  is  staggering  and  un- 
certain. The  symptoms  vary  greatly  in 
different  cases,  but  if  an  outbreak  of 
disease  occurs  in  a  herd  of  hogs,  with 
symptoms    resembling    those    just    de- 


Fig.  84 — cholera  ulcers  in  wall  of 

HOG    INTESTINE 

scribed  and  spreading  rapidly  through 
the  herd,  the  services  of  a  qualified  vet- 
erinarian should  be  called  at  once  and 
measures  taken  to  protect  the  healthy 
hogs. 

The  mortality  from  hog  cholera  ranges 
from  80  to  90  per  cent.  In  acute  cases 
the  animals  die  within  two  or  three  days, 
while  in  the  chronic  form  the  disease,. 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMAL 


129 


may  persist  for  a  month  or  more  and 
in  a  few  cases  recovery  may  take  place. 
In  chronic  cases  the  spleen  becomes 
greatly  enlarged  and  soft  and  the  large 
intestines  may  show  hemorrhages. 

Distribution  of  the  disease — Hog 
cholera  is  distributed  generally  through- 
out the  central  states.  It  has  been 
known  to  occur  in  every  state  of  the 
Union,  as  well  as  in  Canada.  In  Great 
Britain  and  English  colonies  the  disease 
is  commonly  known  as  swine  fever,  or 
pig  typhoid.  In  Germany  the  disease 
is  called  Schweinepest  and  in  Scandi- 
navia Svinpest.  While  hog  cholera 
may  appear  almost  anywhere  in  the 
United  States,  there  are  many  large 
areas,  particularly  in  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains and  Pacific  coast  region  where 
hog  cholera  almost  never  occurs,  except 
by  reason  of  importing  hogs  from  the 
corn  belt.  In  such  localities  the  farmer 
can  protect  himself  against  losses  from 
hog  cholera  by  quarantining  every  hog 
which  he  buys  from  an  outside  region 
before  allowing  it  to  be  placed  in  the 
hog  yard  or  to  come  in  contact  with 
other  hogs. 

There  is  no  good  evidence  for  directly 
connecting  hog  cholera  with  any  human 
disease,  but  it  most  closely  resembles 
typhoid  fever.  The  bacillus  of  hog 
cholera  behaves  very  similarly  to  that 
of  typhoid  fever  and  the  disease  is  fre- 
qi'ently  carried  in  water  like  typhoid. 
For  this  reason  special  care  should  be 
exercised  in  protecting  the  water  sup- 
ply of  swine.  In  some  outbreaks  of  hog 
cholera  the  healthy  hogs  have  been  al- 
lowed to  eat  the  carcasses  of  dead  ones, 
thereby  transmitting  the  disease  with- 
out fail. 

No     MEDICAL     TREATMENT     EFFECTD7E — 

There  is  no  satisfactory  medicinal  treat- 
ment for  hog  cholera.  Many  distin- 
guished veterinarians  have  worked  at  a 
remedial  treatment  without  success. 
Nevertheless  more  than  one  hundred 
sure-cure  patent  medicines  have  been 
advertised  for  the  treatment  of  hog 
cholera.  According  to  Craig  and  Bit- 
ting, who  have  tested  nearly  all  of  these 
remedies,  very  few  of  them  remain  on 
the  market  for  more  than  two  or  three 
years.  Perhaps  the  best  general  treat- 
ment may  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  a 
mixture  of  1  part  chloride  of  potash, 
1  part  bicarbonate  of  soda  and  2 
parts  nitrate  of  potash,  giving  a  table- 
spoonful  to  each  hog  for  a  dose.  More- 
over, encouraging  results  have  been  re- 


ported from  the  use  of  similar  doses  of 
a  mixture  containing  1  pound  wood 
charcoal,  2  pounds  each  of  sulphur,  salt, 
baking  soda  and  hyposulphate  of  soda, 
and  1  pound  each  of  Glauber  salts  and 
antimony  sulphide.  These  remedies, 
however,  are  of  little  avail,  except  in 
mild  cases.  Wherever  the  water  supply 
is  suspected  of  carrying  the  disease,  it 
is  desirable  to  add  an  ounce  of  blue 
vitriol  to  each  barrel  of  water.  In  this 
way  the  water  is  sterilized  so  that  healthy 
hogs  may  not  become  infected  by  means 
of   their   drinking  water. 

Means  of  eradication — The  chief  re- 
liance in  the  control  of  hog  cholera 
must  be  placed  on  thorough  quarantine, 
disinfection  of  premises  and  the  use  of 
anti-hog-cholera  vaccine.  The  disin- 
fection of  the  premises  must  be  carried 
out  very  thoroughly;  otherwise  it  will  be 
of  little  avail.  If  the  hog  houses  in 
which  the  disease  occurs  are  of  little 
value,  it  may  be  best  to  burn  them  up, 
plow  the  ground  in  the  hog  yards  and 
plant  to  some  cultivated  crop,  using  a 
fresh,  clean  place  for  hog  yards.  The 
average  hog  pens  and  yards,  especially 
if  the  drainage  is  poor,  and  with  the 
usual  amount  of  cracks  and  crevices  in 
the  houses,  can  scarcely  be  disinfected 
by  any  known  means.  The  best  system, 
therefore,  consists  in  abandoning  the 
old  yards  and  starting  again  in  a  new 
place,  as  far  from  the  old  yards  as  the 
size  of  the  farm  will  permit. 

Preventive  measures — In  the  preven- 
tion of  hog  cholera  by  means  of  vaccine, 
encouraging  results  have  been  obtained 
from  time  to  time,  but  many  unfavor- 
able results  were  had,  and  this  outcome 
could  not  be  explained  on  a  good  basis 
until  recently.  The  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  has  found  that  in  addition  to 
swine  plague  and  the  form  of  hog  chol- 
era caused  by  the  well-known  hog 
cholera  bacillus,  there  is  another  infec- 
tious hog  disease  which,  in  its  symp- 
toms, can  scarcely  be  distinguished 
from  hog  cholera,  but  which  is  produced 
by  virus  in  which  no  baccilli  can  be 
found.  We  appear,  therefore,  to  have 
three  distinct  and  highly  infectious  dis- 
eases which  may  afflict  a  herd  of  hogs 
at  the  same  time.  Working  on  this 
basis,  a  vaccine  is  being  prepared  which, 
it  is  hoped,  will  protect  hogs  against 
any  one  of  the  three  forms  of  disease. 
This  is  necessary,  from  a  practical 
standpoint,  for  the  reason,  as  already 
hinted,  that  it  is  a  very  difficult  matter 
to  determine  which  form  of  the  disease 


130 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


is  present  in  any  given  outbreak.  The 
only  way,  therefore,  to  furnish  imme- 
diate protection  to  the  herd,  is  to  make 
use  of  a  vaccine  which  will  be  effective 
against  all  three  diseases  or  whichever 
one  happens  to  be  present. 

Swine  plague — As  already  indicated, 
this  disease  is  of  a  highly  infectious 
nature,  accompanied  with  symptoms  of 
pneumonia  and  occurring  in  outbreaks 
of  greater  or  less  extent,  frequently  in 
connection  with  both  the  bacterial  and 
non-bacterial  form  of  hog  cholera.  The 
chief  symptoms  are  pneumonia,  cough, 
reddening  of  the  eyes  and  a  flushed  con- 
dition of  the  skin  on  the  belly,  nose  and 
ears.  The  disease  usually  runs  a  rapid 
course.  In  some  cases  the  animals  die 
within  a  day  or  so,  while  in  other  cases 
it  is  protracted  for  a  week  or  longer. 
In  making  post  mortem  examinations 
on  hogs  affected  with  swine  plague,  the 
lungs  will  be  found  in  a  heavy  and  con- 
gested condition,  such  as  is  seen  in 
other  forms  of  pneumonia.  In  swine 
plague  the  chief  seat  of  infection  is  in 
the  lungs,  and  some  form  of  pulmonary 
disease  is  nearly  always  the  direct  cause 
of  death.  As  a  rule,  infection  with 
swine  plague  takes  place  through  the 
air  passages;  while  in  hog  cholera,  as 
already  stated,  infection  occurs  through 
the  water  or  food.  The  reddening  of  the 
skin  sometimes  occurs  in  cases  which 
show  symptoms  of  swine  plague  and 
indicates  that  hog  cholera  is  also  pres- 
ent. 

Swine  plague  was  recognized  as  a  dis- 
ease distinct  from  hog  cholera  in  1886, 
and  is  now  generally  distributed  through- 
out the  country.  The  disease  is  known 
as  "sehweineseuche"  in  Germany,  and 
is  frequently  referred  to  as  infectious 
pneumonia  of  swine. 

There  is  obviously  no  satisfactory 
treatment  for  this  disease,  since,  if  pos- 
sible, it  is  even  more  fatal  and  quicker 
in  its  results  than  hog  cholera.  The 
only  hope  for  the  control  of  the  disease 
lies  in  the  expected  practical  oiitcome 
of  experiments  now  being  carried  on  to 
perfect  the  general  vaccine  for  infectious 
hog  diseases.  From  certain  experiments 
just  reported  from  Germany  it  would  ap- 
pear that  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague 
are  two  forms  of  the  same  disease  caused 
by  a  filterable  virus. 

Swine  erysipelas,  also  known  as  roth- 
lauf  in  Germany  and  rouget  in  France 
is  sometimes  referred  to  as  diamond 
skin  disease,  on  account  of  the  fact  that 


the  reddened  patches  on  the  back  as- 
sume a  diamond  shape.  The  disease  is 
peculiar  to  swine  and  largely  attacks 
adult  hogs.  It  rarely  appears  in  ani- 
mals under  three  months  of  age.  Swine 
erysipelas  is  a  highly  infectious  disease, 
which  often  remains  as  a  permanent, 
stationary  infection  in  certain  localities. 
The  disease  has  not  been  positively  iden- 
tified in  many  localities  in  the  United 
States  and  appears  to  be  at  any  rate  of 
much  less  importance  with  us  than  the 
three  forms  of  infectious  hog  diseases 
already  mentioned.  Swine  erysipelas 
occurs  under  the  form  of  a  true  erysip- 
elas and  uricaria  or  nettle  rash,  in  the 
form  of  skin  ulcers  or  gangrenous 
places,  and  in  the  form  of  a  bacterial 
heart  disease.  In  fact,  animals  which 
have  apparently  recovered  from  swine 
erysipelas  may  suddenly  die  as  a  result 
of  the  localization  of  the  bacteria  of  the 
disease  in  the  heart.  A  system  of  vacci- 
nation against  this  disease  has  been  de- 
vised in  Europe,  by  means  of  which  it 
it  claimed  on  good  authority  that  swine 
erysipelas  may  be  largely  controlled. 
The  vaccine  has  already  been  used  in 
thousands  of  cases  and  appears  to  bring 
the  desired  results. 

Infectious  sore  mouth — In  Wisconsin 
and  various  other  hog  raising  states,  a 
disease  is  quite  prevalent  among  young 
pigs  under  the  name  of  infectious  sore 
mouth.  This  trouble  appears  in  pigs 
from  a  few  days  to  several  weeks  of  age 
and  seems  to  be  highly  infectious.  The 
disease  may  be  rapidly  spread  from  one 
pig  to  another  of  the  same  litter,  by 
reason  of  the  infection  of  the  sow's 
teats  by  the  first  pig  in  which  the  dis- 
ease appears.  The  lining  of  the  mouth 
and  lips  becomes  greatly  inflamed  and 
swollen  and  the  swelling  extends  back 
over  the  skin  of  the  face  toward  the 
eyes  and  throat,  in  some  cases  causing 
quite  extensive  ulcers.  The  mouth  be- 
comes so  sore  that  the  pig  is  unable  to 
suck  the  sow  and  the  disease  may  be 
recognized  by  the  ulcers  on  the  lips 
which  soon  slough  off,  leaving  bleeding 
patches.  In  controlling  this  disease  it 
is  necessary  to  isolate  the  healthy  pigs 
at  once  and  disinfect  the  pens  in  which 
the  disease  occurs.  Perhaps  the  best 
treatment  to  adopt  consists  in  dipping 
the  pigs  head  foremost  into  a  bucket 
containing  permanganate  of  potash  at 
the  rate  of  1  ounce  to  a  gallon  of 
water.  The  head  should  be  held  under 
as  long  as  it  is  safe  and  the  operation 
may  be  repeated  daily  for  a  week  until 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


131 


recovery  takes  place.  The  udder  of  the 
sow  may  also  be  washed  with  the  same 
solution 

Tuberculosis — This  disease  is  dis- 
cussed more  extensively  under  the  head 
of  Cattle  Diseases,  but  is  of  sufficient 
importance  in  hogs  to  merit  brief  men- 
tion in  this  connection.  According  to 
the  statistics  obtained  in  meat  inspection 
in  foreign  countries  as  well  as  in  the 
United  States,  tuberculosis  is  a  fairly 
common  disease  of  hogs.  It  has  been 
increasing  in  most  localities  during  re- 
cent years,  but  where  its  increase  has 
been  found  due  to  the  vise  of  milk  from  tu- 
berculous cows,  and  where,  consequently, 
this  milk  has  been  sterilized  before  feed- 
ing, tuberculosis  has  gradually  dimin- 
ished in  pigs.  Wherever  hogs  are  al- 
lowed to  occupy  the  yards  around  a 
country  slaughter  house  and  feed  on  the 
offal  from  slaughtered  animals,  it  may 


the  disease  apparently  lives  on  cereals 
or  grasses  and  gains  entrance  to  ani- 
mals through  wounds  in  the  skin,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  udder  in  sows  is  par- 
ticularly liable  to  infection.  (See  under 
Diseases  of  Cattle. 

Minor  swine  ailments — Hogs  may 
also  become  affected  with  anthrax  by 
feeding  on  the  carcass  of  an  animal  that 
has  died  of  this  disease.  The  symptoms 
are  similar  to  those  which  appear  in  cat- 
tle and  the  outcome  of  the  disease  is 
nearly  always  fatal.  In  preventing  the 
spread  of  this  disease  among  hogs,  it  is 
merely  necessary  to  prevent  the  animals 
from  gaining  access  to  carcasses  of  other 
animals  which  have  died  from  anthrax. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that 
hogs  may  develop  rabies  or  hydrophobia 
as  a  result  of  being  bitten  by  rabid  dogs. 
The  symptoms  of  rabies  in  hogs  are 
very  similar  to  those  in  other  animals. 


•■•.'  I 


Fig.   S5 "GOVERNMENTS/'  PIGS  REJECTED  IN    INSPECTION.      ILLINOIS    EXPERIMENT   STATION 


readily  occur  that  all  of  such  hogs  be- 
come infected  with  tuberculosis.  In 
fact,  this  material  and  the  milk  of  tuber- 
culous cows  constitute  the  two  most  com- 
mon sources  of  tuberculosis  in  pigs.  If 
the  disease  becomes  generalized  in  the 
breeding  sow,  the  udder  may  become 
affected,  and  when  this  occurs  it  has 
been  observed  that  the  young  pigs  are 
very  likely  to  contract  the  disease. 

Foot  and  mouth  disease — Fortunately 
this  disease  does  not  exist  at  present  in 
the  United  States.  The  quite  serious 
outbreak  which  occurred  a  few  years  ago 
in  New  England,  however,  was  enough 
to  call  attention  to  the  possibility  of 
the  general  infection  of  hogs  on  farms 
where  cattle  are  attacked  with  foot  and 
mouth  disease.  See  under  Diseases  of 
Cattle.) 

Actinomycosis — This  disease  is  most 
common  in  cattle,  but  may  also  occur  in 
hogs,  and  since  the  fungus  which  causes 


The  animal  is  restless,  frequently  gets 
up  and  down,  squeals  and  runs  about 
the  pen.  The  hog  ordinarily  dies  within 
a  few  days  after  the  first  symptoms  of 
rabies  appear.  There  is  no  practical 
treatment  for  this  disease,  which,  fortu- 
nately, is  quite  rare  in  hogs,  and  all 
afflicted  animals  may  as  well  be  de- 
stroyed at  once. 

Likewise  with  tetanus,  or  lockjaw. 
This  disease  develops  in  hogs,  as  in  other 
animals,  as  the  result  of  wound  infec- 
tion, usually  from  filth  in  which  the 
bogs  lie.  The  commonest  source  of  in- 
fection with  the  tetanus  bacillus  is  in 
wounds  caused  by  castration.  On  this 
account  it  is  well  to  cover  the  wounds 
with  a  liquid  or  powder  antiseptic  im- 
mediately after  castration,  and  to  keep 
the  hogs  for  a  few  days  in  pens  provided 
with  an  abundance  of  clean  litter. 
Where  tetanus  is  unknown,  these  pre- 
cautions are  perhaps  unnecessary,  but  on 


132 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


premises  where  hogs  have  been  raised 
for  years,  it  is  best  to  take  all  reason- 
able precautions  to  prevent  this  disease 
as  a  result  of  castration  wounds.  There 
is  no  practical  treatment  which  can  be 
adocted  after  tetanus  develops  in  hogs. 


Fig.     86 — HOGS     WHICH     DIED    DURING 

SHIPMENT.       ILLINOIS    EXPERIMENT 

STATION 

Infectious  catarrhal  pneumonia — A 
catarrhal  pneumonia  is  occasionally  ob- 
served in  pigs,  and  is  undoubtedly  of  an 
infectious  nature.  It  attacks  chiefly 
young  pigs  under  four  months  of  age. 
It  spreads  rapidly  among  the  animals 
in  a  piggery  but  does  not  show  a  high 
rate  of  mortality.  The  chief  symptom 
is  coughing,  with  difficulty  in  breathing, 
the  coughing  spells  being  sometimes 
quite  violent.  The  fever  is  not  high  and 
the  appetite  is  not  much  affected  if  the 
sick  pigs  are  kept  in  fairly  warm  quar- 
ters. It  can  be  readily  distinguished 
from  hog  cholera  or  swine  plague  by  the 
fact  that  it  does  not  attack  old  animals. 
A  post  mortem  examination  shows  the 
presence  of  red  patches  on  the  surface  of 
the  lungs.  The  control  of  the  disease 
is  to  be  accomplished  largely  by  pre- 
ventive measles,  such  as  quarantine 
and  cleanliness  about  the  piggery. 
Some  benefit  is  obtained  by  giving  cre- 
olin  in  doses  of  1  teaspoonful  in  milk. 


Fig.     87 — DISEASED     KIDNEY     OF     HOG 

Blood  poisoning — Distinction  is  com- 
monly made  between  two  forms  of  blood 
poisoning.      The   first   form,    also   called 


pyemia,  is  due  to  the  penetration  of 
bacteria  into  wounds  and  their  final  dis- 
tribution throughout  the  body.  In  such 
cases  abscesses  may  form  in  almost  any 
of  the  internal  organs,  or  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  body.  In  the  other  form  of 
blood  poisoning,  commonly  known  as 
septicemia,  the  bacteria  which  cause 
the  trouble  remain  near  the  wound  where 
they  gained  entrance  and  multiply  rap- 
idly, producing  a  poisonous  substance 
or  toxin,  which  is  carried  through  the 
body  in  the  blood,  causing  a  fever  and 
other  well-known  symptoms,  particu- 
larly a  pronounced  dullness  and  muscu- 
lar tremors.  As  a  rule  the  hog  is  little 
susceptible  to  blood  poisoning,  but  in  bad 
cases  death  may  take  place  within  a 
few  days.  There  is  no  satisfactory 
treatment  for  the  disease  except  of  a 
preventive  nature,  which  consists  in 
cleaning  any  skin  wou^d  which  the  hog 
may  receive  and  treating  it  with  an  an- 
tiseptic such  as  carbolic  acid  in  a  1  per 
cent  solution,  or  corrosive  sublimate  at 
the  rate  of  1  part  to  1000  in  water. 

Infectious  joint-ill — The  symptoms 
of  this  disease  are  weakness,  fever, 
diarrhea,  swollen  and  painful  joints  and 
abscesses  in  various  parts  of  the  body, 
particularly  near  the  navel.  The  disease 
affects  young  pigs  only  a  few  days  old 
and  probably  arises  by  an  infection  of 
the  navel,  as  occurs  with  young  calves 
and  colts.  The  rate  of  mortality  is  quite 
high  and  treatment  is  useless,  except  in 
the  way  of  preventing  the  disease.  If 
infectious  joint-ill  has  occurred  in  a  cer- 
tain pen,  no  sow  should  be  allowed  to 
farrow  in  that  pen  until  it  has  been  thor- 
oughly disinfected.  The  disease  may 
also  be  prevented,  in  most  cases,  by 
washing  the  navel  cord  with  a  10  per 
cent  solution  of  creolin  soon  after  the 
pigs  are  farrowed. 

Trichinosis  is  a  disease  caused  by 
Trichinella  spiralis  and  affects  man, 
swine  and  rats.  Occasionally  it  is  also 
observed  in  the  badger  and  other  ani- 
mals. The  trichina  is  a  minute  worm, 
from  0.04  to  0.1  of  an  inch  in  length 
and  in  the  adult  stage  lives  in  the  in- 
testines of  man,  swine  and  other  mam- 
mals. The  number  of  young  produced 
by  each  female  amount  to  several  thou- 
sand, and  the  young  worms  immediately 
migrate  through  the  intestinal  walls  and 
finally  coil  up  in  the  muscles,  where 
they  cause  intense  pain,  headache,  diges- 
tive troubles,  abdominal  pains,  vomiting 
and    fever.       The     symptoms    are     fre- 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


133 


quently  mistaken  for  those  of  typhoid. 
If  only  a  small  number  of  trichina  are 
contained  in  the  infested  pork  eaten  by 
man,  the  symptoms  may  be  very  slight, 
and  recovery  takes  place.  In  some  cases, 
where  the  infestation  was  very  exten- 
sive, it  has  been  found  that  the  muscles 
of  the  patient  contained  as  many  as 
100,000,000  trichinae  per  ounce  of  flesh. 
Man  becomes  affected  with  this  disease 
by  eating  raw  or  partly  cooked  pork. 
The  trichinae  are  killed  by  thorough 
cooking  or  by  the  usual  process  of  salt 
pickling  and  curing  pork  products. 
Naturally  trichinosis  is  most  frequent 
in  Germany  where  raw  pork  is  eaten 
most  extensively. 

Preventive  measures — Hogs  become 
infested,  to  a  large  extent,  through  eat- 
ing the  offal  and  rats  about  slaughter 
houses.  In  a  few  instances,  as  high  as 
8  or  10  per  cent  of  the  hogs  kept  in  such 
localities  have  been  found  infested  with 
trichinae.  It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that 
hogs  may  be  prevented  from  becoming 
trichinous  by  feeding  them  on  grain 
and  other  wholesome  food  and  prevent- 
ing them  from  eating  the  offal  of 
slaughtered  animals  and  rats. 


Fig.   88 — ROUND  WORMS  IN   HOG  INTESTINE 

The  common  round  worm  of  hogs — 
Young  pigs  sometimes  become  unthrifty 
and  lose  flesh  as  a  result  of  infestation 
with  intestinal  worms  known  to  scien- 
tists as  Ascaris  suilla.  This  is  a  large 
white  or  yellowish  worm,  pointed  at  both 
ends  and  ranging  from  6  to  10  inches  in 
length.  They  are  carried  from  one  ani- 
mal to  another  in  the  feces.  Obviously 
an  infested  hog  may  contaminate  the 
ground  on  which  the  hogs  are  maintained 
by  the  eggs  of  the  worm  which  pass  out 
in  the  feces.  Preventive  treatment  con- 
sists in  changing  the  quarters  of  the 
pigs  to  uninvested  ground,  or  the  ap- 
plication of  lime  or  other  disinfectants 
to  the  soil  and  pens.  The  worms  may 
be  expelled  from  infested  hogs  by  giv- 
ing turpentine  in  doses  of  1  teaspoon- 


ful  in  milk.  The  doses  should  be  re- 
peated daily  for  a  period  of  three  days. 
Thorn  headed  worm—This  parasite  is 
found  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  small 
intestines  with  its  head  embedded  in  the 
intestinal  wall.  It  is  not  as  common  as 
the  round  worm  and  seldom  occurs  in 
greater  numbers  than  five  or  six  in  a 
single  animal.  The  presence  of  the 
thorn    headed    worm,    however,    causes 


Fig.    89 — THORN-HEADED    WORM    ATTACHED 
TO    WALL    OF    HOG    INTESTINE 

much  more  serious  symptoms  than  the 
common  round  worm  and  death  results 
in  a  considerable  percentage  of  cases. 
Infection  takes  place  through  the  feces 
as  with  the  round  worm  and  the  pre- 
ventive treatment  should  be  the  same; 
namely,  plowing  up  the  hog  yards  and 
removing  the  hogs  to  other  quarters,  to- 
gether  with  the  use  of  turpentine  in  tea- 
spoonful  doses. 

K:dney  worm— This  parasite  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  kidney,  in  the  fat  around 
this  organ,  or  in  the  liver.  Occasionally 
the  presence  of  the  parasite  causes  an 
inflammation  of  the  kidney  and  the  for- 
mation of  abscesses.  The  parasite  in 
question     is    known     to     scientists     as 


Fig.    90 — KIDNEY    WORMS   IN   THE   HOG 

Stephanurus  dentatus.  The  symptoms 
of  infestation  with  this  worm  are  not 
characteristic  and  the  method  by  which 
the  hogs  become  infested  is  not  known. 
It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  apply  an 
intelligent  system  of  prevention,  except 
such  as  recommended  for  round  worms. 


134 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Miscellaneous  worms — Hogs  are  also 
subject  to  infestation  with  pinworms 
(Oesophagostomum  deniatum)  which 
may  cause  slight  digestive  disturbances 
and  may  be  prevented  by  proper  clean- 
liness in  the  food  and  water  supply; 
whip  worm  (Trichocephalus  crenatus) 
which  infests  pigs  by  means  of  unclean 
food,  but  fortunately  causes  no  serious 
symptoms  under  ordinary  conditions; 
lung  worm  (Stongylus  paradoxus)  which 


flukes  (Paragonimus  westermanii)  and 
pork  measle  worm  {Cysticercus  cellu- 
losae). 


Fig.    91 WHIP    WORMS    ATTACHED    TO 

AVALL    OF    HOG    INTESTINES 

attacks  the  lungs  and  bronchial  tubes  of 
pigs  under  six  months  of  age  and  causes 
symptoms  which  have  given  the  disease 
the  name  of  whooping  cough.  The  para- 
sitic worm  is  about  %  of  an  inch  long. 
It  is  not  well  understood  how  the  worm 
gains  entrance  to  the  bronchial  tubes, 
but  infestation  appears  to  be  connected 
with  wet  pasture  lots  and  miry,  unsani- 
tary quarters.  The  symptoms  are  a 
whooping  cough,  lack  of  thrift  and  con- 
siderable   emaciation.      As    a    rule    pigs 


£■  '2js 


Fig.     92 — PORK     MEASLES 

recover,  especially  if  careful  attention 
is  given  to  their  diet.  This  is  about 
all  that  can  be  done,  since  direct  reme- 
dial treatment  has  not  given  satisfactory 
results.  Hogs  are  also  occasionally  in- 
fested with  liver  flukes,  which  will  be 
described  under  Diseases  of  Sheep,  lung 


Fig.  93 — SEVERAL  SEGMENTS  OF  ADULT  PORE 

MEASLE      TAPE      WORM       (TAENIA      SOLIUM), 

NATURAL    SIZE 

This  worm  is  the  immature  stage 
of  one  of  the  common  tapeworms  of 
man    and    man    becomes    infested    with 


DISEASES  OF  AXUIALS 


135 


this  tapeworm  by  eating  measly  pork. 
The  symptoms  in  hogs  are  rather  indefi- 
nite and  cannot  be  recognized.  The 
presence  of  infestation  is  disclosed  dur- 
ing meat  inspection.  The  rueasle  worms 
are  found  in  various  muscles  of  infested 
hogs  but  particularly  in  those  of  the 
abdomen,  diaphragm,  tongue,  heart  and 
neck.  It  is  obvious  that  man  cannot 
become  infested  with  this  worm  if  pork 
is  thoroughly  cooked  before  eating.  An- 
other, bladder  worm  (Cysticercus  tenui- 
collis)  is  occasionally  found  in  the  body 
cavity  of  hogs.  This  is  the  immature 
stage  of  a  tapeworm  which  is  common 
in  the  intestines  of  dogs  and  wolves. 
The  method  of  preventing  the  infesta- 
tion of  hogs  with  this  parasite,  there- 
fore, consists  in  keeping  unnecessary 
dogs  away  from  the  premises,  treating 
for  tapeworms  those  which  it  is  desired 
to  keep  and  preventing  dogs  from  eating 
the  offal  of  slaughtered  hogs,  cattle  or 
sheep  in  which  the  parasites  may  be 
found. 


Fig.    94 ECHINOCOCCUS    CYSTS    OX    THE 

LIVER     OF     HOGS 

Echinococcus — This  is  the  immature 
stage  of  a  tapeworm  which  infests  dogs 
and  wolves.  The  parasite  is  commonly 
found  in  the  liver,  lungs  and  other  or- 
gans of  hogs  as  well  as  cattle.  The  par- 
asite may  also  infest  man  and  it  is  the 
cause  of  a  highly  fatal  disease  in  man. 
The  parasite  may  be  recognized  as  small 
bladder  like  structures  in  the  infested 
organs.  The  symptoms  of  infestation 
in  hogs  are  not  characteristic  and  not 
easily  recognized.  The  disease  is  best 
prevented  by  giving  attention  to  dogs 
which  are  allowed  about  the  premises. 
Dogs  should  not  be  allowed  to  feed  on 
the  offal  of  slaughtered  animals  and 
should  be  treated  from  time  to  time  with 
a  suitable  vermifuge  for  the  removal  of 
tapeworms  which  they  may  harbor. 

Mange  is  a  common  disease  of  hogs, 
caused  by  a  parasite  mite  and  appears 
first  near  the  eyes  and  ears  as  well  as 
on  the  inside  of  the  fore  legs;  later  it 


may  spread  over  the  whole  body.  The 
scabs  formed  by  this  mite  are  white  and 
dry  and  the  hair  falls  off  in  patches. 
The  disease  is  readily  transmitted  by 
contact.  Hogs  are  subject  to  two  forms 
of  mange,  one  due  to  infestation  with 
Sa.coptes  scabiei  suis  and  the  other  to 
Demodex  folliculorum  suis.  The  latter 
affects  chiefly  the  chest,  abdomen,  flank 
and  inner  surface  of  the  thighs.  It 
causes  the  development  of  pustules, 
which  may  be  followed  by  ulcers  of  con- 
siderable extent.  The  first  named  mite 
causes  true  scab  and  its  presence  may 
be  recognized  by  the  rubbing  of  the  ani- 
mal, due  to  the  itching  sensation  pro- 
duced by  the  mite.  "While  mange  in 
hogs  is  not  rapidly  distributed,  it  is 
difficult  to  treat.  All  affected  animals 
should  be  isolated  at  once  and  the  skin 
should  be  washed  with  soft  soap,  after 
which  a  treatment  may  be  applied  with 
a  mixture  containing  1  pound  white 
arsenic  and  12  pounds  of  alum  in  25 
gallons  of  water.  The  piggery  should 
be  thoroughly  disinfected  with  kerosene 
emulsion  or  pure  kerosene,  together  with 
lime  on  the  floor.  Recently  considerable 
success  has  been  had  in  dipping  mangy 
pigs  in  a  tobacco  dip  or  from  the  use 
of  a  mixture  of  S  parts  turpentine  and 
1  part  sulphur. 

Hog  louse—While  the  hog  louse 
(Haematopinus  urius)  is  widely  distrib- 
uted, it  does  not  commonly  cause  serious 
trouble  to  hogs  except  those  which  are 
already  in  an  unthrifty  condition,  for 
one  reason  or  another.  The  louse  bites 
the  skin  and  sucks  out  blood,  causing 
considerable  irritation.  It  is  large 
enough  so  that  it  may  be  seen  with  the 
naked  eye.  Infestation  takes  place 
largely  from  filthy  quarters  and  the  best 
means  of  disinfecting  such  places  is  by 
the  use  of  a  spray  of  kerosene.  Recently. 
kerosene  emulsion  or  pure  kerosene  has 
been  applied  to  infested  hogs,  with  good 
results.  One  of  the  best  means  of  apply- 
ing this  consists  in  having  rubbing  posts 
for  the  hogs  which  are  constantly 
smeared  with  kerosene;  in  this  way  the 
hogs  are  induced  to  treat  themselves. 
They  may  also  be  sprayed  or  dipped  in 
crude  oil.  For  this  purpose  a  tank  may 
be  filled  with  water  to  the  proper  depth 
and  covered  with  an  inch  film  of  oil  into 
which  the  hogs  are  plunged. 

Rickets — As  in  man  and  other  ani- 
mals, rickets  in  hogs  is  due  to  an  im- 
proper development  of  the  bone,  as  the 
result  of  insufficient  mineral  matter  in 


136 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  food.  It  may  not  develop  during  the 
first  few  weeks,  but  will  appear  soon 
after  the  pigs  are  weaned  and  especially- 
after  they  begin  to  put  on  considera- 
ble weight.  The  bones  are  weak  and 
bend  or  break.  This  weakness  is  not 
only  in  the  leg  bones  but  is  seen  in  the 


Fig.    95 — RICKETS    IN    THE    HOCK    JOINT    OF 
THE    PIG 


Fits — Occasionally  hogs  which  appear 
to  be  in  good  health  are  attacked  by 
spasms  or  fits.  These  attacks  may  be  due 
to  various  reuses,  such  as  the  presence 
of  intestinal  worms  or  other  digestive 
troubles  and  in  many  instances  are  the 
result  of  too  close  in-breeding  for  a 
number  of  generations.  If  the  spasms 
are  not  too  severe,  they  may  easily  be 
relieved  by  throwing  the  pig  into  a  warm 
bath,  after  which  he  is  to  be  kept  as 
quiet  as  possible.  Occasionally  some 
benefit  is  derived  from  giving  a  dram  of 
bromide  of  potash,  with  a  small  cathartic 
of  castor  oil. 

Thumps — This  disease,  also  known  as 
spasms  of  the  diaphrrgm,  is  rather  com- 
mon in  pigs.  The  heart  beats  are  some- 
times louder  than  under  normal  condi- 
tions, but  thumps  are  not  always  due 
to  any  disorder  of  the  heart.  The  chief 
cause  of  thumps  is  found  in  over  feed- 
ing or  some  digestive  trouble  due  to  the 
use  of  improper  rations.  The  most  con- 
spicuous symptom  is  a  jerking  move- 
ment of  the  flanks,  which  occurs  irreg- 
ularly.    The   disease  may  persist   from 


undue  arching  of  the  back.  The  treat- 
ment should  consist  in  withholding  part 
of  the  corn  and  substituting  nitrogenous 
grains  and  especially  milk.  Hogs  should 
also  be  given  an  abundant  supply  of 
wood  ashes,  charcoal,  air  slaked  lime 
and  salt. 

Pitchy  mange — This  is  not  a  para- 
sitic or  infectious  disease,  but  is  due  to 
uncleanly    conditions,     especially    filthy 


Fiff.    96 — PITCHY    MANGE    IN    THE    HOG 


pens  and  exposure  to  great  changes  of 
temperature.  Eed  spots  develop  on  the 
skin  which  later  become  blisters  and 
pustules.  Treatment  consists  in  cleanli- 
ness about  the  pens  and  washing  the 
in  a  warm  water  bath. 


Fig.  9/ 


-PAPILLOMA    OF    THE    TONGUE 
EN     HOGS 


a  few  days  to  three  or  four  weeks. 
Thumps  are  usually  treated  with  suc- 
cess by  turning  the  pigs  on  pasture,  thus 
giving  them  abundant  exercise.  A  ca- 
thartic of  raw  linseed  oil  may  also  be 
given  with  a  dose  of  about  10  drops  of 
tincture  of  opium.  In  cases  where 
thumps  are  the  result  of  heart  trouble 
in  consequence  of  an  attack  of  bronchitis 
or  some  other  disturbance,  treatment 
may  consist  in  the  administration  of  a 
vermifuge  and  the  use  of  small  doses  of 
digitalis. 

Sore  mouth — A  form  of  sore  mouth, 
not  of  an  infectious  nature,  may  some- 
times be  observed  in  pigs  which  are 
allowed  to  wallow  in  filthy  places  and  es- 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


137 


pecially  if  they  are  fed  on  sour,  decom- 
posing and  irritating  food.  In  such 
cases  the  saliva  drips  from  the  corners 
of  the  mouth  and  the  hog  champs  with 
his  teeth.  The  treatment  for  such  trouble 
is  very  obvious :  it  should  consist  in  the 
use  of  a  cleanly  food  supply,  together 
with  an  abundance  of  pure  water. 

Loss  of  appetite — While  hogs  are  usu- 
ally ravenous  feeders,  they  sometimes 
lose  appetite  as  the  result  of  the  long 
continued  use  of  the  same  ration  with- 
out sufficient  variety.  Thus,  corn,  with- 
out any  other  grain,  occasionally  becomes 
so  distasteful  to  hogs  that  they  refuse  to 
eat  it.  The  usual  method,  which  in  most 
cases  is  successful  when  loss  of  appetite 
appears,  consists  in  feeding  a  ration  of 
greater  variety,  with  more  frequent 
changes. 

Poisoning — One  of  the  most  common 
forms  of  poisoning  in  hogs  is  due  to 
feeding  swill  from  hotels  where  the 
dishes  are  washed  with  washing  powder 
or  other  kind  of  irritating,  highly  alka- 
line soap.  The  symptoms  are  fever, 
partial  paralysis,  diarrhea  and  occasion- 
ally vomiting.  The  rate  of  mortality  is 
very  high,  and  in  many  instances  this 
form  of  poisoning  has  been  mistaken  for 
hog  cholera.  A  number  of  plants  are 
known  to  be  poisonous  to  hogs,  but,  as 
a  rule,  cases  of  poisoning  from  this  cause 
are  comparatively  rare,  much  more  so 
than  in  sheep,  despite  the  fact  that  hogs 
are  commonly  considered  as  exercising  lit- 
tle choice  in  their  selection  of  food.  Cot- 
tonseed meal  has  long  been  known  to 
poison  hogs  if  fed  in  large  quantities  for 
long  periods.  The  conditions  under 
which  this  meal  may  be  safely  fed  are 
discussed  in  Part  IX,  on  Swine.  Many 
complaints  have  been  made  regarding  the 
poisonous  effects  of  young  cocklebur  on 
hogs.  The  plant  seems  to  be  eaten  most 
frequently  when  it  is  about  3  to  6  inches 
high  and  is  particularly  attractive  at 
that  time,  since  it  starts  early  in  the 
spring  and  may  be  the  only  green  mate- 
rial to  be  found.  Apparently  it  is  quite 
doubtful  whether  the  plant  actually  con- 
tains any  poisonous  principle.  Experi- 
ments by  Craig  and  Bitting  indicated 
that  the  bad  effects  are  due  to  irritation 
from  the  burs  eaten  by  the  hogs. 

Scours — Young  pigs  kept  in  dark, 
filthy  quarters,  with  little  attention  to 
the  condition  of  their  food,  may  develop 
serious  cases  of  scours.  Such  outbreaks 
are  due  to  the  same  causes  which  pro- 
duce similar  digestive  troubles  in  calves, 


lambs  and  colts.  The  trouble  is  merely 
one  of  improper  dietetics  and  bad  hygi- 
ene. Treatment  obviously  consists  in 
avoiding  these  improper  conditions  by 
the  use  of  clean  food  in  properly  balanced 
rations  and  cleanliness  about  the  pig- 
gery. In  cases  where  the  trouble  per- 
sists for  a  long  time,  with  the  ordinary 
symptoms  of  dysentery  or  diarrhea,  it 
may  be  well  to  give  a  dose  of  2  ounces 
castor  oil  or  5  grains  of  calomel  followed 
by  V-2  teaspoonful  of  laudanum. 

Constipation  is  a  trouble  which  most 
frequently  develops  from  the  lack  of 
green  food  or  other  laxative  material  in 
the  diet.  If  the  ration  is  too  dry  and 
not  enough  water  is  offered  to  the  hogs, 
the  obvious  remedy  consists  in  using 
more  succulence  in  the  ration,  especially 
slops  of  cleanly  character  and  giving  a 
cathartic  of  castor  oil  or  Epsom  salts. 

Hogs  may  also  at  times  be  affected 
with  chronic  indigestion  (for  treatment 
see  under  Diseases  of  the  Horse),  ergot 
poisoning  (see  under  Poisonous  Plants), 
peritonitis  (see  under  Diseases  of  the 
Horse),  sunstroke  (see  under  Diseases 
of  the  Horse),  garget  (see  under  Dis- 
eases of  Cattle),  snuffles  (see  under  Dis- 
eases of  Sheep)  and  pneumonia  (see  un- 
der Diseases  of  the  Horse). 

DISEASES  OF  SHEEP 

In  treating  the  common  diseases  which 
affect  sheep,  it  seems  best  to  classify 
them  according  to  the  parts  of  the  body 
which  they  affect  as  well  as  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  various  diseases.  As  a 
rule,  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  com- 
mon symptoms  of  disease  among  range 
sheep,  partly  for  the  reason  that  under 
the  conditions  of  sheep  ranching  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  keep  close 
enough  watch  on  the  sheep  to  observe  the 
first  symptoms  of  poisoning  or  the  devel- 
opment of  some  disease.  In  the  more 
thickly  settled  portions  of  the  country, 
however,  where  the  farmer  has  only  a 
small  flock  of  sheep,  they  may  be  watched 
as  closely  as  other  animals  and  treated 
promptly  for  disease  symptoms  as  soon 
as  they  appear. 

Sore  mouth — The  mucous  membrane 
of  the  mouth  and  throat  is  exceedingly 
delicate,  but  ordinarily  sheep  do  not 
take  food  which  is  likely  to  lacerate  or 
injure  the  mouth.  Occasionally,  stiff  part- 
icles of  food  are  taken  along  with  other 
material  causing  injury  to  the  mucous 
membrane  and  resulting  in  a  soreness 
which  prevents  the  sheep  from  properly 


138 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


eating  its  food.  In  simple  cases  of  sore 
mouth,  the  membrane  looks  red  and  in- 
flamed. In  some  animals  the  amount  of 
saliva  is  increased,  the  sheep  shows  pain 
in  eating,  and  the  breath  has  a  disagree- 
able odor.  Kecovery  ordinarily  takes 
place  within  a  few  days  but  may  be  con- 
siderably hastened  by  using  a  mouth 
wash  of  a  4  per  cent  solution  of  borax  or 
a  1  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

Bloating — Sheep  are  exceedingly  sus- 
ceptible to  bloating  or  tympanites.    Any 
unusual  fermentation  set  up  in  the  food 
may  cause  an  accumulation  of  gas  which 
distends  the  paunch  to  a  painful  or  dan- 
gerous extent.    The  foods  which  are  us- 
ually   responsible    for    bloat    are    green 
alfalfa,  green  clover,  rape,   green   corn, 
and   other   succulent   foods.      Sheepmen 
quite    commonly    hold    the    belief    that 
these  materials  are  especially  apt  to  cause 
bloat  if    eaten  when  the  dew  is  on  or 
soon  after  frost.     The  evidence  for  this 
belief,  however,  is  not  very  strong.    It  is 
a  fact  of  general  observation  that  sheep 
may  become  accustomed  to  eating  these 
materials  so  that  no  bloating  takes  place. 
The  best  treatment  for  bloating  in  sheep 
is  found  in  the  use  of  a  trocar  and  can- 
ula.     This  instrument  should  be  thrust 
into  the  paunch  from  the  outside  at  the 
point   on    the    left    side    of   the   animal 
where  the  paunch  comes  most  closely  m 
contact  with  the  body  wall.     The  canula 
is  left  in  the  wound  until  the  gas  es- 
capes, after  which  a  tablespoonful  of  tur- 
pentine may  be  given  in  4  ounces  of  lin- 
seed   oil    in    order    to    prevent    further 
fermentation.      The    administration    of 
laxatives  and  tonics  is  also  of  some  value. 
As   a   result  of   improper    feeding   or 
confinement  in  insanitary  places,  lambs 
and  occasionally  old  sheep,  may  develop 
a  depraved  appetite  which  leads  to  eating 
various   harmful   plants    or    even   wool. 
Obviously,  the  treatment  for  such  trou- 
bles consists  in  allowing  the  animals  more 
freedom  and  providing  better  rations  and 
more  sanitary  quarters.     If  indigestion 
is    developed    in    connection    with^  this 
trouble,   it  may  be  desirable  to   give  a 
tonic  of  2   ounces  of  soda,  1  ounce  of 
powdered  gentian,  6  ounces  of  sulphate 
of  soda  mixed  together  and  used  in  doses 
of  1  teaspoonful. 

Various  digestive  ailments — A  num- 
ber of  other  digestive  disturbances  are 
occasionally  observed  in  sheep,  such  as 
chronic  bloat,  which  may  best  be  con- 
trolled by  the  use  of  laxatives  and  a 
tonic  such  as  just  mentioned;  overload- 


ing of  the  paunch,  which  appears  to  be 
due  in  most  cases  to  overeating,  and  a 
consequent  partial  paralysis  of  the 
paunch;  and  stomach  staggers,  which  is 
due  to  irritation  and  inflammation  of 
the  third  stomach,  resulting  from  thj  use 
of  innutritious  food.  A  change  of  diet 
and  the  use  of  Epsom  salts  in  doses  of 
6  ounces,  or  flaxseed  tea  will  usually  con- 
trol this  trouble.  Occasionally  sheep 
choke  on  foreign  bodies  in  the  gullet.  An 
occasional  cause  of  choking  is  found  in 
turnips,  potatoes,  or  ears  of  corn.  The 
svmptoms  need  not  be  described  since 
they  are  so  obvious  as  to  be  readily  rec- 
ognizable. It  is  usually  possible  to 
remove  such  materials  in  the  gullet  by 
means  of  pressure  and  manipulation 
with  the  hands. 

White  scours — This  frequently  occurs, 
especially  in  young  lambs  kept  under 
unsanitary  conditions  in  badly  crowded 
quarters.  It  is  usually  a  contagious  dis- 
ease and  is  accompanied  with  considera- 
ble fever,  bloating,  diarrhea  and  death 
in  a  large  percentage  of  cases.  The  treat- 
ment should  be  mainly  preventive,  con- 
sisting in  providing  clean  quarters  and 
the  use  of  disinfectants  about  the  prem- 
ises. Some  benefit  may  be  derived  from 
the  administration  of  subnitrate  of  bis- 
muth in  doses  of  1  dram. 

Unrecognizable  diseases — Such  dis- 
eases as  inflammation  of  the  fourth  stom- 
ach and  intestines,  atrophy  of  the  liver, 
jaundice,  peritonitis,  and  inflammation 
of  the  kidneys  are  accompanied  with 
symptoms  which  cannot  always  be  recog- 
nized by  the  farmer  and  will,  therefore, 
require  diagnosis  and  treatment  by  the 
veterinarian 

Catarrh — Sheep  and  lambs  are  quite 
subject  to  catarrhal  conditions  of  the 
nasal  passages,  due  to  exposure  during 
inclement  seasons,  especially  just  after 
the  animals  have  been  sheared.  If  caught 
in  cold  rain  storms  at  such  times  a 
considerable  percentage  of  the  flock  may 
develop  colds  and  in  some  cases  the 
symptoms  of  catarrh  are  also  accom- 
panied with  general  lameness  and  occa- 
sionally paralysis  and  death.  As  a  rule, 
however,  there  is  merely  a  slight  sneez- 
ing and  coughing  which  commonly  goes 
by  the  name  of  snuffles.  If  the  animals 
are  placed  in  warm,  dry  quarters  and 
given  small  doses,  say  %  ounce  of  niter 
and  common  salt,  they  usually  recover 
within  a  few  days.  Under  range  condi- 
tions it  is  obviously  impossible  to  treat 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


139 


all  of  the  animals  which  may  be  affected 
and  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  rely 
upon  the  effect  of  dry  air  and  sunshine 
in  checking  the  progress  of  the  trouble. 

Respiratory  ailments — A  number  of 
diseases  of  the  respiratory  passages  in- 
cluding the  larynx,  wind  pipe,  bronchi, 
and  lungs  occur  in  sheep,  following  such 
exposure  as  sometimes  causes  colds  or  as 
a  result  of  infection.  In  some  cases 
croup  results,  especially  in  young  lambs. 
This  disease  most  commonly  occurs  after 
shutting  the  animals  up  in  too  close  and 
hot  quarters,  especially  if  the  litter  is 
of  a  dusty  nature.  The  disease  is  accom- 
panied by  a  hacking  cough,  followed  by 
the  development  of  false  membranes  in 
the  nose.  It  must  be  treated  promptly  in 
order  to  secure  satisfactory  results.  Sul- 
phate of  soda  in  doses  of  x/%  pound  should 
be  given  by  way  of  the  mouth  at  once 
and  a  mustard  poulti  or  some  other 
blister  may  be  applied  to  the  wind  pipe. 
In  cases  of  suffocation  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  open  the  wind  pipe  as  is  done  in 
the  operation  called  tracheotomy.  This 
operation  frequently  becomes  necessary 
in  cases  of  laryngitis,  which  is  a  compar- 
atively rare  disease  in  sheep  and  is  due 
to  exposure  to  rain  or  confinement  in 
close,  unsanitary  buildings.  The  symp- 
toms are  persistent  coughing,  snuffling, 
and  soreness  of  the  throat.  The  treat- 
ment should  consist  in  proper  ventilation 
and  disinfection  of  the  sheep  quarters, 
after  which  the  affected  animals  may  be 
made  to  inhale  sulphur  fumes  or  the 
water  vapor  from  a  boiling  kettle.  The 
treatments  of  sulphate  of  soda  at  the  rate 
of  2  pounds  daily  for  each  100  head  of 
sheep  usually  give  satisfactory  results. 

Croupous  bronchitis — This  trouble  is 
usually  the  result  of  inhaling  irritating 
gases  or  smoke,  especially  such  as  comes 
from  smelters.  In  the  vicinity  of  smelters 
the  disease  may  occur  in  large  numbers 
of  animals,  otherwise  it  is  obviously  not 
very  frequent.  Occasionally  this  trouble 
develops  in  connection  with  certain  other 
contagious  diseases  which  cause  a  high 
temperature  and  general  prostration  of 
the  animal.  Counter-irritants  applied  to 
the  chest  may  give  some  relief  but,  as  a 
rule,  treatment  for  the  disease  is  quite 
unsatisfactory. 

^  Croupous  pneumonia—This  disease  is 
likewise  caused  by  confinement  in  too 
warm  buildings  or  allowing  heavy  fleeces 
to  remain  too  long  after  the  advent  of 
hot   weather.     It   usually   takes   a   very 


acute  form,  indicating  congestion  and 
inflammation  of  the  lungs.  Direct  treat- 
ment for  the  disease  is  almost  entirely 
without  avail,  but  occasionally  relief  may 
be  obtained  from  the  administration  of 
castor  oil  in  doses  of  2  or  3  ounces  fol- 
lowed by  ammonium  acetate  in  y2  ounce 
doses  or  acetanilid  in  doses  of  l1^ 
ounces. 

Pleurisy — ln  connection  with  pneu- 
monia, pleurisy  may  sometimes  occur 
and  may  be  recognized  by  the  high  fever, 
rapid  pulse,  and  short,  jerky  breathing 
accompanied  with  a  dry,  painful  cough. 
The  same  treatment  should  be  used  as 
in  pneumonia  but  is  not  very  satisfac- 
tory. 

Blood  and  nervous  diseases — A  num- 
ber of  diseases  of  the  blood  system  and 
nervous  system  occur  in  sheep,  but  the 
symptoms  are  not  particularly  character- 
istic and  the  troubles,  if  serious,  usually 
require  the  attention  of  the  veterinarian. 
It  is,  therefore,  useless  to  discuss  these 
diseases  in  this  connection  more  than 
briefly  to  mention  the  fact  that  the  more 
important  ones  are  dropsy,  inflammation 
of  the  heart,  thumps,  inflammation  of 
the  brain,  cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  apo- 
plexy, fits,  paralysis,  heat  exhaustion  and 
sunstroke.  In  the  rare  instances  in 
which  sunstroke  occurs  in  sheep  the  an- 
imal ^  may  usually  be  relieved  by  im- 
mersing it  in  a  tub  or  tank  of  cold  water 
for  a  few  minutes.  It  may  then  be  given 
alcohol  in  y2  ounce  doses  at  frequent 
intervals  and  tincture  of  digitalis  in  tea- 
spoon doses. 

Abortion— As  usually  applied  to 
sheep  this  term  refers  to  the  birth  of  the 
lamb  at  least  20  days  before  the  normal 
period.  Sometimes,  however,  it  occurs 
much  earlier  and  it  is  not  observed  at 
all.  Abortion  may  be  due  to  eating 
plants  infested  with  ergot,  smut,  or  other 
fungous  diseases,  to  worry  from  dogs  or 
other  animals,  jumping  fences,  exposure 
to  severe  storms,  or  the  occurrence  of  an 
infectious  disease  which  produces  a  high 
fever.  Any  mechanical  injury  to  the 
abdomen  may  result  in  abortion.  Many 
of  these  cases  are  due  to  infection  and 
wherever  this  form  of  the  disease  occurs 
it  is  necessary  to  get  rid  of  the  affected 
ewes.  According  to  extensive  statistics 
collected  on  the  subject  of  abortion  and 
sterility  in  ewes,  it  appears  that  from 
4  to  8  per  cent  of  most  breeds  of  ewes 
abort,  for  one  reason  or  another.  While 
it  is  usually  recommended  that  the  dis- 


140 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


ease  be  treated  in  a  preventive  way  by 
avoiding  tbe  conditions  wbich  cause  it, 
it  is  the  best  policy  to  fatten  all  ewes 
wbicb  have  once  aborted  and  sell  them 
for  mutton.  It  is  useless  to  take  further 
chances  with  them  as  breeding  stock. 

Garget — This  trouble  may  be  due  to 
exposure  to  cold  soon  after  lambing, 
bruises  caused  by  the  lamb,  or  by  strik- 
ing against  stones  or  other  hard  objects. 
The  disease  appears  most  frequently  in 
old  ewes  and  the  time  finally  comes  with 
every  ewe  when  she  can  no  longer  be 
used  for  breeding  purposes  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  udder  is  almost  sure  to  be 
affected  with  garget  or  mammitis.  On 
the  western  sheep  ranges  where  little 
attention  can  be  given  to  each  particu- 
lar ewe  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  the 
udder,  it  has  been  found  advisable  not 
to  keep  ewes  for  breeding  purposes  be- 
yond the  age  of  about  six  years.  In 
small  flocks  where  individual  treatment 
can  be  given  to  each  affected  ewe,  doses 
of  Epsom  salts  in  3  or  4  ounces  may  be 
given  followed  by  an  ointment  applied 
directly  to  the  udder  and  consisting  of 
4  ounces  of  vaseline,  2  ounces  of  cam- 
phor ointment,  and  V2  ounce  of  extract 
of  belladonna.  The  ewe  should  also  be 
thoroughly  milked  for  a  few  days  in  or- 
der to  relieve  the  congestion  of  the 
udder 

Sore  eyes — Dust,  pollen  and  other  ma- 
terials may  cause  an  inflammation  of  the 
eyes  and  this  trouble  is  particularly  fre- 
quent on  the  dry,  dusty  ranges,  especially 
where  the  dust  contains  considerable 
alkali.  If  it  is  possible  or  desirable  to 
give  individual  treatment  in  such  cases, 
a  good  eye  wash  may  be  prepared  by 
mixing  30  grains  of  boric  acid  and  15 
grains  of  sulphate  of  zinc  in  3  ounces 
of  water.  Occasionally  an  eye  disease 
or  ophthalmia  appears  in  an  apparently 
infectious  form,  but  it  may  be  due  to  the 
presence  of  dust  as  just  mentioned  and 
may  affect  a  large  number  of  animals 
giving  the  appearance  of  an  infection. 
If  the  discharge  from  the  eyes  should 
become  thick  and  purulent,  it  may  be  de- 
sirable to  shut  the  sheep  up  in  a  dark 
place.  After  bathing  the  eyes  in  warm 
water  blow  into  them  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  calomel  and  boric  acid. 

Eczema — On  account  of  the  fact  that 
the  skin  of  sheep  is  so  abundantly  pro- 
tected by  the  heavy  coat  of  wool,  eczema 
is  of  rare  occurrence  among  these  ani- 
mals.    Occasionally   an  eczemic   condi- 


tion of  the  skin  is  brought  about  as  a 
result  of  parasitism  of  internal  worms. 
A  form  of  the  disease  known  as  moist 
eczema  occurs  in  sheep  which  are  in 
poor  condition  and  suffer  from  unusual 
exposure  to  cold  rains.  Eczema  may  ap- 
pear most  frequently  on  thin  Avooled 
sheep,  especially  in  animals  on  which  the 
wool  parts  on  the  back  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  receive  and  hold  water  during 
rains  storms.  Recovery  ordinarily  takes 
place  spontaneously  and  as  a  rule  there 
is  no  satisfactory  treatment  except  to 
change  the  conditions  under  which  the 
sheep  were  kept  so  as  to  prevent  the 
agencies  which  have  caused  the  disease 
from  continuing  in  operation.  Other 
forms  of  eczema  sometimes  occur  in 
sheep,  for  example,  one  which  is  quite 
similar  to  grease  in  the  horse.  Fagopy- 
rism  is  also  known  in  sheep.  This  is 
due  to  eating  too  much  buckwheat  or 
the  milling  products  of  this  grain  or  to 
eating  large  quantities  of  wild  buck- 
wheat, smartweed,  or  other  wild  plants 
closely  related  to  buckwheat.  The  symp- 
toms consist  in  a  swelling  and  slough- 
ing off  of  the  external  part  of  the  skin, 
particularly  about  the  head,  face  and 
other  parts  of  the  body  covered  only  with 
short  wool. 

Foot  rot — Apparently  there  are  two 
forms  of  foot  rot,  the  contagious  and 
noncontagious.  It  is  not  always  cer- 
tain, however,  that  the  slight  cases  which 
appear  to  be  noncontagious  are  not 
caused  by  the  specific  organism  of  foot 
rot.  Infection  apparently  takes  place 
as  a  result  of  injuries  to  the  hoof,  partic- 
ularly between  tbe  two  halves  of  the 
hoof,  and  this  infection  is  particidarly 
dangerous  when  the  hoofs  are  allowed 
to  grow  too  long  so  as  to  inclose  vari- 
ous filthy  substances  between  the  two 
halves.  As  a  result  of  an  extensive 
study  of  this  disease  by  Mohler  and 
Washburn  it  appears  that  the  first  evi- 
dence of  the  disease  is  a  slight  lameness 
which  rapidly  increases,  and  a  reddened, 
feverish  condition  of  the  hoof.  The  ex- 
perienced sheepman  is  able  to  detect  at 
once  the  existence  of  the  disease  by  the 
peculiar  odor  of  the  infected  hoofs. 
When  no  treatment  is  applied  pus  forms 
under  the  hoof  and  leads  to  the  com- 
plete loosening  of  the  hoof,  finally  also 
attacking  the  bone.  If  no  attention  is 
given  to  the  affected  animal,  the  disease 
may  assume  a  chronic  form  and  lead  to 
great  malformation  of  the  hoof  and  bone 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


141 


of  the  foot.  Occasionally  the  toes  be- 
come twisted  and  elongated  to  the  ex- 
tent of  3  or  4  inches,  being  turned  up 
at  the  end.  Ordinarily  there  is  consider- 
able fever  and  the  appetite  is  badly 
affected.  The  disease  commonly  appears 
in  one  foot  but  extends  to  the  other  three 
feet  and  spreads  rapidly  throughout  the 
herd.  According  to  the  investigations 
of  Mohler  this  disease  is  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  Bacillus  necrophorus  which 
causes  a  number  of  other  similar  troubles 
in  other  animals.  In  preventing  this 
disease  it  is  desirable  to  thoroughly  in- 
spect and  quarantine  sheep  which  are 
purchased  from  outsido  sources  before 
they  are  allowed  to  enter  the  flock.  It 
is  also  desirable  to  examine  the  feet  of 
the  herd  at  regular  intervals  for  the  pur- 
pose of  finding  out  whether  the  condi- 
tion is  satisfactory  in  all  cases.  Over- 
grown hoofs  should  be  pared  away  so 
that  the  wearing  surface  will  come  in 
regular  and  complete  contact  with  the 
ground. 

Treatment — In  case  of  an  outbreak  of 
foot  rot  among  a  herd  of  sheep,  all 
affected  sheep  should  be  immediately  is- 
olated and  all  the  sheep,  whether  dis- 
eased or  not,  should  be  made  to  pass 
through  a  shallow  trough  containing  a 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime  at  the  rate 
of  1  pound  to  12  quarts  of  water.  The 
depth  of  the  solution  should  be  4  inches 
or  more.  Another  effective  solution  con- 
sists of  1  pound  of  carbolic  acid  for 
each  4  gallons  of  water.  After  treat- 
ment the  healthy  part  of  the  herd  should 
be  placed  in  a  clean,  uncontaminated 
pasture  and  the  diseased  animals  left 
for  further  treatment.  The  hoofs  should 
be  pared  away  so  as  to  remove  all  loos- 
ening horn  tissue  after  which  the  sheep 
may  be  made  to  stand  for  10  minutes  in 
a  strong  solution  of  blue  vitriol  as  warm 
as  may  be  borne  by  the  hand.  The  solu- 
tion recommended  by  Mohler  consists  of 
3  pounds  of  blue  vitriol  or  copper  sul- 
phate in  5  gallons  of  water.  The  solu- 
tion should  be  no  deeper  than  is  neces- 
sary to  cover  the  hoof  and  the  sheep 
should  be  prevented  from  lying  down  in 
it  since  great  injury  would  result  to  the 
skin  and  wool. 

Foot  and  mouth  disease — The  symp- 
toms of  foot  and  mouth  disease  in  sheep 
might  be  mistaken  for  those  of  foot  rot. 
The  lesions  in  the  feet  in  the  case  of 
foot-and-mouth  disease  are,  however, 
much  more  superficial  than  in  the  case 


of  foot  rot,  and  disappear  spontaneously 
after  the  disease  has  run  its  course. 
Moreover,  the  lesions  in  foot-and-mouth 
disease  are  more  apt  to  be  visible  than 
in  the  case  of  foot  rot  and  are  accom- 
panied with  pustules  and  ulcers  in  the 
mouth.  Finally,  foot-and-mouth  disease 
is  far  more  infectious  than  foot  rot  and 
spreads  with  far  greater  rapidity. 

Arthritis — This  trouble  arises  as  a 
result  of  infection  which  takes  place  at 
birth,  the  infectious  material  entering 
through  the  unclosed  navel  cord.  The 
symptoms  appear  soon  after  birth,  the 
lamb  being  feverish,  without  appetite, 
and  lame  in  one  or  more  joints.  Pus 
may  form  in  some  of  the  affected  joints 
and  in  some  of  the  internal  organs. 
There  is  no  treatment  for  the  disease 
after  it  has  once  appeared  but  it  may 
be  effectively  prevented  by  washing  the 
navel  cord  soon  after  birth  with  a  10 
per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

Ilalignant  edema_A  form  of  blood 
poisoning  or  malignant  edema  quite  of- 
ten occurs  as  a  result  of  infection  from 
injury  with  unclean  instruments,  es- 
pecially sheep  shears.  Professional 
sheep  shearers  are  sometimes  very  care- 
less in  this  regard  and  carry  about  with 
them  shears  which  have  become  badly 
contaminated  with  the  bacilli  of  malig- 
nant edema.  When  they  cut  the  skin 
of  sheep  in  shearing  them  an  infection 
is  almost  sure  to  take  place  at  this 
point  and  leads  to  an  extensive  swell- 
ing which  is  hot  and  painful  and  pro- 
duces an  exudation  with  a  disagreeable 
odor.  The  disease  is  ordinarily  fatal, 
terminating  in  a  few  days.  Where 
sheep  are  badly  cut  in  shearing,  they 
may  also  become  infected  by  allowing 
them  to  lie  down  in  old  filthy  corrals, 
since  the  bacillus  of  malignant  edema 
commonly  occurs  in  such  soil.  It  is  al- 
ways desirable,  therefore,  to  give  some 
heed  to  this  matter,  since  otherwise 
large  losses  may  occur.  Occasionally 
a  loss  of  100  to  200  sheep  has  been 
observed  in  a  single  band  of  2,000  as  a 
result  of  infection  with  malignant 
edema. 

Big  head — A  peculiar  and  fatal  dis- 
ease of  unknown  origin  occurs  among 
sheep  in  Utah,  Nevada,  Idaho,  and 
Wyoming  under  the  name  big  head. 
The  characteristic  symptoms  of  the  dis- 
ease are  great  swelling  of  the  head 
and  ears,  with  an  occasional  extension 
of    the    dropsical    condition    along    the 


142 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


neck  even  tc  the  shoulders.  The  ears, 
in  some  cases,  swell  to  the  thickness 
of  an  inch  and  affected  sheep  show 
pronounced  cerebral  symptoms.  About 
50  per  cent  of  cases  die  and  those  which 
recover  are  so  badly  affected  that  they 
are  of  little  value  for  stock  purposes. 
There  are  certain  areas  which  are  com- 
monly recognized  as  dangerous  on  ac- 
count of  the  unusual  occurrence  of  this 
disease  on  them.  This  fact  gives  some 
basis  to  the  belief  that  the  disease  is 
due  to  some  poisonous  plant.  No 
plant  has  been  found,  however,  which 
would  cause  the  symptoms  of  big  head. 
The  trouble  has  also  been  attributed  to 
the  bites  of  scorpions,  but  the  local  dis- 
tribution of  the  disease  would  not  har- 
monize well  with  this  supposition.  It 
may  be  an  infectious  disease  of  which  the 
micro-organism  is  unknown.  In  some 
respects  it  resembles  the  disease  com- 
monly known  as  geel  dikkop,  which  oc- 
curs in  South  Africa,  and  is  there  be- 
lieved to  be  of  infectious  nature.  In 
some  seasons  big  head  causes  the  loss 
of  from  20,000  to  50,000  sheep  and  is, 
therefore,  an  important  disease  in  the 
localities  where  it  occurs.  Big  head 
appears  mostly  in  the  spring,  in  April 
and  May,  but,  according  to  some  sheep 
raisers  has  also  been  observed  in  the 
fall.  It  has  been  known  in  the  localities 
where  it  occurs  for  the  past  30  years. 

Rabies — In  sheep,  the  incubation  pe- 
riod for  this  disease  ranges  from  25  to 
90  days.  Symptoms  are  much  the  same 
as  those  observed  in  other  animals  and 
include  restlessness,  bleating,  stamping 
of  the  feet,  and  the  tendency  to  bite. 
(See  under  Diseases  of  Dogs.) 

Parasitic  ictero-hematuria — This  dis- 
ease, also  known  as  carceag  in  Europe,  is 
due  to  a  minute  animal  parasite  of  the 
blood  related  to  the  plood  parasite  of 
Texas  fever.  The  parasite  is  found  in 
the  blood,  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  and 
other  organs,  and  the  disease  appears 
to  be  confined  to  sheep.  Among  the 
first  symptoms  are  fever  and  bloody 
urine,  followed  by  a  yellow  condition  of 
the  skin  and  dropsical  swellings  or-  the 
side  of  the  head  and  neck,  after  which 
the  animal  remains  for  much  of  the 
time  in  a  crouching  position.  When  ex- 
amined post-mortem,  affected  animals 
show  a  decided  yellow  color  in  the  skin 
and  fat  tissue-  and  an  enlargement  of 
the  kidneys.  The  disease  is  quite  gen- 
erally distributed  in  Europe,  but  in  this 
country  occurs  chiefly  in  limited  areas 


in  the  Eocky  Mountain  states,  partic- 
ularly in  Montana  and  Idaho.  No  satis- 
factory remedies  have  been  devised  but 
in  a  few  instances  it  has  been  found 
that  goats  are  not  susceptible  to  the 
disease  and  for  this  reason  sheep  raisers 
have  taken  to  grazing  goats  on  the  in- 
fested areas. 

Sheeppox — This  disease,  while  un- 
known in  the  United  States,  might  pos- 
sibly be  introduced  and  is  therefore  brief- 
ly mentioned.  It  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant and  universally  distributed  dis- 
eases of  sheep  in  Europe  and  it  has 
caused  the  loss  of  millions  of  sheep.  It 
still  prevails  to  a  large  extent  in  various 
parts  of  Europe.  The  disease  is  closely 
related  to  cowpox  and  smallpox.  The 
symptoms  include  rapid  breathing,  fever, 
chills,  and  depression,  followed  in  a  day 
or  two  by  red  spots  on  the  bare  parts 
of  the  skin.  If  the  eruptions  are  close 
together  the  affected  parts  become  great- 
ly swollen.  After  a  few  days  vesicles  or 
pustules  are  formed  which  burst  and 
form  scabs.  A  system  of  vaccination 
has  been  devised  for  the  control  of  sheep- 
pox. The  permanent  home  of  the  dis- 
ease appears  to  be  in  Asia,  from  which 
outbreaks  continually  originate.  Some 
of  the  native  sheep  of  Africa  have  been 
found  to  be  relatively  unsusceptible  to 
the  disease,  while  European  sheep  intro- 
duced into  those  localities  rapidly  die 
by  infection. 

Blackleg — (See  under  Diseases  of 
Cattle.) 

Anthrax — Sheep  are  very  susceptible 
to  this  disease  and  ordinarily  develop 
anthrax  in  an  acute  or  apoplectic  form. 
(See  under  Diseases  of  the  Horse.) 

Lockjaw — Tetanus  or  lockjaw  is 
occasionally  observed  in  sheep  as  the 
result  of  an  infection  from  wounds  by 
nails  or  splinters.  The  period  of  in- 
cubation is  about  one  week  and  the 
death  rate  is  very  high.  (See  under 
Diseases  of  the  Horse.) 

Tuberculosis — Sheep  are  not  as  sus- 
ceptible to  tuberculosis  as  cattle  and 
hogs,  but  when  an  outbreak  occurs,  af- 
fected animals  should  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  flock  in  order  to  prevent 
the  further  spread  of  the  disease. 

Ulcerative  leg  infection — A  disease 
resembling  erysipelas  appeared  among  a 
number  of  herds  of  sheep  in  New  York 
and  also  affected  dairy  cows  in  the  same 
locality.  The  first  symptoms  were  swell- 
ing in  the  region  of  the  fetlock  and  pas- 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


143 


tern  joints.  The  disease  appeared  to 
originate  as  a  result  of  infection  in 
wounds  while  the  sheep  were  allowed 
to  stand  in  the  mud.  The  best  treat- 
ment was  found  in  the  use  of  an  iodized 
phenol  or  a  saturated  solution  of  borax. 
Creolin  also  gave  good  results  when  ap- 
plied to  the  affected  parts. 

Aspergillosis_A  number  of  molds 
belonging  to  the  genera  Aspergillus  and 
Penicillium  have  been  found  to  be  some- 
what pathogenic  when  inhaled  into  the 
lungs  in  large  quantities.  The  spores 
may  germinate  in  the  lungs,  causing  the 
development  of  tubercles,  which  some- 
what resemble  those  of  true  tuberculosis. 


trouble  prevails  most  extensively  in  cer- 
tain localities  in  the  western  parts  of  the 
United  States  but  ordinarily  runs  a  be- 
nign course  and  therefore  does  not  at- 
tract much  attention  except  upon  the 
inspection  of  mutton  after  slaughter. 
All  kinds  of  sheep,  whether  pure  breeds 
or  common  stock,  are  equally  susceptible, 
but  the  symptoms  do  not  develop  to  an 
alarming  extent  except  among  breeding 
ewes.  According  to  the  investigations  of 
Norgaard  and  Mohler  fatal  cases  are 
practically  unknown  and  the  losses 
which  result  from  the  rejection  of  af- 
fected carcasses  in  abbattoirs  are  very 
small. 


Fiff.   98 — AN  ADVANCED  CASE  OF  COMMON   SCAB 


There  is  no  satisfactory  treatment  for 
the  disease  except  that  of  a  preventive 
nature,  which  naturally  consists  in 
avoiding  the  use  of  moldy  or  dusty  hay 
for  sheep. 

Pseudo-tuberculosis — This  disease  is 
well  known  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States  and  is  sometimes  also  referred  to 
as  caseous  lymphadenitis.  It  is  a 
specific,  infectious  disease  caused  by  a 
bacillus  which  is  pathogenic  for  a  num- 
ber of  small  laboratory  animals  as  well 
as  sheep.  It  is  apparently  not  patho- 
genic for  chickens  or  pigeons  and  it  ap- 
pears doubtful  whether  the  disease  ever 
develops    in    horse     and    cattle.       This 


Influenza — Jn  cases  of  this  disease  in 
sheep  the  affected  animals  show  great 
depression,  fever,  weakness,  and  stagger- 
ing gait,  a  cough  develops  and  the  appe- 
tite is  gradually  lost.  In  some  outbreaks, 
diarrhea  is  a  striking  symptom,  together 
with  such  complications  as  pneumonia 
and  meningitis.  The  lesions  which  oc- 
cur in  this  disease  vary  greatly  accord- 
ing to  the  part  affected  and  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  respiratory  organs.  In 
the  catarrhal  form  of  the  disease,  Craig 
and  Bitting  recommend  one  tablespoon- 
ful  three  times  daily  of  a  mixture  con- 
taining 4  grams  tincture  of  belladonna, 
Yo  gram  tincture  of  aconite  and  enough 
sirup  of  squill  to  make  4  ounces. 


144 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Scab — Taking  the  country  as  a  whole 
scab  is  the  most  important  disease  af- 
fecting sheep.  It  is  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  mite  (Psoroptes  communis 
ovis)  in  the  skin  and  is  readily 
contagious  from  one  animal  to  another. 


Fig.    99 — A    SMALL    PORTABLE    DIPPING    VAT 
FOR    SMALL    FLOCKS 

The  mite  burrows  in  the  skin,  causing 
an  intense  itching  and  irritation  which 
leads  to  the  formation  of  pustules,  scabs, 
and  the  loss  of  wool.  The  infected  area 
of  the  skin  rapidly  extends  as  the  mites 
multiply,     so     that     the     disease     pro- 


stages  before  scabs  have  formed  and  be- 
fore the  wool  begins  to  fall  off.  Loose 
locks  of  wool  are  soon  observed  and  as 
the  scabby  area  extends  over  the  shoul- 
ders, back  and  sides,  the  affected  sheep 
presents  a  very  disagreeable  appearance. 
Investigation  and  results — It  has 
been  found  that  scab  mites  may  live  for 
six  months  or  longer  in  the  soil  of  infest- 
ed localities  without  any  nourishment 
derived  from  sheep.  If  the  eggs  of  the 
mite  are  kept  at  a  temperature  nearer 
that  of  the  body  they  hatch  within 
about  four  to  eight  days.  Sheep  scab 
prevails  to  the  greatest  extent  over  the 
western  range  districts,  where  sheep  are 
kept  under  less  careful  supervision  than 
when  raised  in  small  flocks  on  farms  in 
the  thickly  settled  eastern  agricultural 
regions.  Too  little  attention  was  paid  to 
the  gradual  spread  of  this  disease  un- 
til it  finally  became  a  veritable  plague 
and  was  forced  upon  the  attention  of 
federal   and   state   sanitary   officers   and 


^  !S|3f i?2 


RfPnHN 


Fig.     100 DIPPING    PLANT 


grosses  over  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
body,  which  are  heavily  covered  with 
wool.  The  irritation  makes  the  sheep 
restless  and  causes  them  to  rub  and  bite 
affected  parts  and  these  actions  on  the 
the  part  of  the  sheep  constitute  one  of 
the  surest  symptoms  by  which  the  dis- 
ease  may   be    recognized    in    the    early 


upon  the  sheep  raisers  themselves.  The 
work  of  eradication  was  then  taken  up 
in  a  vigorous  manner  by  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry  and  by  various  state 
veterinarians  and  other  local  stock  of- 
ficials and  has  been  carried  on  for  many 
years  with  striking  results.  In  1904, 
the    Bureau    of    Animal    Industry    in- 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


145 


spected  40,968,000  sheep  and  dipped  9,- 
578,000.  The  results  of  inspection  in- 
dicate a  decided  reduction  in  the  num- 
ber of  scabby  sheep  received  at  the 
principal  market  centers  and  this  is 
considered  as  due  partly  to  the  extended 
use  of  compulsory  dipping.  In  certain 
states  as  for  example,  Wyoming,  Utah, 
Idaho  and  Oregon,  the  conditions  with 
regard  to  sheep  scab  had  become  very 
serious  and  required  the  dipping  of  sheep 


ing  together  4  ounces  oil  of  turpentine, 
6  ounces  sulphur,  and  1  pound  of  lard. 
In  the  extensive  dipping  of  sheep  under 
federal  supervision,  lime-sulphur  is  the 
dip  most  in  use.  As  a  result  of  the 
dipping  of  millions  of  sheep  during  re- 
cent years  it  appears  that  the  federal 
system  has  been  successful  in  producing 
cures,  preventing  scab  in  92  per  cent 
of  all  cases  and  in  effecting  a  complete 
cure  in  85  per  cent  of  infected  sheep. 


•*n r, 1 M i- 

'     .          i 

..,.. 

-^^kjL^ 

j-     i- 

qr 

""•"♦•                ^"^Wl^ 

-  1/    s 

Fig.   101 SIDE  VIEW  OF  DIPPING   TLAXT  SHOWING  INCLINED  EGRESS   AND 

DRIPPING   FLOOR 


on  the  very  extensive  scale  already  men- 
tioned. As  a  result  of  this  work  sheep 
scab  has  been  almost  eradicated  in  Wy- 
oming, is  under  control  in  Utah  and  Ore- 
gon, and  is  being  vigorously  attacked  in 
Idaho,  where  millions  of  sheep  were 
dipped  in  1905.  The  adoption  of  com- 
pulsory dipping  for  sheep  was  at  first 
looked  upon  as  an  unnecessary  hardship 
for  sheepmen  but  it  was  soon  recognized 
that  the  great  advantages  resulting  from 
clean  sheep  far  more  than  outweighed 
the  slight  initial  disadvantage  and 
trouble  of  dipping. 


In  regard  to  the  effectiveness  of  different 
dips,  tobacco  extract  and  sulphur  ap- 
pears to  lead  the  list,  followed  by  lime 
and  sulphur  and  nicotine  and  sulphur. 
The  effectiveness  of  lime  and  sulphur, 
however,  in  recent  years  has  been  rather 
higher  than  that  of  any  other  sheep 
dip.  In  the  treatment  of  exposed  sheep, 
lime  and  sulphur,  according  to  the  most 
recent  statistics,  stands  first,  with  an 
effectiveness  of  99  per  cent,  followed  by 
tobacco  extract  and  sulphur  at  94  per 
cent  and  nicotine  and  sulphur  at  85 
per  cent.     It  is  recommended  by  the  of- 


Fig.    102 PLAN   OF   DIPPING    PLANT   VIEWED    FROM    ABOVE 


A  large  variety  of  dips  have  been 
used  for  the  purpose  of  curing  scab  and 
many  hand  applications  have  also  been 
recommended.  Hand  treatment  of 
sheep,  however,  is  as  a  rule  unsatisfac- 
tory for  the  reason  that  not  all  affected 
areas  can  be  recognized  at  the  time  of 
treatment  and  some  of  the  mites  may, 
therefore,  escape.  A  fairly  effective 
hand  application  may  be  made  by  mix- 


ficials  who  have  charge  of  this  work  in 
the  United  States  that  all  dips  should 
contain  sulphur  to  the  extent  of  lO1/^ 
pounds  per  100  gallons  of  water. 

Process  of  dipping—Sheep  dip  should 
be  used  at  a  temperature  of  100°  to 
110°  F.  and  each  sheep  should  be  kept 
in  the  dip  for  about  2  minutes.  Where 
a  large  number  of  sheep  are  to  be  dipped 
an    extensive    system    of    corrals    con- 


146 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


nected  with  a  single  or  double  dipping 
vat  must  be  provided.  Some  of  the 
dipping-  vats  now  in  use  will  allow 
running  through  10,000  to  15,000  sheep 
a  day.  The  tobacco  and  sulphur  dip 
is  prepared  from  1  pound  of  tobacco 
leaves  and  1  pound  of  sulphur  for 
each  6  gallons  of  water.     The  materials 


has  not  existed  long.  In  old  cases,  how- 
ever, with  a  large  development  of  scab 
and  crusts  over  the  affected  parts,  the 
Fort  Collins  formula,  calling  for  11 
pounds  of  lime  and  33  pounds  of  sul- 
phur jter  100  gallons  of  water,  is  recom- 
mended. In  preparing  the  lime  and  sul- 
phur dip  the  lime  is  slaked  in  enough 


c£tuu.ti(L  J->in(^ . 


iEaPii 


Fig.   103 SMALL  DIPPING   PLANT.      A,  COLLECTING    YARD;    B,    DIPPING    VAT;    C,    PLACE 

FOR  attendant;  D,  incline  to  draining  pens    E  and  F.    lower  figure  gives 

DIMENSIONS     OF     VAT 


are  mixed  and  kept  in  a  lukewarm  con- 
dition for  about  24  hours,  after  which 
they  are  brought  to  the  boiling  temper- 
ature and  then  allowed  to  cool. 

Lime  and  sulphur  dips  have  been  pre- 
pared according  to  various  formulas  con- 
taining 10V2,  11,  15,  16  2-3,  33  1-3 
pounds  of  lime  and  15,  16  2-3,  20  5-6, 


water  to  make  a  nme  paste,  after  which 
the  sulphur  is  sifted  into  the  lime  paste 
and  the  whole  mixed.  The  mixture  is 
then  boiled  in  a  small  amount  of  water 
for  a1  least  two  hours  with  occasional 
stirring.  The  boiling  should  continue 
until  the  sulphur  disappears  from  the 
surface  of  the  mixture.    The  preparation 


Fiff.    104 — DIAGRAM   OF  DIPPING  VAT  SEEN  FROM    ABOVE 


jjjjliill 


and  33  pounds  of  sulphur  per  100  gal- 
lons of  water.  The  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  has  also  used  a  formula  calling 
for  8  pounds  of  lime  and  20  pounds  of 
sulphur  per  100  gallons  of  water.  The 
last  named  formula  is  recommended  as 
very  efficacious  in  cases  where  the  scab 


should  then  be  allowed  to  settle  and  the 
clear  liquid  drawn  off,  adding  enough 
water  for  the  proportions  called  for  by 
the  formulas  just  given.  The  federal 
authorities  recommend  that  the  sedi- 
ment should  never  be  allowed  in  the 
dipping    vat,    but    in    many    instances 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


147 


where  sheep  have  been  dipped  by  their 
owners  this  has  been  done  without  caus- 
ing any  injury. 

The  chief  objections  which  have  been 
raised  against  different  sheep  dips  are 
their  injurious  effect  upon  the  sheep  or 
upon  the  color  or  staple  of  the  wool.  An 
extensive  investigation  of  this  matter 
was  made  by  Hollings  in  Bradford,  Eng- 
land, from  the  standpoint  of  the  quality 
of  the  wool.  Many  complaints  have 
been  made  by  wool  buyers  of  injuries  to 
wool  from  different  kinds  of  dips.  The 
investigations  in  question  cover  nearly 
all  of  the  English  colonies.  It  appeared 
that  as  a  rule  the  low  price  paid  for 
inferior  grades  of  wool  was  due  to  the 
injury  from  the  different  dips.  Hol- 
lings condemns  lime  and  sulphur  dip  as 


alkali  or  arsenic  be  present  in  the  dip 
great  harm  results  to  the  wool.  On  this 
account  the  use  of  arsenical  dips  can 
hardly  be  recommended  as  a  general 
farm  practice,  since  mistakes  might 
easily  be  made  in  compounding  the  dip. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  injury  to  the 
wool  from  the  use  of  lime  and  sulphur 
dips  has  caused  exceedingly  few  com- 
plaints in  this  country  and  it  is  recom- 
mended as  the  best  dip  not  only  for 
effectiveness  in  curing  scab  but  for  ease 
in  preparation  and  application  and  com- 
parative harmlessness  to  the  sheep  and 
wool. 

Head  scab — This  disease  is  also 
caused  by  a  parasitic  mite  (Sarcoptes 
scabiei  oris).  Other  varieties  of  this 
mite  cause  itch  or  mange  in  other  farm 


Fig.    105 — SECTION   OF   DIPPING   VAT   SEEN    FROM    THE   SIDE 


injurious.  It  was  claimed  to  cause 
trouble  in  scouring,  dyeing  and  weaving 
of  the  wool  and  for  this  reason  has  been 
abandoned  by  many  sheep  raisers  in 
Australia,  Tasmania,  and  Argentine  Re- 
public. Tobacco  dips  were  found  to 
stain  the  wool  in  large  percentages  of 
cases  except  where  sheep  were  dipped 
immediately  after  shearing.  Tobacco 
dips  are  further  objected  to  on  the 
ground   that  they  are   injurious  to   the 


Fig.     106 SMALL     DRIPPING    CHUTE,    WITH 

TROUGH    AT    END    TO    CATCH    DRIP 

sheep.  Carbolic  dips,  and  especially 
those  containing  pitch  oil,  are  injurious 
to  the  wool  staple.  Hollings  believes  as 
a  result  of  his  investigations  that  ar- 
senical dips  are  effective  in  curing  scab 
and  that  these  dips  cause  the  least  in- 
jury to  wool  when  properly  prepared  and 
applied.    If,  however,  an  excess  of  either 


animals,  producing  similar  diseases  upon 
them.  The  attacks  of  the  mite  are 
largely  confined  to  the  head  and  this 
gives  rise  to  the  common  name  for  the 
disease.  The  mange  caused  by  the  head 
scab  mite  may  extend  backward  about 
the  eyes,  ears  and  neck.  The  mites 
burrow  under  the  skin  of  parts  not 
heavily  covered  with  wool,  causing  the 
formation  of  pustules,  which  become  in- 
crusted.  Any  of  the  dips  commonly 
used  in  the  treatment  of  scab  will  cure 
this  form  of  scab  and  the  cure  takes 
place  promptly  with  the  remedies  ap- 
plied in  other  stages  of  the  disease. 
The  crusts  may  first  be  removed  by  rub- 
bing with  oil,  after  which,  if  other  dips 
are  not  convenient,  kerosene  emulsion  or 
a  tar  sulphur  oil  ointment  will  give 
satisfactory  results. 

Botfly_The  sheep  botfly  (Oestrus 
ovis)  lays  its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  the 
sheep  in  early  summer  and  the  eggs,  up- 
on hatching,  develop  into  grubs  which 
penetrate  deeply  into  the  nasal  cavity 
and  after  becoming  full  grown  fall  to  the 
ground  where  they  bury  themselves  and 
finally  emerge  as  adult  flies.  The  flies 
somewhat  resemble  the  common  house 
fly  but  are  covered  with  small  round 
spots    and    the    abdomen  bears  velvety 


148 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


brown  and  straw  colored  hairs.  The 
flies  may  be  seen  all  summer  long  wor- 
rying sheep  which  in  badly  infested  lo- 
calities form  a  habit  of  carrying  the  nose 
close  to  the  ground  in  order  to  keep  out 
the  botflies.  Sheep  sometimes  resort  to 
dusty  roads  for  this  purpose.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  grubs  in  the  nasal  passages 
causes  considerable  congestion  and  ul- 
ceration and  in  some  cases  death.  In 
most  localities  where  sheep  raising  has 
been  practiced  for  a  century  or  more  al- 
most every  sheep  carries  from  2  to  3 
grubs  in  the  head  from  October  to  June. 
Treatment  for  this  trouble  is  somewhat 
difficult.     The   maggots   may   sometimes 


Fig.    107 FEMALE    SHEEP    SCAB    MITE 


be  dislodged  by  the  use  of  a  feather  dip- 
ped in  turpentine  and  inserted  into  the 
nostrils.  Fumigation  by  means  of  sul- 
phur fumes  and  other  gases  in  closed 
rooms  has  proved  injurious  to  sheep  and 
only  partly  effective  in  removing  the 
maggots.  In  serious  cases  it  may  be  ad- 
visable to  trephine  the  outer  blade  of 
bone,  after  which  the  maggots  may  be  re- 
moved and  the  part  thoroughly  washed 
out  in  tepid  water  containing  a  suitable 
antiseptic.  One  of  the  best  preventive 
means  for  controlling  this  trouble  is  to 
smear  tar  about  the  nostrils  in  sheep, 
since  this  substance  has  a  tendency  to 
keep  the  flies  from  laying  their  eggs  in 


the  nostrils.  A  good  plan  recommended 
by  many  sheep  raisers  consists  in  boring 
holes  in  a  log  in  which  salt  is  placed  and 
tar  smeared  around  the  margins  of  the 
holes.  The  sheep  in  eating  the  salt 
keep  the  nose  smeared  with  tar. 


SHEEP    SCAB    MITE     (MALE., 


Tick — The  common  sheep  tick  is  not 
a  true  tick  but  a  wingless  fly  which  is 
very  generally  distributed  throughout 
the  country  and  causes  great  damage, 
not,  as  a  rule,  in  killing  any  infested 
sheep  but  in  bringing  about  a  loss  of 
flesh  and  unthriftiness.  The  parasite 
(Melophagus  ovinus)  is  often  considered 


Mft^S&P^'"^'  • : 

Fig.      109 SHEEP     BOTS.        ARROW      SHOWS 

LOCATION     OF     GRUBS.      INDIANA 
EXPERIMENT   STATION 

of  little  importance  as  an  enemy  of  the 
sheep,  but  really  causes  serious  losses  of 
lambs  in  many  localities.     It  is  partly 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


149 


due  to  the  fact  that  after  the  ewes  are 
shorn  the  ticks  migrate  at  once  to  the 
lambs  and  cause  great  irritation.  In 
many  localities,  it  has  been  found  desir- 
able to  dip  both  ewes  and  lambs  imme- 
diately after  shearing  in  order  to  get 
rid  of  this  pest.  For  this  purpose  sheep 
may  be  dipped  in  a  lime-sulphur  solution 
or  any  other  dip  which  is  commonly 
recommended  for  sheep  scab.  The  dip, 
however,  need  not  be  so  strong  as  recom- 
mended for  scab,  for  the  reason  that  ticks 
are  not  under  the  surface  of  the  skin  but 
simply  crawling  about  in  the  wool.  A 
weak  creolin  dip  will  therefore  give 
quite  satisfactory  result  and  sheep  need 
not  be  held  so  long  in  the  dip  as  in  the 
case  of  scab.  Where  the  tick  prevails  to 
an  excessive  degree  it  is  well  to  dip  the 
sheep  after  shearing  and  also  in  the  fall. 

Bladder  worm — Upon  examining 
sheep  after  slaughter  it  sometimes  occurs 
that  the  larval  stages  or  bladder  worm 
form  of  the  tapeworm  (Taenia  margi- 
nata)  are  found  in  the  caul.  This  is 
the  larval  condition  of  the  tapeworm 
which  occurs  in  the  dog  but  is  most  fre- 
quently found  in  the  bladder  worm  form 
in  sheep  and  pigs  and  occasionally  in 
cattle.  The  vesicle  in  which  the  bladder 
worm  occurs  is  found  in  all  sizes  rang- 
ing from  that  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  man's 
fist.  The  bladder  worm  is  most  fre- 
quently found  in  the  pleura  and  peri- 
toneum covering  the  walls  of  the  body 
cavities.  Since  this  parasite  lives  in  the 
adult  form  in  the  intestines  of  dogs  it 
is  desirable  that  dogs  be  treated  at  regu- 
lar intervals  with  some  vermifuge  like 
aloes  in  order  to  expel  the  tapeworms 
and  that  all  unnecessary  dogs  be  kept 
away  from  sheep  pastures,  since  the  eggs 
of  tapeworms  from  dogs  may  be  taken 
into  the  stomach  of  sheep  with  their 
feed  and  thus  give  rise  to  an  infestation. 
The  bladder  worm  stage  in  sheep  is  us- 
ually a  harmless  parasite.  It  may,  when 
occurring  in  large  numbers,  cause  death 
in  young  animals,  but  this  is  quite  in- 
frequent. 

Gid  or  staggers — This  disease  is  also 
caused  by  a  bladder  worm  stage  of  a 
tapeworm  (Taenia  coenurus)  which  lives 
in  the  intestines  of  dogs.  The  bladder 
worm  is  about  the  size  of  hazelnuts  and 
is  provided  with  a  thin  membrane.  It 
penetrates  from  the  alimentary  tract  to 
the  brain,  where  it  causes  peculiar  symp- 
toms which  characterize  the  disease. 
Affected  sheep  have  the  tendency  to  turn 
round  and  round  in  a  circle  toward  the 


side  of  the  brain  in  which  the  parasite 
is  located.  There  is  practically  no  treat- 
ment for  this  disease,  but  prevention  may 
be  accomplished  to  a  large  extent  by 
burying  or  destroying  the  head  of  af- 
fected sheep  so  as  to  prevent  the  dogs 
from  becoming  reinfested  from  eating 
the  bladder  worm  stage  of  the  tapeworm. 
Gid  is  of  common  occurrence  in  Europe, 
but  has  not  been  known  in  the  United 
States  until  within  the  past  few  years. 
It  has  recently  been  reported  from  a 
number  of  localities  in  Montana  and  was 
observed  in  the  Judith  Basin  by  one  of 
us.  In  some  cases  where  the  bladder 
worm  is  located  near  the  top  of  the  head 
an  actual  enlargement  of  the  skull  may 


110 GID   WORM   OX    SHEEP   BRAIN 


take  place  and  the  worm  may  be  re- 
moved by  trephining  at  this  point.  It 
should  also  be  remembered  that  wolves, 
coyotes,  and  foxes  may  be  infested  with 
the  adult  worm  and  may,  therefore, 
carry  infection. 

Fringed  tapeworm  (Taenia  fimlriata) 
— This  is  a  very  common  intestinal  para- 
site of  sheep,  especially  in  the  western 
states,  where  it  causes  extensive  financial 
loss.  It  is  found  in  a  large  majority  of 
flocks  of  sheep  throughout  the  Rocky 
mountains  and  in  some  cases  whole  car- 
loads of  sheep  have  been  found  badly  af- 
fected to  the  extent  of  60  per  cent  or 
more.  The  fringed  tapeworm  varies 
from  6  to  8  inches  in  length  and  is 
found  in  the  small  intestines  and  bile 
ducts.  When  present  in  large  numbers 
the  lambs  are  weakened  and  fail  to  de- 
velop or  put  on  fat.  The  general  symp- 
toms are  those  of  malnutrition  and 
many  investigators  have  believed  that 
excessive  infestation  by  this  tapeworm 
is  one  of  the  causes  of  loco,  disease.  In 
the  intestines,  the  tapeworm  causes  a 
local  irritation  and  similar  effects  are 
produced  in  the  bile  ducts  in  addition 
to  stopping  the  flow  of  bile.  It  is  not 
known  how  the  worm  lives  from  the 
egg  stage  until  it  is  again  found  in  the 
intestines  of  sheep,  but  some  experi- 
ments by  Curtice  indicate  that  occa- 
sional infection  may  take  place  directly 


150 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


from  one  sheep  to  another  without  an 
intermediate  host.  Treatment  _  for 
fringed  tapeworm  is  usually  without 
very  satisfactory  results.  The  medi- 
cines which  are  used  for  this  purpose 
become  so  diluted  before  they  reach  the 
small  intestines  that  they  have  but  lit- 
tle effect  on  the  tapeworms.  Powdered 
areca  nut  may  be  given  in  doses  of  V2  to 
1  dram  and  oil  of  male  fern  10  to  20 
drops,  or  the  ethereal  extract  of  male 
fern  may  be  given  in  dram  doses.  One 
pound  of  copper  sulphate  dissolved  in  2 
quarts  of  water  and  then  diluted  _  to 
make  a  solution  of  8  gallons  gives^  fairly 
satisfactory  results  when  administered 
in  doses  of  2-3  ounce  for  young  lambs 
and  1  1-3  ounces  for  lambs  two  months 
of  age. 

Broad  tapeworm  (Moniezia  expansa) 
— This  parasite  attains  the  length  of  12 
to  15  feet  and  is  V2  to  %  inch  in  width. 
The  life  history  of  the  tapeworm  is  not 
understood.  It  affects  lambs  and  young 
sheep  more  frequently  than  other  ani- 
mals. The  symptoms  of  infection  are 
malnutrition,  whiteness  of  the  wool,  and 
paleness  about  the  eyes  and  lips.  A  posi- 
tive diagnosis,  however,  is  as  a  rule 
very  difficult.  The  worm  develops  very 
rapidly  in  the  intestines  of  infested 
sheep.  No  medicinal  treatment  of  a 
satisfactory  nature  has  been  devised. 

Liver  fluke  (Fasciola  hcpalica) — 
This  parasite  is  of  quite  common  occur- 
rence in  the  liver  of  sheep  and  cattle 
throughout  the  country,  but  many  large 
areas  are  comparatively  free  from  it. 
The  usual  location  of  the  liver  fluke  is 
in  the  bile  ducts  of  sheep,  goats,  cattle, 


Fig.    Ill SNAIL    IN  WHICH    ONE   STAGE    OF 

THE    LIFE    OF    THE    FLUKE     WORM 
IS     PASSED 

and  hogs.  Occasionally  it  is  also  found 
in  the  horse.  It  is  found  in  small  or 
large  numbers  in  the  liver  of  nearly  all 
sheep  and  cattle  and  for  this  reason  can- 
not be  considered  as  a  source  of  serious 
disease  except  when  it  is  present  in  un- 
usually large  numbers.  It  is  only  in 
rare  instances  that  the  liver  tissue  it- 
gelf  is  affected  by  the  presence  of  the 


fluke.  The  life  history  of  the  fluke  is 
quite  complicated.  The  eggs  pass  out 
through  the  bile  duct  and  intestines 
with  the  feces.  After  hatching  in  ponds 
and  pools  of  water  the  young,  immature 
flukes  are  parasitic  in  the  body  of  fresh 
water  snails.  There  are  two  or  three 
immature  stages  which  are  passed  in  the 
water  and  finally  the  larvae  crawl  onto 
the  stems  of  grasses,  from  which  posi- 
tion they  gain  entrance  to  the  stomach 
of  sheep.  The  symptoms  of  liver  rot 
due  to  fluke  worms  are  not  easily  recog- 
nized. Badly  affected  sheep  are  un- 
thrifty, show  a  poor  appetite,  and  a  yel- 
low tinge  to  the  skin,  as  well  as  paleness 
about  the  lips  and  eyes.  During  the 
later  stages  of  the  disease  the  sheep 
becomes  rapidly  emaciated  and  if  badly 
infected  the  mortality  is  high.  This  dis- 
ease is  more  prevalent  in  wet  than  dry 
years.  There  are  no  remedies  which 
bring  results  in  removing  the  flukes. 
Even  the  use  of  tonics  are  of  little  avail. 
When  the  young  larvae  are  first  taken 
into  the  stomach  they  are  susceptible  to 
the  action  of  salt  and  it  is  sometimes 
suggested  that  the  free  use  of  salt  will 
help  to  prevent  bad   infection. 


-  l^KeM,^ 


Fig.    112 SHEEP  AFFECTED   WITH    TWISTED 

STOMACH    WORMS    AS    SHOWN    AT    "A" 

Stomach  worm  {Slrongylus  contor- 
tus) — Sheep  are  very  commonly  infest- 
ed with  this  parasite  and  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river  it  is  perhaps  the  most 
serious  disease  with  which  the  sheep 
raiser  has  to  contend.  In  Indiana, 
Craig  and  Bitting  estimate  that  the 
average  annual  loss  from  this  parasite 
is  about  30,000  sheep.  It  is  to  be  found 
in  nearly  all  flocks  in  small  numbers 
but  serious  symptoms  and  losses  occur 
only  when  the  parasite  is  present  in 
large  numbers.  Lambs  are  particularly 
susceptible,    especially   before   weaning. 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


151 


The  stomach  worm,  as  its  name  indi- 
cates, is  parasitic  in  the  stomach  and  is 
a  small,  threadlike  worm  about  Y2  inch 
to  1  inch  in  length  and  of  a  white  or 
reddish  brown  color.  The  life  history 
of  the  parasite,  while  not  thoroughly 
understood,  appears  to  be  such  that  in- 
festation may  take  place  directly  from 
one  sheep  to  another  after  the  parasite 
has  passed  out  with  the  feces  and  existed 
some  time  in  moist  places  or  stagnant 
water.  The  symptoms  of  stomach 
worms  are  not  very  characteristic.  There 
are  digestive  disturbances  accompanied 
with  diarrhea.  The  appetite  is  abnormal 
and  quite  irregular.  Frequently  the 
thirst  appears  to  be  increased. 

In  preventing  this  disease  it  should 
always  be  remembered  that  the  young 
worms  are  taken  up  by  sheep  in  grazing 
upon  moist,  badly  infested  grass.  In- 
festation may,  therefore,  be  avoided  to 
a  considerable  extent  by  frequent  change 
of  pastures.  During  wet  seasons  it  is 
well  to  arrange  pasture  lands  so  that 
the  use  of  such  fields  may  be  alternated 
every  third  or  fourth  day.  If  pas- 
ture fields  are  known  to  be  badly  in- 
fested, the  sheep  may  be  taken  up  dur- 
ing part  of  the  time  and  fed  on  dry 
forage.  Many  lines  of  treatment  have 
been  recommended  and  some  of  them 
give  quite  good  success  but  they  are 
hard  to  administer  and  in  general  are 
unsatisfactory  in  results.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  in  large  flocks  where  the 
repeated  administration  of  a  drench  to 
each  individual  sheep  requires  an  ex- 
pense of  time  and  labor  which  is  almost 
prohibitive.  Vermifuges  as  a  rule  be- 
come badly  diluted  before  reaching  the 
fourth  stomach,  where  the  worms  are 
located.  A  vermifuge  powder  recom- 
mended by  Craig  and  Bitting  contains  y2 
pound  each  of  areca  nut  and  wormseed 
and  i/4  pound  each  of  gentian,  sulphur 
and  sulphate  of  iron.  An  ounce  of  this 
mixture  is  given  to  each  ten  lambs  or 
six  old  sheep  in  the  morning  with  meal 
or  crushed  gram.  Turpentine  has  also 
been  used  in  treating  sheep  for  stomach 
worms.  This  drug  may  be  mixed  with 
milk  at  the  rate  of  1  part  to  16  and  the 
mixture  given  in  doses  of  1  to  3  table- 
spoonfuls,  depending  upon  the  size 
of  the  lamb.  Still  better  results  are 
obtained  from  the  mixture  containing  8 
parts  pine  tar,  8  parts  raw  linseed  oil, 
and  1  part  turpentine,  in  doses  of  1  to 
3  ounces.  An  emulsion  may  be  made  by 
adding    1    ounce    of    turpentine    to    2 


ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil  and  adminis- 
tering this  mixture  in  doses  of  V2 
ounce  to  1  ounce.  This  remedy  should 
be  given  in  a  perfectly  fresh  condition. 
Considerable  success  has  been  reported 
from  the  use  of  benzine  and  gasoline  and 
these  remedies  are  recommended  by 
Stiles  and  others  as  the  best  for  use 
against  the  stomach  worm.  Each  dose 
of  gasoline  or  benzine  must  be  mixed 
separately  in  linseed  oil  or  milk  and  the 
mixture  may  be  given  to  lambs  in  tea- 
spoonful  doses  and  to  old  sheep  in  table- 
spoonful  doses.  While  excellent  results 
have  been  reported  by  some  men  who 
have  used  this  remedy,  others  have  re- 
ported unfavorably  on  its  use.  Accord- 
ing to  some  investigations  it  appears 
that  4  ounces  of  sweet  milk  containing 
one  tablespoonful  of  gasoline  is  a  suit- 
able dose  for  a  sheep  weighing  from  60 
to  100  pounds.  This  treatment  should 
be  given  only  after  a  fasting  period  from 
10  to  18  hours  and  no  water  should 
be  given  until  after  a  further  pe- 
riod of  two  hours.  Moreover,  the  treat- 
ment must  be  given  on  three  consecutive 
days  and  then  repeated  for  another  three 
days  a  week  or  ten  days  later.  The  gaso- 
line or  benzine  can  best  be  administered 
with  a  fountain  syringe  having  a  rubber 
tube  that  can  be  passed  well  back  into 
the  mouth  and  the  sheep  should  be  held 
in  a  standing  position,  since  if  it  is  set 
on  its  haunches  some  of  the  gasoline  may 
pass  into  the  lungs  and  cause  death. 

One  of  the  most  recent  treatments 
which  has  been  highly  recommended  con- 
sists in  giving  coal  tar  creosote  in  a  1 
per  cent  solution  in  water,  the  dose  be- 
ing 2  ounces  for  young  lambs.  In  a 
single  treatment  Craig  and  Bitting  ob- 
tained better  results  from  this  than 
from  any  other  method.  Wheeler,  at 
Biltmore,  North  Carolina,  obtained  best 
results  from  lysol  and  other  coal  tar 
products  in  doses  of  6  ounces  in  1  per 
cent  solution.  The  chief  attention, 
however,  should  always  be  given  to 
means  of  keeping  lambs  away  from  con- 
taminated feed  and  water,  since  preven- 
tion is  far  more  successful  and  profitable 
than   remedial   treatment. 

Intestinal  worms_A  number  of 
threadlike  worms  are  frequently  found 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  small  intestine 
of  sheep.  These  include  Strongylus 
venlricosus,  S.  filicollis  and  Dochmms 
cernuus.  All  of  these  are  minute  para- 
sites which  may  be  found  associated  to- 
gether   in    the    intestines    and    usually 


152 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


cause  only  slight  symptoms  of  disease. 
They  may  be  most  effectively  treated  by 
the  use  of  vermifuges  like  areca  nut. 

Lung  worms — The  hair  lung  worm  is 
found  in  the  small  air  cells  of  the  lungs 
and  causes  a  form  of  pneumonia,  while 
the  thread  lung  worm  inhabits  the  bron- 
chi, causing  a  hacking  cough  commonly 
known  as  verminous  bronchitis.  The 
hair  lung  worm  is  so  exceedingly  slender 
and  long  that  it  commonly  escapes  notice 
when  the  lung  is  examined  post-mortem 
by  individuals  who  are  not  acquainted 
with  its  location  and  appearance.  The 
diagnosis  of  this  disease  cannot  be  made 
with  certainty  until  the  symptoms  of 
pneumonia  appear  and  obviously  no  me- 
dicinal treatment  can  be  given  which 
will  expel  the  worm.  The  only  success- 
ful way  of  preventing  the  disease  con- 
sists in  abandoning  badly  infested  pas- 
tures for  a  year,  or  better  still,  plowing 
them  up  and  cultivating  them  for  years 
before  they  are  again  used  as  pastures. 
The  thread  lung  worm  (Strongylus  fil- 
aria)  is  somewhat  larger  and  is  the  one 
which  is  commonly  referred  to  as  caus- 
ing verminous  bronchitis.  It  may 
readily  be  observed  in  the  windpipe  and 
bronchi  in  animals  dead  of  this  disease 
and  occurs  with  about  equal  frequency 
in  sheep  and  calves.  The  disease  is  most 
frequently  observed  in  summer  and  fall 
and  begins  to  diminish  in  intensity  in 
winter.  It  is  frequently  referred  to  un- 
der the  name  hoose.  Apparently  wet 
seasons  favor  the  development  of  lung 
worms.  The  various  lines  of  treatment 
recommended  for  this  trouble,  while 
more  or  less  successful,  are  scarcely 
capable  of  preventing  the  stunted  con- 
dition in  affected  lambs.  Among  the 
large  number  of  remedies  recommended, 
turpentine  is  perhaps  the  best.  It  may 
be  injected  by  means  of  a  hypodermic 
syringe  between  the  rings  of  the  wind- 
pipe so  as  to  pass  directly  into  the  wind- 
pipe. The  turpentine  may  be  mixed 
with  equal  parts  of  sweet  oil  to  which 
carbolic  acid  has  been  added  at  the  rate 
of  12  to  15  drops  to  a  tablespoonful  of 
the  mixture.  Two  or  more  injections  of 
this  mixture  made  at  intervals  of  a  few 
days  usually  give  quite  satisfactory  re- 
sttlts.  Almost  equally  good  results  are 
obtained  by  injecting  into  the  windpipe 
a  mixture  of  2  parts  of  olive  oil  and  1 
part  of  turpentine  in  doses  of  1  to  3  tea- 
spoonfuls.  Some  investigators  have 
recommended  that  turpentine  be  admin- 
istered in  the  form  of  an  inhalation  by 
placing  it  in  a  bucket  of  boiling  water 


or  by  pouring  some  on  hot  bricks  near 
the  head  of  the  affected  sheep.  Sheep 
have  also  been  driven  into  closed  stables 
and  made  to  inhale  chlorine  gas,  or  sul- 
phur fumes,  for  the  purpose  of  induc- 
ing a  cough  and  thus  expelling  the 
worms  in  the  windpipe  and  bronchi. 
These  remedies,  however,  are  not  very 
effective  and  are  somewhat  dangerous. 

Nodular  disease — In  some  parts  of 
the  country,  particularly  in  the  southern 
and  central  states,  nodules  resembling 
those  of  tuberculosis  are  found  in  the  in- 
testines of  sheep  and  are  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  parasitic  worm  (Oesophagos- 
ioma  columbianum) .  The  disease  caused 
by  this  parasite  cannot  be  diagnosed 
with  any  certainty,  but  as  a  rule  there  is 
a  pronounced  anemic  condition  and  a 
profuse  diarrhea.  In  the  case  of  death 
of  any  sheep  in  the  herd  a  post-mortem 
examination  of  the  intestines  will  dis- 
close the  presence  of  numerous  nodules 
in  the  intestinal  walls  if  the  worm  in 
question  is  present.  Obviously  no  treat- 
ment can  be  given  which  would  affect 
the  worm  when  protected  by  the  mem- 
branes of  the  intestinal  walls.  Ac- 
cording to  recent  experiments  by  Dal- 
rymple,  however,  considerable  success 
has  been  had  from  the  use  of  a  dry  lot 
pasture  for  lambs.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  when  sheep  afflicted  with  nod- 
dular  disease  of  the  intestines  are  placed 
upon  a  previously  healthy  pasture  they 
infect  this  pasture  very  promptly.  When 
healthy  lambs  are  allowed  to  graze  over 
such  pastures  they,  in  turn,  become  in- 
fested, but  when  not  given  access  to  in- 
fested pastures  they  do  not  contract  the 
disease.  It  appears  from  Dalrymple's 
experiments  that  lambs  from  infected 
mothers  may  be  raised  in  a  healthy  con- 
dition, provided  they  be  kept  on  dry 
lots.  This  system  merely  requires  that 
a  small  feed  lot  be  thoroughly  cultivated 
and  kept  clear.  Green  feed  and  grain 
may  be  fed  and  the  lambs  are  thus  pre- 
vented from  eating  any  vegetation  which 
might  have  become  contaminated  from 
the  feces  of  the  infested  ewes. 

DISEASES    OF    GOATS 

Goats  are  commonly  believed  to  be 
less  susceptible  to  diseases  than  sheep. 
This  is  not  true,  however,  for  all  dis- 
eases. For  example,  the  lung  and  stom- 
ach worms  are  a  very  serious  source  of 
infection  in  goats  and  cause  extensive 
losses.  Goats  are  also  readily  affected 
with  foot  rot.  With  regard  to  stomach 
worm  it  should  be  said  that  low,  wet 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


153 


lands  are  undesirable  for  use  as  goat 
pastures,  since  in  such  localities  they 
become  badly  infested.  Goats  thrive 
best,  therefore,  on  dry,  mountain  pas- 
tures where  they  can  obtain  plenty  of 
browse.  When  allowed  to  graze  under 
free  conditions,  goats,  like  sheep,  seldom 
become  affected  with  tuberculosis.  In 
Germany  and  elsewhere  in  Europe,  how- 
ever, it  has  been  found  that  milch  goats 
kept  confined  under  insanitary  condi- 
tions are  perhaps  as  readily  affected  by 
tuberculosis  as  are  cattle.  Mohler  in- 
vestigated a  very  fatal  disease  of  goats 
known  as  takosis.  The  chief  symptoms 
of  this  trouble  are  excessive  weakness, 
emaciation  and  pneumonia.     No  medic- 


when  kept  under  the  restraint  sometimes 
necessary,  are  more  exposed  to  contagion 
and  other  forms  of  disease  than  when 
allowed  to  live  a  more  free,  natural  life. 
Particular  attention  should  therefore  be 
given  to  the  sanitary  condition  of  poul- 
try houses,  if  the  birds  are  not  allowed 
a  considerable  amount  of  range. 

Roup  is  a  contagious  disease  often 
called  "fowl  diphtheria,"  resembling  in 
many  respects  diphtheria  of  man.  It  is 
occasionally  claimed  that  diphtheria  in 
children  has  been  acquired  by  contact 
with  chicken  roup  and  that  roup  has 
developed  from  diphtheria  in  children, 
but  the  evidence  for  this  transmission 
of  the  disease  is  not  forthcoming.   Roup 


Fig.    113 — A    CASE    OF    TAKOSIS   IN    A   GOAT 


inal  treatment  is  of  avail  against  the 
disease.  Mohler  gave  considerable  at- 
tention to  the  perfection  of  a  method 
of  preventive  vaccination.  Fortunately, 
takosis  appears  to  be  waning  in  recent 
years.  The  common  diseases  to  which 
goats  are  susceptible  may  be  treated  in 
the  same  manner  as  recommended  for 
sheep. 

DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 

While  chickens,  ducks,  geese,  turkeys 
and  pigeons  are  subject  to  a  great  va- 
riety of  diseases  of  an  infectious  and 
non-infectious  nature,  attention  will  be 
given  in  the  present  account  to  those 
which  are  of  the  most  importance.  It 
should  be  understood  that  all  kinds  of 
poultry,  as  well  as  large  farm  animals, 


affects  the  lining  of  the  mouth,  nose, 
larynx,  eyes  and  sometimes  extends  into 
the  lungs  and  intestines.  The  disease  is 
characterized  by  a  yellow,  thick,  false 
membrane  on  the  affected  parts.  The 
membrane  is  attached  to  the  underlying 
tissues,  so  that  a  bleeding  surface  is  left 
when  it  is  removed.  So  long  as  roup  is 
confined  to  the  mouth  and  larynx  it  may 
be  cured  but  when  it  has  infected  the 
windpipe  and  lungs  its  progress  cannot 
be  checked.  The  eyes  often  become  com- 
pletely covered  over  with  false  mem- 
branes and  when  the  larynx  is  attacked 
the  opening  may  be  closed  so  that  the 
chickens  die  of  strangulation.  At  first 
a  thin,  watery  discharge  takes  place 
from  the  eyes  and  nose  and  a  fever  may 
be  noted  after  three  or  four  days.    The 


154 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


disease  is  chiefly  transmitted  to  healthy 
fowls  hy  eating  pieces  of  membrane 
which  have  been  thrown  upon  the 
ground  by  diseased  birds. 

In  treating  roup  a  great  variety  of 
remedies  have  been  tested  without  as 
much  success  as  could  be  desired.  In- 
fected fowls  should  be  isolated  and  the 
premises  disinfected  with  a  5  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid,  lime  water  or 
a  solution  of  blue  vitriol.  The  false 
membranes  may  be  removed  and  tissue 
underneath  touched  with  a  stick  of 
lunar  caustic,  after  which  the  whole 
mouth  may  be  washed  out  with  a  solu- 
tion of  nitrate  of  silver  at  the  rate  of  8 
grains  per  ounce  of  water.  The  affected 
patches  may  also  be  painted  with  iodine 


Fig.   114 TUBERCULOSIS   OP   INTESTINES   IN 

CHICKENS.      CAL.    EXPERIMENT    STATION 

and  the  mouth  washed  with  a  solution 
of  borax,  a  1  per  cent  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid,  or  a  3  per  cent  solution  of 
peroxide  of  hydrogen.  Ward  and  Moore 
nave  tested  forty  or  more  remedies  with- 
out complete  success.  Considerable 
benefit  was  derived  from  dipping  the 
heads  of  affected  fowls  in  kerosene,  but 
often  the  disease  recurred  after  an 
apparent  recovery. 

Fowl  cholera  is  another  contagious 
disease  characterized  by  rapid  emacia- 
tion and  a  constant  and  profuse  diar- 
rhea. Medical  treatment  of  this  trouble 
is  of  little  avail  and  therefore  is  not  to 
be  attempted.  The  disease  attacks 
chickens,  ducks,  geese,  turkeys,  pigeons 


and  various  cage  birds,  as  well  as  certain 
species  of  wild  birds,  and  infection 
spreads  rapidly  throughout  the  flock.  All 
dead  as  well  as  diseased  birds  should  be 
instantly  buried  or  burned  and  the  poul- 
try houses  thoroughly  disinfected. 
Occasionally  some  relief  is  obtained 
by  giving  a  mixture  of  subnitrate  of 
bismuth,  soda  and  cinchona  bark,  but 
usually  treatment  is  of  no  avail.  A 
number  of  vaccination  experiments  for 
fowl  cholera  have  been  carried  on  but 
the  method  has  not  yet  been  put  in 
shape  for  practical  application. 

Tuberculosis  affects  all  kinds  of  fowls, 
causing  tubercles  on  the  wings,  parts  of 
the  skin,  head  and  in  the  lungs,  liver 
and  other  internal  organs.  The  liver  is 
affected  in  nearly  all  cases  and  contains 
numerous  gray  tubercles.  A  high  tem- 
perature develops  during  the  course  of 
the  disease,  the  comb  becomes  pale  and 
great  emaciation  results.  Tuberculosis 
is  the  cause  of  from  10  to  15  per  cent 
of  the  deaths  of  young  chicks  in  brood- 
ers and  this  fact  indicates  the  impor- 
tance of  strict  sanitation  in  brooders. 
Extensive  investigations  in  regard  to 
the  prevalence  and  treatment  of  tuber- 
culosis in  fowls  have  been  carried  on  in 
California  and  New  York  by  Ward, 
Moore  and  others.  At  Petaluma,  Cali- 
fornia, where  chicken  raising  is  con- 
ducted on  a  large  scale,  very  serious  out- 
breaks of  tuberculosis  have  occurred. 
The  tuberculin  test  has  been  tried  in 
detecting  the  disease  in  its  early  stages, 
but  is  not  very  satisfactory  with  fowls 
for  the  reason  that  their  normal  tem- 
perature varies  so  greatly.  The  only 
satisfactory  treatment  for  tuberculosis 
consists  in  the  destruction  of  diseased 
birds  and  thorough  disinfection. 

Going  light,  or  asthenia,  Was  first  in- 
vestigated by  Dawson.  The  chief  symp- 
tom of  this  trouble  is  emaciation  with- 
out diarrhea  and  without  loss  of  appe- 
tite. The  disease  is  infectious  and  due 
to  a  bacillus  which  attacks  chiefly  the 
small  intestines.  Going  light  may  per- 
sist for  a  long  time,  but  the  mortality 
is  high.  The  disease  has  been  reported 
in  Maryland,  Delaware  and  elsewhere, 
and  may  best  be  treated  by  giving  cas- 
tor oil  in  doses  of  two  teaspoonfuls  or 
calomel  in  ^-grain  doses,  followed  by 
a  tonic. 

Chicken  pox,  also  known  as  sore  head 
and  pigeon  pox,  has  long  been  known  in 
Europe  and  America.     It  prevails  most 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


155 


extensively  in  the  warm  climates  of  the 
southern  states,  Hawaii  and  elsewhere. 
Chicken  pox  is  due  to  a  fungus  which 
usually  attacks  the  head,  causing  small 
eruptions  near  the  eyes,  ears  or  on  the 
bill.  The  eyes  may  become  entirely  cov- 
ered over.  All  affected  fowls  should  at 
once  be  removed  and  the  premises  disin- 
fected with  whitewash,  carbolic  acid  or 
Bordeaux  mixture.  The  scabs  may  be 
removed  by  warm  soapsuds  and  affect- 
ed parts  painted  with  iodine  or  washed 
with  nitrate  of  silver.  According  to 
Cary  chickenpox  is  merely  one  form  of 
roup. 

Leukaemia  is  a  contagious  disease 
with  a  short  course,  usually  resulting  in 
death  within  three  days.  Sick  fowls 
droop  and  show  a  roughened  plumage. 
There  is  high  fever  and  paleness  of  the 
comb  but  no  diarrhea.  The  small  in- 
testines are  inflamed  and  covered  with  a 
purulent  secretion  containing  the  bac- 
teria of  the  disease.  The  disease  is  thus 
spread  by  the  feces  of  affected  birds. 
Diseased  fowls  may  be  given  a  tonic  of 
sulphate  of  iron  at  the  rate  of  2  to 
4  grains  daily  with  the  feed  and  dis- 
infectant measures  should  be  adopted. 

Losses  in  incubator  chicks  may  be  due 
to  overcrowding  in  brooders  and  conse- 
quent death  by  suffocation.  As  already 
indicated,  tuberculosis  is  very  prevalent 
among  chickens  in  brooders.  Frequently 
chickens  fail  to  absorb  the  yolk  and  in 
Rhode  Island  it  is  found  that  35  per  cent 
of  incubator  chicks  are  affected  with  a 
disease  of  the  gall  bladder  in  which  a 
green  stain  can  be  seen  on  the  outside  of 
the  body.  This  trouble  is  largely  due 
to  an  unbalanced  ration  and  indicates  a 
lack  of  protein  or  animal  feed  in  the 
diet.  Liver,  flesh,  refuse  meat,  blood 
meal  and  other  similar  substances  should 
be  used.  The  chickens  should  be  fed 
frequently  and  in  small  quantities. 

Gapes  is  caused  by  a  worm  (Syngamus 
trachealis)  in  the  windpipe.  Infested 
chicks  cough,  assume  a  drooping  pos- 
ture and  lose  weight  rapidly.  Many  in- 
vestigators believe  that  gape  worms  live 
in  earthworms  and  the  chickens  become 
infested  by  eating  these  worms.  In 
certain  experiments  along  this  line, 
chickens  allowed  to  eat  earthworms  were 
attacked  with  gapes,  while  those  kept 
on  a  plank  floor  did  not  become  infested. 
The  trouble  may  be  treated  by  applying  a 
feather  dipped  in  turpentine  to  the  in- 
side of  the  throat.  Internal  doses  of 
garlic  or  asafetida  also  have  a  beneficial 


effect.  The  fowls  may  also  be  made  to 
breathe  lime  dust  to  induce  violent 
coughing. 

Lice,  mites  and  ticks— Chickens  be- 
come infested  with  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  parasitic  insects  and  mites.  The 
most  common  species  are  chicken  flea, 
chicken  tick  and  various  species  of  lice. 
When  present  in  large  numbers  these 
pests  cause  much  worry  and  loss  of 
weight  to  the  fowls.  These  pests  may 
best  be  controlled  by  constructing  roosts 
so  that  the  parasites  cannot  crawl  upon 
the  fowls,  and  by  spraying  the  chicken 
houses  thoroughly  with  kerosene  or  kero- 
sene emulsion  every  10  days  or  two 
weeks. 

Scaly  legs  is  due  to  a  mite  known  as 
Sarcoptes  mutans,  which  burrows  un- 
derlie skin  of  the  legs,  causing  an  exu- 
dation of  fluid,  which  becomes  gummy 
and  forms  scales  on  drying.  The  scales 
may  be  softened  with  warm  soapsuds,  af- 
ter which  the  legs  may  best  be  treated  by 
dipping  in  kerosene  or  painting  with  an 
ointment  containing  1  to  2  drams  of 
balsam  of  Peru  to  the  ounce  of  vaseline. 
Another  form  of  the  disease,  commonly 
known  as  depluming  scabies,  attacks  the 
feathers,  causing  them  to  break  off  near 
the  skin.  Affected  birds  should  be  iso- 
lated and  rubbed  with  a  carbolic  oint- 
ment or  a  similar  salve. 

Favus,  also  known  as  white  comb  or 
baldness,  is  caused  by  the  same  fungus 
which  produces  ringworm  in  other  ani- 
mals. The  trouble  appears  upon  the  comb 
and  neck  in  the  form  of  circular  patches. 
The  feathers  fall  off  from  the  affected 
areas  and  crusts  form  in  such  places. 
These  parts  should  be  washed  with  warm 
water,  after  which  an  ointment  may  be 
applied,  containing  1  part  benzine,  20 
parts  soft  soap  and  enough  sulphur  to 
make  a  paste. 

,Air  sac  mite  is  a  white  mite  barely 
visible  to  the  naked  eye,  which  lives  in 
the  lungs,  air  sacs,  windpipe  and  body 
cavity,  and  according  to  some  investi- 
gators may  cause  a  cough  or  strangula- 
tion and  in  some  cases  diarrhea.  We 
have  found  the  mites,  however,  in 
healthy  fowls  and  it  must  therefore  re- 
main doubtful  whether  they  are  always 
the  cause  of  a  serious  disease.  They 
may  be  concerned  in  some  instances  in 
carrying  tuberculosis  or  other  infectious 
diseases.  The  mites  probably  gain  en- 
trance to  the  body  in  the  food.  There  is 
obviously  no  treatment  for  this  trouble, 
but  fortunately  this  mite  is  not  common. 


156 


FARMER'S  'CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIV FT  STOCK 


having  been  reported  in  small  out- 
breaks from  Montana,  Maryland,  the 
District  of  Columbia  and  a  few  other 
localities. 

Simple  catarrh  may  best  be  treated  by 
keeping  the  birds  in  a  good  condition  in 
clean,  well  ventilated  houses  without 
drafts  and  giving  a  little  cayenne  pepper 
with  the  food.  In  cases  of  bronchitis  a 
similar  treatment  is  indicated,  or  10 
drops  of  turpentine  may  be  given  in  a 
teaspoonful  of  castor  oil.  Occasionally 
chickens  exposed  to  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  and  kept  in  insanitary 
houses  are  affected  with  pneumonia  or 
other  serious  diseases  of  the  air  passages, 
which  may  be  treated  like  bronchitis,  but 
the  results  are  not  so  satisfactory. 

Pip — Rarely  the  mouth  becomes  in- 
flamed and  this  and  various  other  re- 
lated troubles  are  sometimes  known  as 
pip.  This  trouble  may  best  be  treated  by 
washing  the  mouth  with  glycerin  water 
or  a  solution  of  borax. 

Crop  bound — Whenever  the  crop  be- 
comes obstructed  as  the  result  of  tempo- 
rary paralysis  and  the  accumulation  of 
food,  the  best  treatment  consists  in  soft- 
ening the  mass  of  food  by  giving  sweet 
oil  and  manipulating  the  crop  between 
the  fingers. 

Simple  diarrhea  indicates  something 
wrong  about  the  food  or  water.  Atten- 
tion should  therefore  be  given  to  these 
matters  and  affected  birds  may  be  fed  a 
tablespoonful  of  olive  oil,  followed  by 
2  grains  of  subnitrate  of  bismuth 
three  times  daily  in  water. 

DISEASES  OF  WATER  FOWL 

Ducks  are  often  attacked  by  choiera, 
which  is  similar  or  identical  with  fowl 
cholera,  but  is  usually  more  fatal,  re- 
sulting in  death  within  about  twenty- 
four  hours.  Occasionally  some  benefit 
is  derived  from  giving  a  1  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  in  the  drinking 
water  and  cayenne  pepper  with  the  food. 
As  a  rule,  however,  no  treatment  is 
satisfactory.  Ducks  are  less  subject  to 
diarrhea,  other  digestive  troubles  and 
external  parasites  than  are  chickens. 

Similarly  with  geese,  the  most  serious 
trouble  is  cholera.  This  rarely  occurs  on 
farms  where  geese  are  raised  in  small 
numbers  but  has  been  observed  in  serious 
outbreaks  in  Rhode  Island  and  elsewhere 
in  large  goose  fattening  establishments. 
Goose  cholera  is  apparently  distinct  from 
fowl  cholera,  and  the  mortality  is  very 
high.      The    disease    may   best   be    pre- 


vented from  spreading  widely  by  keep- 
ing geese  in  small  pens  so  arranged  that 
when  an  outbreak  occurs  the  affected 
pen  may  be  removed  from  the  other  birds. 

DISEASES   OF   TURKEYS 

One  of  the  most  serious  diseases  of 
young  turkeys  is  diarrhea,  which  is  most 
often  caused  by  exposure  to  cold  or 
dampness  and  by  eating  spoiled  or  un- 
cooked food  and  drinking  filthy  water. 
Affected  poults  should  receive  hard  boiled 
eggs  and  stale  bread  with  plenty  of 
pepper.  Good  results  are  also  obtained 
from  giving  a  mixture  containing  2 
ounces  of  sulphuric  acid  and  %  pound 
copperas  in  2  gallons  of  water,  the  dose 
being  1  teaspoonful  added  to  each  quart 
of  di  inking  water.  Roup,  gapes  and  other 
common  troubles  affecting  turkeys  may 
be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  recom- 
mended for  chickens.  Occasionally  tur- 
keys become  infested  with  tapeworms. 
For  expelling  these  worms  male  fern, 
kousso  or  turpentine  may  be  given  in 
small  doses.  A  peculiar  malignant  dis- 
ease of  turkeys  is  known  as  "blackhead" 
and  is  due  to  the  presence  of  Amoebe 
meleagridis  in  the  intestines.  The  trou- 
ble has  proved  serious  in  Rhode  Is- 
land, where  it  has  been  thoroughly  in- 
vestigated. The  head  may  become  some- 
what discolored,  which  gives  the  disease 
its  name,  but  this  symptom  is  not  always 
noted.  The  disease  attacks  young  tur- 
keys and  affects  chiefly  the  blind  pouches 
of  the  intestines.  A  profuse  diarrhea 
is  observed.  Later  the  liver  is  attacked 
and  becomes  enlarged  to  twice  its  usual 
size,  showing  round,  discolored  spots. 
There  is  no  satisfactory  remedial  treat- 
ment, but  the  disease  appears  to  be 
transmitted  through  the  feces  and  this 
material  should  therefore  be  removed 
and  the  turkey  houses  disinfected. 

DISEASES    OF    PIGEONS 

Pigeons  are  subject  to  a  large  number 
of  diseases  most  of  which,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, roup,  cholera  and  asthenia,  also 
occur  in  chickens  and  should  be  treated 
in  the  manner  recommended  for  those 
birds.  Pigeons  may  also  become  infested 
with  lice,  ticks  and  mites,  which  may 
be  eradicated  in  the  way  mentioned  for 
chickens.  If  pigeons  become  badly  in- 
fested with  intestinal  worms,  these  para- 
sites may  be  removed  by  giving  a  small 
piece  of  garlic  daily  or  a  minute  dose 
of  areca  nut  in  a  capsule  with  castor  oil. 
"When  disease  in  pigeons  is  characterized 
by   a   stiffening    of   the   joints   due   to 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


157 


tumors  at  these  points,  it  may  be  the  re- 
sult of  strains  or  other  injuries.  The 
inflamed  spot  may  be  treated  with  strong 
spirits  of  camphor  or  iodine.  Canker 
closely  resembles  roup  in  chickens  and 
may  be  identical  with  this  disease.  It  is 
accompanied  with  fever,  swelling  of  the 
throat  and  the  appearance  of  white 
patches  in  the  mouth  and  throat.  The 
canker  sores  may  be  treated  with  pow- 
dered alum,  but  all  affected  birds  should 
be  isolated.  A  form  of  sore  head,  prob- 
ably identical  with  chicken  pox,  but  fre- 
quently called  smallpox  in  pigeons,  ap- 
pears in  the  form  of  sores  on  the  head 
and  spreads  over  the  neck,  forming 
scabs.  The  scabby  areas  may  be  re- 
moved and  the  disease  cured  by  apply- 
ing a  dilute  solution  of  blue  vitriol. 

DISEASES   OF   DOGS 

While  dogs  may  become  affected  with 
a  great  variety  of  diseases  which  are  of 
much  importance  to  the  dog  raiser,  the 
purposes  of  the  present  volume  do  not 
permit  us  to  discuss  the  less  important 
dog  diseases  except  in  so  far  as  they 
may  be  a  source  of  contagion  to  man 
and  our  common  domestic  animals. 

Dogs  are  recognized  as  capable  of  fur- 
nishing considerable  service  to  the  stock 
raiser,  but  unfortunately  they  also  carry 
many  infectious  diseases,  which  may 
become  a  source  of  great  danger  to 
stock.  On  this  account  it  has  become 
desirable  to  give  close  heed  to  the  health 
of  dogs  which  are  maintained  on  stock 
farms. 

Distemper  [3  a  highly  contagious  and 
malignant  disease,  due  to  a  specific  bacil- 
lus, and  affects  dogs,  cats  and  other  car- 
nivora.  It  is  one  of  the  most  serious  dis- 
eases of  dogs  and  causes  the  death  of 
from  50  to  60  per  cent  of  affected 
animals.  The  symptoms  of  distemper 
include  loss  of  appetite,  fever  and  con- 
stipation, followed  by  quite  profuse  diar- 
rhea. The  eyes  at  first  show  a  watery  dis- 
charge, but  later  this  discharge  becomes 
thick,  yellow  in  color  and  of  a  purulent 
nature.  Distemper  may  be  described  as 
a  catarrhal  fever,  and  a  persistent  dis- 
charge takes  place  from  the  nose.  It 
affects  chiefly  young  dogs  and  perhaps 
more  frequently  high-bred,  pampered 
dogs  than  those  which  are  allowed  great- 
er freedom.  If  a  dog  kennel  once  be- 
comes infected,  it  is  necessary  to  treat  it 
thoroughly  with  antiseptics  or  burn  it  up 
in  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  dis- 
ease  to   other   dogs  which   may  occupy 


the  kennel.  The  period  of  incubation 
is  usually  from  one  to  three  weeks.  Hill 
recommends  a  mild  emetic  at  the  start; 
for  example,  a  teaspoonful  of  mustard 
and  salt  in  warm  water.  This  may  be 
followed  by  the  use  of  stimulants,  such 
as  a  teaspoonful  of  port  wine  and  1 
grain  of  quinine  or  a  mixture  of  4 
drains  niter,  4  drams  tincture  of  gentian 
and  x/2  ounce  aqua  menthae,  the  dose 
of  this  mixture  being  a  teaspoonful.  If 
the  eyes  are  badly  affected  they  may  be 
treated  with  weak  antiseptic  solutions 
such  as  silver  nitrate  at  the  rate  of  4 
grains  in  4  ounces  of  water.  Despite 
the  fact  that  some  veterinarians  refer  to 
distemper  as  yielding  to  remedial  treat- 
ment, it  is  the  common  experience  that 
treatment  is  quite  unsatisfactory  and 
unless  the  pups  are  of  more  than  the  us- 
ual value  it  is  often  best  to  kill  them  at 
once  and  disinfect  the  kennels.  Many 
dogs  which  recover  from  the  disease  are 
of  little  use  on  account  of  heart  weak- 
ness or  some  other  bad  result  of  dis- 
temper. Certain  Italian  investigators 
have  confidently  recommended  a  serum 
treatment  as  devised  by  Piorkowski. 
Much  controversy  has  developed  con- 
cerning this  method,  and  the  results  ob- 
tained from  its  use  are  not  uniform. 

E,abies  or  hydrophobia  is  an  acute 
disease  of  the  nervous  system  trans- 
mitted from  one  animal  to  another  by 
means  of  bites.  The  virus  of  rabies  is 
present  in  the  saliva  of  affected  animals 
and  may  be  sufficient  to  transmit  the 
disease  before  the  symptoms  have  ac- 
tually appeared  in  the  animal  in  which 
the  disease  is  developing.  An  unusual 
amount  of  energy  and  skill  has  been  ex- 
pended in  solving  various  problems  con- 
nected with  rabies  and  the  controversy 
concerning  the  disease  has  been  most  bit- 
ter. Some  authorities  deny  the  exist- 
ence of  rabies  entirely  and  refer  to  it  as 
purely  imaginative ;  by  others  the  extent 
and  danger  from  the  disease  has  been 
much  exaggerated.  Dogs,  cattle,  horses 
and  other  domestic  animals,  as  well  as 
man,  are  susceptible.  The  dog  is  of  par- 
ticular importance  in  this  connection 
for  the  reason  that  most  cases  are  due 
to  the  bites  of  rabid  dogs.  In  man  the 
disease  appears  about  70  days  after  being 
bitten  and  a  similar  lapse  of  time  is 
observed  in  other  animals.  The  symp- 
toms may  somewhat  resemble  those  of 
lockjaw,  but  are  distinct  by  the  fact  that 
the  animals  are  vicious.  Affected  dogs 
show  a  nervousness  and  run  about  the 


158 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


country  for  days  at  a  time,  being  in  a 
stupefied  condition  at  times  and  show- 
ing fits  of  great  violence,  when  they  bite 
at  all  animals  near  them.  In  man  the 
well  known  Pasteur  treatment  has  been 
found  to  be  an  effective  remedy,  but  the 
expense  of  the  treatment  is  too  great  for 
application  to  ordinary  dogs  and  all 
rabid  dogs  should  therefore  be  destroyed 
at  once.  The  muzzling  orders  adopted 
in  various  cities  are  an  effective  means 
of  controlling  the  disease  if  applied  in 
a  rational  manner.  Eabies  has  been 
practically  exterminated  in  England  by 
the  general  and  systematic  enforcement 
of  muzzling  laws. 

Fleas  are  one  of  the  commonest  pests 
of  dogs.  If  infested  dogs  are  allowed  in 
houses,  the  floors  and  rugs  may  become 
thoroughly  infested  so  as  to  create  a 
serious  nuisance.  Numerous  remedies 
have  been  proposed  for  the  destruction 
of  fleas.  Some  dog  owners  wash  their 
dogs  frequently  and  apply  a  rather 
strong  soapsuds.  Others  rely  chiefly  on 
a  thorough  application  of  insect  pow- 
ders. Experiments  with  dog  fleas  in 
New  Hampshire  indicate  that  a  creolin 
bath  is  the  best  remedy.  For  this  pur- 
pose infested  dogs  or  cats  may  be  im- 
mersed in  a  2  per  cent  solution  of  creo- 
lin In  order  to  prevent  the  infestation 
of  dwelling  houses  with  dog  fleas,  it  is 
desirable  to  provide  the  dog  with  a  rug 
to  sleep  on  and  this  rug  should  be 
taken  out  frequently  and  thoroughly 
shaken  or  otherwise  treated. 

Mange  or  itch  is  a  contagious  disease 
of  dogs,  due  to  the  presence  of  mites 
which  burrow  in  the  skin  and  cause  the 
development  of  intense  itch,  the  forma- 
tion of  scabs  and  finally  the  loss  of  the 
hair.  There  are  various  forms  of  mange, 
but  the  common  sarcoptic  mange  may 
be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  recom- 
mended for  sheep  scab.  On  the  western 
ranges,  where  dogs  are  used  in  herding 
sheep,  it  is  customary  to  throw  them  in- 
to the  dipping  tank  along  with  the  sheep 
at  dipping  time. 

Tapeworm  —  Considerable  economic 
importance  attaches  to  the  relation  of 
the  dog  to  the  sheep  industry.  On 
large  sheep  ranges  where  dogs  are  uni- 
versally used  to  help  the  herder  in  the 
management  of  the  sheep,  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  health  of  the  dog, 
otherwise,  he  serves  as  an  agent  in  the 
distribution  of  tapeworms.  On  this 
account  it  is  quite  unfortunate  that 
the  dog  should  be  so  much  neglected  in 


this  respect,  as  is  commonly  the  case. 
Since  some  of  these  parasites  live  dur- 
ing their  mature  stage  in  dogs,  it  is 
readily  seen  that  dogs  may  be  the 
means  of  spreading  the  tapeworms'  eggs 
over  the  grass  upon  which  the  sheep  feed. 
Sheep  dogs  should  therefore  be  treated 
periodically  for  tapeworms.  For  this 
purpose  perhaps  the  best  remedy  is  areca 
nut,  given  in  doses  of  2  grains  for  each 
pound  of  the  dog's  weight.  The  dose 
will,  therefore,  vary  greatly  according 
to  the  size  of  the  dog.  Areca  nut  should 
be  followed  a  few  hours  later  by  castor 
oil  in  tablespoonful  doses. 

Coyotes  and  wolves  are  also  concerned 
in  spreading  sheep  tapeworms  and 
these  animals  should  be  exterminated 
as  completely  as  possible.  Recently  a 
number  of  cases  of  gid  have  been  ob- 
served in  sheep  in  Montana.  As  de- 
scribed under  Sheep  Diseases,  this  is 
the  immature  stage  of  the  tapeworm, 
which  in  its  mature  condition  lives  in 
the  intestines  of  dogs.  The  disease  may 
be  best  controlled,  therefore,  by  treating 
dogs  with  vermifuges  and  preventing 
them  from  eating  the  heads  of  affected 
sheep. 

As  already  indicated,  dogs  are  also 
subject  to  a  great  variety  of  diseases, 
including  catarrh,  diarrhea,  jaundice, 
warts,  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  deafness, 
ringworm,  lice,  apoplexy,  cholera,  lock- 
jnw,  rickets  and  other  troubles  which 
cannot  be  discussed  in  this  connection. 

VETERINARY  MEDICINES 

Drugs  and  veterinary  medicines  may 
be  administered  to  domestic  animals  in 
various  ways.  One  of  the  commonest 
and  most  convenient  methods  for  prac- 
tical use  by  stockmen  is  the  drench. 
The  fluid  or  powdered  drug  is  mixed 
with  a  pint  or  more  of  water  in  a  bottle 
and  poured  into  the  animal's  throat. 
Powdered  drugs  and  many  solutions,  in 
a  small  quantity,  maybe  mixed  with  bran 
or  other  grain  feed,  provided  the  taste 
is  not  too  disagreeable.  The  objection 
to  this  method  is  that  not  all  of  the 
drug  may  be  taken.  The  use  of  capsules 
is  a  very  convenient  method  practiced 
by  veterinarians,  but  is  not  so  common 
among  farmers.  Various  medicines  are 
also  given  by  injection  with  a  small 
syringe  under  the  skin,  into  the  wind- 
pipe, body  cavity,  chest  cavity,  or  direct- 
ly into  a  blood  vessel.  This  method 
should  be  practiced  only  after  some 
experience  has  been  had.  Medicines 
may    also    be    administered    in    enemas 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


159 


in  the  rectum  or  by  inhalation  from  hot 
water.  Some  powdered  drugs  may  be 
blown  into  the  nostrils,  where  a  local 
effect  is  desired.  All  irritating  medi- 
cines should  be  mixed  with  a  larger 
quantity  of  bran  or  water  in  order  to 
render  them  harmless.  Medicines  are 
commonly  classified  into  various  groups, 
according  to  their  physiological  effect 
and  a  few  of  these  classes  of  medicines 
may  be  briefly  defined. 

Antiseptics  are  substances  which 
check  or  prevent  the  growth  of  bacteria 
and  parasitic  fungi.  The  most  common 
ones  are  table  salt,  corrosive  sublimate, 
carbolic  acid,  iodoform,  zinc  chloride, 
iodine,  iron  chloride,  formalin,  blue 
vitriol  and  lunar  caustic. 

Disinfectants  and  deodorizers  are 
used  for  similar  purposes  and  also  to 
absorb  moisture  and  disagreeable  odors. 
The  most  important  disinfectants  fox 
veterinary  use  are  chloride  of  lime,  com- 
mon lime,  sulphurous  acid,  formalin 
and  permanganate  of  potash. 

Anesthetics  are  chemicals  which  pro- 
duce insensibility  or  loss  of  conscious- 
ness. General  anesthetics  are  given  by 
inhalation,  and  the  most  common  ones 
are  chloroform,  ether,  a  mixture  of  these 
drugs  and  nitrous  oxide.  Local  anes- 
thetics produce  insensibility  in  the  part 
to  which  they  are  applied.  Good  ex- 
amples of  this  group  of  drugs  are  co- 
caine, carbolic  acid,  extreme  cold,  as, 
for  example,  from  the  evaporation  of 
ether  and  aconite. 

Anodynes  are  substances  which  re- 
lieve pain  and  include  hot  or  cold  water, 
belladonna,  cocaine,  chloral  hydrate, 
opium,  morphine,  etc. 

Anthelmintics  vermicides  or  vermi- 
fuges are  substances  used  to  expel  or 
destroy  worms.  A  number  of  thes.  are 
used,  including  various  purgatives,  gas- 
oline, turpentine,  carbon  bisulphide,  etc. 
Alteratives  are  substances  which  neu- 
tralize or  counteract  the  formation  of 
disease  products  in  the  blood.  The  ones 
most  frequently  used  include  mercury, 
iodine,  arsenic,  etc. 

Narcotics  are  drugs  of  which  the  ef- 
fects are  too  well  known  to  require 
description.  In  treating  domestic  ani- 
mals, opium,  Indian  hemp,  chloral  hy- 
drate and  belladonna  are  most  frequent- 
ly used. 

Purgatives,  laxatives  or  cathartics 
are  substances  used  for  the  purpose  of 


loosening  the  bowels.  In  veterinary 
medicines,  the  most  important  purga- 
tives are  Glauber  salts,  Epsom  salts, 
aloes,  castor  oil,  Croton  oil  and  jalap. 

Vesicants  are  blistering  reagents,  the 
commonest  ones  being  cantharides  or 
Spanish  fly,  Croton  oil,  strong  acids, 
biniodide  of  mercury,  silver  nitrate,  etc. 
In  the  following  paragraphs  brief 
notes  are  given  on  the  action  and  doses 
of  some  of  the  common  drugs  used  in 
veterinary  practice. 

Aconite  lowers  the  temperature  by 
weakening  the  pulse  and  causing  an  in- 
creased perspiration.  Doses  for  horses, 
20  to  30  drops;  for  cattle,  40  drops;  for 
sheep,  3  to  5  drops;  for  dogs,  1  drop. 
Aloes  is  a  purgative  generally  admin- 
istered to  horses;  dose  for  the  horse,  4 
to  6  drams;  for  the  dog,  y2  dram. 

Areca  nut  is  a  well  known  vermifuge; 
dose  for  horses,  cattle  and  mules,  %  to 
1   dram. 

Aromatic  ammonia  is  a  stimulant  and 
antidote  for  acid  poisons ;  dose  for  horses 
and  cattle,  y2  to  4  ounces;  for  sheep, 
%  oz. 

Arsenic  IS  an  alterative  and  nerve 
tonic ;  dose  for  horses,  5  grains ;  for  cat- 
tle, 5  to  8  grains;  for  sheep,  1  grain. 

Bismuth  subnitrate  produces  a  coat 
on  the  stomach  and  intestinal  walls  and 
soothes  irritation  in  cases  of  diarrhea; 
dose  for  horses,  2  drams;  for  sheep,  20 
grains;   for  dogs,   5  to   10  grains. 

Bromide  of  potash  lowers  the  tempera- 
ture and  checks  nervous  excitement; 
dose  for  horses,  2  to  6  drams;  for  sheep, 
1  to  2  drams ;  for  pigs,  1  dram ;  for  dogs 
10  to  20  grains. 

Calomel  is  a  vigorous  cathartic;  dose 
for  horses,  15  to  60  grains;  for  sheep,  8 
grains;  for  pigs  5  grains;  for  dogs,  1 
grain. 

Cantharides  when  used  locally  is  a 
blistering  agent  and  given  internally  it 
is  a  stimulant ;  dose  for  horses,  6  grains ; 
for  sheep,  4  grains;  for  pigs,  3  grains. 

Carbolic  acid  is  mostly  used  as  an 
antiseptic  and  disinfectant  and  should 
be  used  in  a  solution  in  water  at  the  rate 
of  1  part  to  100  parts. 

Castor  oil  [s  &  mild  purgative  of  great 
value.  Dose  for  horses,  1  pint;  for  cat- 
tle, V-/-2  pints;  sheep,  %  of  an  ounce; 
dogs,  Y2  an  ounce,, 

Catechu  is  an  astringent  and  useful 
in  checking  diarrhea.    Dose  for  horses,  2 


160 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


to  5  drams;  for  sheep,  1  to  2  drams;  for 
dogs,  20  grains.  Chalk  may  also  be  used 
for  the  same  purpose  in  doses  of  1  ounce 
for  the  horse  and  1  dram  for  sheep, 
pigs  or  dogs. 

Charcoal  is  very  useful  in  checking  di- 
gestive disturbances  and  as  an  absorbent 
for  various  kinds  of  material  or  acid  poi- 
sons. It  may  be  given  in  as  large  doses 
as  will  be  taken. 

Chloral  hydrate  is  a  powerful  narcotic, 
valuable  in  the  treatment  of  spasmodic 
colic.  Dose  for  horses,  1  ounce;  for 
sheep,  1  dram;  for  pigs,  50  grains;  for 
dogs,  25  grains. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  an  active  poi- 
son much  used  as  an  antiseptic  and 
for  ordinary  purposes  should  be  used  at 
the  rate  of  1  or  2  parts  to  each  1,000 
parts  of  water. 

Croton  oil,  commonly  used  as  a  blis- 
tering reagent,  may  also  be  administered 
as  a  vermifuge.  Dose  for  horses  and 
pigs,  1  to  10  drops;  for  dogs,  1  drop. 

Epsom  salts  is  one  of  the  most  fre- 
quently used  purgatives.  Dose  for  the 
horse,  1  pound ;  for  cattle,  1  to  2  pounds ; 
for  sheep,  1  to  4  ounces;  for  the  dog, 

1  to  4  drams. 

Formalin  is  a  noncorrosive  and  non- 
poisonous  antiseptic  of  great  value,  its 
chief  disadvantage  being  an  irritating 
effect  on  the  eyes  and  nose.  For  ordi- 
nary purposes,  such  as  treatment  of 
wounds  and  disinfecting  it  may  be  used 
in  a  2  to  4  per  cent  solution  in  water. 

Gentian  Js  a  bitter  tonic.  Dose  for 
the  horse,  4  to  8  drams;  for  sheep,  1  to 

2  drams;  for  pigs,  50  grains;  for  dogs, 
15  grains. 

Ginger  is  Used  as  a  stomachic  and 
stimulant.  Dose  for  horses,  1  ounce; 
for  sheep,  1  dram;  for  dogs,  15  grains. 

Glauber  salts  is  a  valuable  and  much 
used  purgative.  Dose  for  the  horse,  1 
pound;  for  cattle,  V/2  pounds;  for  dogs, 
1  dram. 

Hydrochloric  acid  is  used  as  a  correct- 
ive for  faulty  digestion.  Dose  for  horses 
and  cattle,  1  to  3  drams;  for  sheep, 
25  drops;  for  pigs,  20  drops. 

Indian  hemp  is  a  narcotic  much  used 
in  cramp  colic.  Dose  for  horses,  V2  to  1 
dram;  for  sheep,  10  to  15  grains;  for 
dogs,  1  to  2  grains. 

Iodide  of  potash  js  an  alterative  exten- 
sively used  for  the  internal  treatment  of 


various  infectious  diseases.  It  is  a  spe- 
cific for  lumpy  jaw.  Dose  for  horses,  x/2 
dram;  for  cattle,  1  to  2  drams. 

Iron  peroxide,  sulphate  and  carbonate 
are  used  as  general  tonics.  Dose  for 
horses,  2  to  4  drams;  for  sheep,  */2 
dram;  for  dogs,  2  to  5  grains. 

Jalap  is  a  purgative  chiefly  used  for 
the  smaller  animals.  Dose  for  hogs,  1 
to  2  drams;  for  dogs,  1  dram. 

Laudanum  is  much  used  as  an  ano- 
dyne and  in  treatment  of  colic.  Dose 
for  horses,  2  to  4  ounces;  for  sheep  and 
pigs,  2  drams;  for  dogs,  20  drops. 

Lime  water  is  an  astringent  and  anti- 
dote for  acid  poison.  Dose  for  horses,  4 
to  5  ounces;  for  cattle,  5  to  8  ounces; 
for  sheep,  1  ounce;  for  dogs,  1  dram. 

Linseed  oil  Js  a  well  known  and  valu- 
able purgative.  Dose  for  horses,  %  to 
IV2  pints;  for  sheep,  6  ounces;  for 
pigs,  5  ounces;  for  dogs,  1  to  2  ounces. 

Male  fern  is  chiefly  used  as  a  vermi- 
fuge. Dose  for  horses,  1  ounce;  for 
sheep,  2  drams;  for  hogs,  1  dram;  for 
dogs,  30  drops. 

Morphine  £s  llse(J  ]ike  laudanum  in  re- 
lieving pain  and  quieting  the  action  of 
the  intestines.  Dose  for  horses  5  to  10 
grains;  for  dogs,  1-8  to  %  grain. 

Nux  vomica  is  a  much  used  tonic. 
Dose  for  horses,  20  to  60  grains ;  for  cat- 
tlet  the  same;  for  sheep,  10  grains;  for 
hogs,  8  grains;  for  dogs,  2  grains. 

Olive  oil  is  used  as  a  laxative,  like  lin- 
seed oil.  Dose  for  horses,  1  to  2  pints ; 
for  sheep,  3  to  6  ounces ;  for  dogs,  1  to  3 
ounces. 

Opium  is  a  narcotic  used  for  the  pre- 
vention of  spasms.    Dose  for  horses,  1  to 

2  drams;  for  cattle,  2  to  4  drams;  for 
dogs,  1  to  5  grains. 

Quinine  is  a  bitter  tonic,  most  used  in 
diseases  accompanied  with  fever.  Dose 
for  horses,  20  grains;  for  cattle,  20  to 
30  grains;  for  sheep,  6  to  10  grains;  for 
hogs,  3  to  10  grains;  for  dogs,  2  to  5 
grains. 

Sulphur  is  used  internally  as  an  al- 
terative. Dose  for  horses,  1  ounce;  for 
sheep,  1  to  2  drams;  for  pigs,  1  to  4 
drams;  for  dogs,  50  grains. 

Sweet  spirits  of  niter  acts  as  a  slight 
stimulant,  lowers  the  temperature  and 
causes  sweating.     Dose  for  horses,  1  to 

3  ounces;  for  cattle,  3  to  4  ounces;  for 
sheep,  3  to  6  drams;  for  pigs,  2  drams; 
for  dogs,  50  drops. 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


161 


Zinc  carbonate  and  sulphate  are  used 
as  tonics  and  astringents.  Dose  for 
horses,  2  drams ;  for  cattle,  2  to  4  drams ; 
for  sheep,  %  to  1  dram. 

For  the  actual  use  of  the  various  medi- 
cines mentioned  under  this  list,  see  un- 
der the  Diseases  of  Horses,  Cattle, 
Swine,  Sheep  and  Poultry. 

CASTRATION   AND   SPAYING 

Castration — It  is  frequently  necessary 
for  the  farmer  to  perform  this  opera- 
tion on  his  animals  and  a  few  sugges- 
tions are  therefore  in  place  regarding  the 
methods  to  be  adopted  in  castrating  stal- 
lions, bulls,  rams,  boars  or  other  male 
animals.  In  the  first  place  some  form  of 
throwing  or  casting  apparatus  is  neces- 
sary for  large  animals,  unless  they  are 
confined  in  a  chute.  For  this  purpose 
many  simple  devices  may  be  adopted 
requiring  merely  the  use  of  a  rope  at- 
tached about  the  shoulders  and  passing 
back  to  the  hind  feet.  The  use  of  strap 
hobbles  about  the  ankles  is  desirable  in 
order  to  prevent  the  animal  from  burn- 
ing the  skin  on  hard  ropes.  The  ap- 
paratus should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  pull 
all  four  feet  together  and  thus  make  the 
animal  fall  as  easily  as  possible.  Some 
operators  prefer  to  castrate  stallions  in  a 
standing  position.  For  this  purpose  they 
may  be  confined  in  a  chute,  or,  if  the 
operator  has  acquired  sufficient  skill,  the 
use  of  a  twitch  on  the  nose  is  sufficient. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  castration  in 
the  standing  position  are  that  it  is  done 
more  quickly  than  by  any  other  method, 
the  animal  is  not  worried  by  being 
thrown  and  is  therefore  not  liable  to  in- 
jury. The  disadvantage  of  the  method 
is  a  possible  occurrence  of  a  tumor  on 
the  end  of  the  cord  after  castration  if 
the  cord  is  cut  too  long.  In  skilled  hands 
stallions  may  be  castrated  in  a  standing 
position  in  ten  to  fifteen  seconds. 

Altering  colts — Male  colts  may  be 
castrated  at  one  year  of  age  or  a  little 
later  if  a  larger  build  of  horse  is  desired. 
The  advantage  of  waiting  until  the  age 
of  two  years  is  that,  as  a  rule,  a  stronger 
development  is  thus  obtained.  Some 
farmers  believe  that  the  shock  of  castra- 
tion and  danger  from  the  operation  are 
less  if  it  is  done  at  one  year  of  age,  but 
with  care  there  should  be  no  particular 
danger  in  castrating  two-year-old  stal- 
lions or  even  aged  stallions.  The  blood 
vessels  are  larger  in  stallions  which  have 
seen  service  and  more  care  is  required  in 
preventing  bleeding  after  the  castration 


of  such  animals.  In  castrating  stallions 
a  cut  should  be  made  through  each  side 
of  the  scrotum  from  front  to  back,  paral- 
lel with  the  middle  of  the  bag.  The 
cut  should  be  made  with  a  single  quick 
stroke  and  deep  enough  to  cut  both  of  the 
membranes.  The  testicle  is  then  forced 
through  the  opening  and  the  posterior 
half  of  the  cord  may  be  at  once  severed 
with  the  knife.  This  half  contains  the 
muscle  and  after  it  is  cut  the  stallion  is 
unable  to  exercise  any  strain  on  the  tes- 
ticle. Where  straining  occurs  there  is 
always  some  danger  of  injury  to  the  stal- 
lion and  possibly  the  development  of  a 
fatal  peritonitis.  After  the  posterior 
half  of  the  cord  is  removed,  the  testicle 
hangs  limp  and  the  remainder  of  the 
cord  containing  the  blood  vessels,  nerves 
and  spermatic  tube  may  be  crushed  off 
with  an  ecraseur,  cut  off  after  applying 
clamps,  seared  off  with  a  hot  iron  or  cut 
off  after  tying  a  catgut  ligature.  The 
whole  operation  should  be  done  as  quick- 
ly as  is  consistent  with  safety  and  the 
parts  may  be  sprinkled  with  iodoform  or 
some  other  dry  antiseptic  in  order  to 
assist  healing. 

Altering  calves — The  bull  calf,  if 
not  to  be  kept  for  breeding  purposes, 
should  be  castrated  at  about  two  to  three 
months  of  age.  In  young  animals  there 
is  no  serious  hemorrhage,  but  in  old 
bulls  the  spermatic  artery  must  be 
crushed  or  seared  off  or  a  clamp  applied 
in  order  to  prevent  bleeding.  In  castrat- 
ing bulls  a  cut  should  be  made  through 
the  walls  of  the  scrotum  on  either  side 
so  as  to  expose  the  testicles,  which  are  to 
be  removed  one  at  a  time  as  with  stal- 
lions. 

Altering  pigs — If  boar  pigs  are  cas- 
trated at  the  age  of  one  to  two  months  or 
even  at  older  age,  but  before  they  have 
seen  service,  the  operation  may  be  done 
with  perfect  safety  by  exposing  the  tes- 
ticles as  recommended  for  stallions  and 
cutting  off  the  spermatic  cord  with  one 
stroke  of  the  knife.  In  old  boars  excess- 
ive bleeding  may  be  prevented  by  crush- 
ing or  searing  off  the  cord  or  by  the  ap- 
plication of  clamps. 

Altering  lambs — Lambs  may  best  be 
castrated  at  the  age  of  ten  days  co  two 
weeks.  The  testicles  may  be  exposed  by 
an  incision  of  the  scrotum,  as  in  other 
animals,  and  the  cord  seared  or  crushed 
off.  If  a  hot  iron  or  a  hot  crushing  in- 
strument is  used  for  this  purpose,  it  may 
be  well  to  use  a  sheet  iron  protector, 
which  fits  around  the  scrotum,  close  to 


162 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  belly  so  as  to  prevent  searing  the  skin 
of  the  belly.  A  simple  device  of  this 
sort  is  also  employed  with  other  animals 
where  the  hot  iron  method  of  castration 
is  adopted.  With  old  rams  the  spermatic 
cord  should  always  be  crushed  or  seared 
off  in  order  to  prevent  excessive  bleeding. 

Western  practice — On  the  western 
ranges  the  usual  method  of  castration 
would  occupy  altogether  too  much  time. 
A  much  faster  but  quite  safe  remedy  has 
been  devised.  This  consists  in  cutting 
off  the  tip  of  the  scrotum  with  a  sharp 
knife,  after  which  both  testicles  are 
pressed  out  simultaneously  by  means  of 
the  fingers,  the  testicles  grasped  in  the 
teeth  and  pulled  out.  The  operation  can 
be  done  so  fast  that  it  requires  four  or 
five  men  to  catch  the  lambs  fast  enough, 
even  when  confined  in  a  small  pen.  By 
this  method  a  single  operator  can  dock 
two  thousand  lambs  and  castrate  the  ram 
lambs  which  usually  average  one-half  of 
them,  within  2V2  or  3  hours.  The  losses 
from  this  method  of  castration,  without 
the  exercise  of  any  further  precautions, 
are  so  small  as  to  be  negligible.  Young 
goats  may  be  castrated  in  the  same 
manner. 

Preparation  for  the  operation — In 
castrating  animals  veterinarians  ordina- 
rily clean  the  scrotum  and  surrounding 
parts  carefully  in  an  antiseptic  solution 
and  wash  the  hands  and  instruments  in  a 
similar  solution  before  making  any  in- 
cision. This  is  a  wise  precaution  if  the 
operation  is  done  with  the  animal  ly- 
ing in  the  filthy  straw  of  an  ordinary 
yard.  The  busy  farmer,  however,  seldom 
has  time  for  these  preliminary  opera- 
tions, and  as  a  rule  bad  results  need  not 
be  feared  when  ordinary  cleanliness  is 
observed.  It  is  well  to  have  some  pow- 
dered antiseptic,  such  as  iodoform,  in  a 
tin  box,  which  may  be  quickly  dusted 
over  the  wound  after  castration. 

Precautions  necessary — In  all  animals 
the  incision  in  the  scrotum  should  be 
made  lengthwise  of  the  animal,  parallel 
with  and  close  to  the  middle  line  of  the 
scrotum.  This  makes  the  cut  come  at 
the  lowest  point  of  the  scrotum,  from 
which  the  testicle  may  be  most  easily  re- 
moved. The  operator  must  always  be 
careful,  especially  in  the  case  of  colts, 
not  to  pull  unnecessarily  on  the  cord. 
Peritonitis  and  death  may  result  from 
such  strain.  Moreover,  the  cord  must  al- 
ways be  cut  short  enough  so  that  it  does 
not  hang  through  the  cut  in  the  scro- 


tum, otherwise  it  may  be  caught  in  the 
healing  wound  and  develop  into  a  trou- 
blesome tumor,  commonly  known  as 
"champignon,"  which  requires  another 
operation  for  its  removal. 

Spaying — The  removal  of  the  ovaries 
of  female  animals  has  long  been  a  rather 
common  practice  and  is  done  for  several 
reasons.  Mares  are  sometimes  vicious 
during  their  period  of  heat  and  they  may 
therefore  be  spayed  to  prevent  the  dis- 
agreeable features  of  heat  and  various 
tendencies  manifested  at  such  times. 
Cows  may  be  spayed  at  the  height  of 
their  milking  period  in  order  to  prevent 
them  from  going  dry,  thus  securing  a 
continuous  flow  of  milk.  According  to 
certain  experiments  along  this  line,  it 
appears  that  cows  may  be  kept  giving 
milk  without  cessation  for  two  years  or 
more.  Heifers  which  are  not  desired  for 
breeding  purposes  may  also  be  spayed  to 
prevent  them  from  becoming  pregnant. 
This  is  especially  common  under  range 
conditions.  The  meat  of  spayed  heifers 
is  sometimes  claimed  to  be  better  than 
those  not  spayed,  but  the  difference  is  not 
striking.  The  chief  reason  for  the  spay- 
ing of  young  heifers  and  sows  is  to  in- 
crease their  tendency  to  fatten  rapidly. 
Likewise  with  bitches  the  operation  of 
spaying  is  often  carried  out  to  prevent 
them  from  becoming  pregnant.  This 
is  especially  desirable  in  pet  dogs  which 
are  worried  by  males  during  the  period 
of  heat.  This  trouble  is  entirely  avoided 
by  spaying. 

Effects  upon  milk  flow  of  cows — As 
just  indicated,  the  flow  of  milk  in  spayed 
cows  may  be  maintained  for  a  longer 
period  than  when  this  operation  is  not 
performed,  the  period  being  prolonged 
from  a  year  and  a  half  to  four  years. 
Some  writers  maintain  that  fat  and 
other  solids  of  milk  increase  in  quantity 
after  spaying.  Careful  experiments 
along  this  line,  however,  show  that  no 
changes  of  this  sort  take  place.  The 
animal  gradually  lays  on  fat  as  the  milk 
flow  diminishes.  The  value  of  spaying 
is  greatest  in  beef  heifers  or  cows  which 
are  not  suitable  for  breeding  purposes. 
When  such  animals  are  spayed  the  opera- 
tion is  of  considerable  economic  impor- 
tance, especially  on  western  stock  ranges. 

Method  of  operation — Spaying  is 
done  somewhat  differently  in  different 
animals.  The  danger  of  infection  of 
the  body  cavity  is  greater  in  mares  and 
bitches  than  in  cows  or  sows.     The  ova- 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


163 


ries  are  small,  oval  organs  varying  in  size 
up  to  that  of  a  walnut  and  lying  just  at 
the  ends  of  the  horns  of  the  uterus. 
They  may  be  most  conveniently  found 
by  following  these  organs  with  the  hand. 
On  the  range,  cattle  to  be  spayed  may  be 
roped  and  thrown,  or  driven  into  a  chute 
designed  for  holding  the  animals  firmly. 
An  opening  may  then  be  made  in  the 
right  side,  about  half  way  between  the 
last  rib  and  the  prominence  of  the  hip 
bone.  Care  should  be  taken  to  make 
the  cut  with  a  knife  provided  with  a 
guarded-blade  so  as  to  avoid  all  danger 
of  cutting  the  intestines.  The  hand 
is  then  inserted  and  as  soon  as  an  ovary 
is  found,  the  ligament  connecting  it  with 
the  abdominal  wall  is  cut  with  scissors, 
knife  or  ecraseur  and  the  ovary  is  re- 
moved. The  other  ovary  must  then  be 
removed  in  the  same  way.  This  opera- 
tion is  done  by  veterinarians  with  ob- 
servance of  proper  sanitary  precautions, 
after  washing  the  hands  and  the  knife 
in  an  antiseptic  solution.  On  cattle 
ranges,  however,  the  operation  is  very 
quickly  performed  by  cowboys,  who  re- 
ceive from  25  to  50  cents  per  head. 
These  men  pay  no  attention  to  antisep- 
tic conditions,  but  simply  wash  their 
arms  and  knives  in  a  bucket  of  water 
and  stitch  up  the  cut  in  the  body  wall 
with  coarse  twine.  Many  veterinarians 
prefer  to  remove  the  ovaries  through  an 
opening  in  the  wall  of  the  vagina  and 
this  method  is  adopted  most  frequently 
in  the  case  of  mares.  The  operation  may 
then  be  done  with  the  mare  in  a  stand- 
ing position,  confined  in  a  chute.  In 
such  operations  the  ovarian  ligaments 
are  crushed  off  by  an  ecraseur  and  great 
care  is  taken  to  avoid  mistaking  a  fold 
of  the  intestines  with  its  contents  for  an 
ovary.  Mares  and  bitches  should  be 
spayed  only  by  skillful  veterinarians  or 
expert  operators,  since  there  is  consider- 
able danger  of  abdominal  infection  un- 
less antiseptic  precautions  are  observed. 

ARTIFICIAL   IMPREGNATION 

During  recent  years  an  unusual  in- 
terest has  been  developed  in  the  artificial 
impregnation  of  our  domestic  animals. 
Several  purposes  are  served  by  this  op- 
eration. As  is  well  known,  some  mares 
and  cows  may  remain  permanently  ster- 
ile, despite  repeated  service  by  the  stal- 
lion or  bull,  but  in  some  cases  this  ster- 
ility is  due  entirely  to  the  malformation 
of  the  uterus,  particularly  a  closure  of 
the  neck  of  this  organ.     Artificial   im- 


pregnation or  insemination  was  first 
adopted  to  treat  such  cases.  It  was 
found  that  by  dilating  the  neck  of  the 
uterus  slightly  with  the  finger  or  a 
metallic  instrument,  the  opening  could 
be  enlarged  sufficiently  to  permit  the  in- 
troduction of  a  syringe  into  which  the 
semen  had  been  drawn  after  service,  and 
by  means  of  which  the  semen  could  be 
introduced  directly  into  the  uterus,  thus 
producing  pregnancy. 

Later  the  method  of  artificial  inpreg- 
nation  acquired  a  much  greater  impor- 
tance by  its  extended  use  on  horse  farms 
and  to  some  extent  on  cattle  farms.  It 
was  found  that  frequently  a  number  of 
mares  would  be  in  heat  at  the  same  time, 
and  where  it  was  desired  to  use  the 
same  stallion  on  all  mares,  the  ser- 
vice was  severe  on  the  stallion  and  in 
some  cases,  led  to  the  production  of 
weak  colts.  Resort  was  therefore  had  to 
artificial  impregnation  to  increase  the 
efficiency  of  the  stallion.  Several  methods 
have  been  adopted.  Some  breeders  pre- 
fer to  attach  a  so-called  breeding  bag 
to  the  penis  of  the  stallion  before  service, 
after  which  the  semen  is  drawn  into  a 
syringe  commonly  known  as  an  impreg- 
nator,  and  may  then  be  injected  into  a 
number  of  mares.  A  sufficient  quantity 
of  semen  is  readily  obtained  from  one 
service  to  impregnate  six  or  more 
mares.  Occasionally  an  objection  is 
made  to  the  use  of  the  breeding-bag 
and  if  this  is  the  case  the  horse  is  al- 
lowed to  serve  a  mare,  after  which  the 
artificial  impregnator  is  introduced  into 
the  vagina  and  the  semen  drawn  into 
it  and  used  as  just  described.  In  order 
to  prevent  a  large  proportion  of  the  se- 
men from  being  discharged  directly  in- 
to the  uterus  of  the  mare  served  by  the 
stallion,  a  rubber  plug  has  been  devised 
for  obstructing  the  entrance  to  the  ute- 
rus. After  service  the  plug  is  removed 
and  a  small  quantity  of  semen  intro- 
duced into  the  uterus. 

A  number  of  dealers  in  veterinary  in- 
struments have  devised  special  syringes 
or  artificial  impregnators  which  differ 
considerably  in  their  shape  and  construc- 
tion. According  to  the  extended  observa- 
tions and  experiments  of  Lewis,  in  Okla- 
homa, the  curved  metallic  impregnator 
is  more  satisfactory  than  one  consisting 
of  a  rubber  bulb,  rubber  tube  and  a  can- 
ula  which  is  introduced  into  the  uterus. 

The  capsule  method  op  artificial  im- 
pregnation also  has  its  champions.  This 
method   consists   in  simply  using  small 


164 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


gelatine  capsules  which  are  filled  with 
semen  from  the  vagina  of  a  mare  just 
served  by  a  stallion  and  then  intro- 
duced at  once  in  the  uterus  of  other 
mares  from  which  colts  are  desired. 
There  appears  to  be  no  decided  prefer- 
ence in  favor  of  either  one  of  these  meth- 
ods, but  some  experience  is  required  be- 
fore the  breeder  becomes  really  skillful 
in  the  practice  of  either  method. 

Artificial  impregnation  has  been  used 
a  number  of  years  by  hundreds  of  farm- 
ers and  the  results  thus  far  obtained 
are  perfectly  satisfactory  in  every  re- 
spect. The  colts  obtained  by  this  meth- 
od are  of  the  usual  size  and  vigor,  so 
that  it  may  be  confidently  asserted  that 
no  objection  from  this  source  may  be 
raised  to  the  system  of  artificial  impreg- 
nation. 

The  same  system  has  also  been  used 
with  cattle,  dogs  and  other  animals.  In 
the  case  of  registered  animals,  where  the 
name  of  the  sire  must  be  given,  it  is 
simply  stated  in  the  herd-book  that  the 
animal  in  question  is  the  result  of  arti- 
ficial impregnation  from  such  and  such 
a  sire.  This  is  a  simple  solution  of  the 
difficulty  which  occurred  in  the  minds 
of  some  breeders  regarding  the  state- 
ment of  pedigree  in  the  case  of  animals 
bred  in  this  manner. 

Mule  breeding  by  artificial  impreg- 
nation— The  system  of  artificial  impreg- 
nation is  of  peculiar  value  in  mule  breed- 
ing. As  is  well  known,  many  mares  do 
not  take  kindly  to  jacks  and  frequently 
kick  so  violently  that  special  breeding 
chutes  or  some  other  means  of  restrain- 
ing them  must  be  adopted.  Moreover,  not 
all  jacks  are  keen  in  serving  mares;  in 
fact,  occasionally  they  refuse  altogether 
to  do  so.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the 
system  of  artificial  impregnation  is  of 
great  benefit  in  helping  breeders  over 
this  difficulty.  It  is  merely  necessary  to 
allow  the  jack  to  serve  a  jennet,  after 
which  the  semen  is  removed  in  an  arti- 
ficial impregnator  and  injected  into  the 
uterus  of  mares  from  which  mule  colts 
are  desired. 

STERILITY  IN  ANIMALS 

Sterility  or  barrenness  in  animals  may 
be  due  to  a  variety  of  causes.  In  the 
male  it  may  be  due  to  imperfect  develop- 
ment, inflammation  or  degeneration  of 
the  testicles,  malformation,  paralysis  or 
growths  on  the  penis,  nervousness  or  the 
presence  of  such  diseases  as  azoturia, 
failure  of  the  testicles  to   descend,   im- 


proper feeding,  etc.  In  the  female  bar- 
renness may  be  due  to  imperfect  develop- 
ment, tumors,  or  degeneration  of  the 
ovary,  catarrh  of  the  uterus,  nervous- 
ness, a  too  fat  or  too  poor  condition,  clo- 
sure of  the  neck  of  the  uterus,  etc.  In 
mares  sterility  may  affect  20  to  40  per 
cent,  in  cows  20  to  30  per  cent,  in  sheep 
and  goats  about  5  per  cent,  in  swine,  3 
to  10  per  cent,  in  poultry  reliable  data 
are  not  available. 

Constitutional  barrenness — It  is  evi- 
dent from  the  above  statement  that 
many  cases  of  barrenness  are  of  a  consti- 
tutional nature  and  can  not  be  treated. 
In  curable  cases  the  cause  should  be 
sought  and  the  proper  remedy  applied. 
Within  certain  limits  barrenness  does 
not  depend  on  the  age  of  the  female. 
The  reproductive  functions  do  not  de- 
velop until  a  certain  age  is  reached  and 
disappear  again  at  old  age.  The  per- 
centage of  sterility  may  be  higher  when 
too  old  or  too  young  males  are  used. 
Statistics  collected  for  several  years  in 
England  with  regard  to  pure  and  cross 
bred  sheep  show  that  on  an  average 
about  5  per  cent  are  barren.  Only  about 
2  per  cent,  however,  were  constitution- 
ally barren.  In  fact  much  of  the  bar- 
renness in  domestic  animals  is  prevent- 
able. Breeding  animals  should  be  neith- 
er too  fat  nor  too  poor,  but  must  be  . 
kept  in  a  moderately  fat,  vigorous  con- 
dition if  the  best  offspring  are  desired. 

In  cows  and  mares  the  neck  of  the 
uterus  may  become  hardened  and  swollen 
so  as  to  close  the  opening  and  exclude 
the  semen.  This  cause  of  barrenness 
may  easily  be  removed  by  dilating  the 
uterus.  In  mares  this  may  be  done  with 
the  finger,  while  in  cows  it  is  usually 
more  difficult  and  may  require  the  use 
of  a  metallic  dilator.  In  such  cases  the 
operation  should  preferably  be  done  by 
a  qualified  veterinarian.  A  Danish  in- 
vestigator has  recently  found  that  in 
high  bred  cows,  the  corpus  luteum  re- 
mains on  the  surface  of  the  ovary  after 
parturition,  and  prevents  the  occurrence 
of  heat  or  estrum.  The  removal  of  the 
corpus  luteum  by  a  surgical  operation  is 
followed  shortly  by  the  usual  period  of 
heat. 

Conditions  favoring  fecundity — The 
fecundity  of  our  farm  animals  may  be 
greatly  affected  by  the  artificial  condi- 
tions of  modern  farming.  In  Indiana 
it  has  been  found  that  ewes  too  closely 
confined  without  proper  exercise  become 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


165 


absolutely  sterile  in  a  large  percentage 
of  cases.  Overfat  mares,  cows  or  ewes 
are  impregnated  with  difficulty.  Hens, 
turkeys,  ducks  and  geese  lay  relatively 
infertile  eggs  if  they  are  not  allowed 
to  have  a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise. 
Most  cases  of  sterility  may  be  cured  or 
prevented  by  giving  proper  attention  to 
the  diet  of  the  breeding  animals  and  the 
sanitary  condition  of  their  surroundings. 
The  use  of  artificial  inpregnation  (See 
that  subject)  will  often  give  success  in 
apparently  hopeless   cases. 

HORSE    SHOEING 

The  use  of  iron  shoes  for  horses'  hoofs 
may  be  considered  as  a  necessary  evil  of 
our  modern  civilization.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  drive  horses  continually  over  the 
hard  pavements  of  cities  without  seri- 
ously   injuring   the    hoofs    unless    some 


Fisr. 


115 THREE-QUARTER     SHOE     WITH 

RUBBER    PAD 


form  of  shoe  is  adopted.  Horses  which 
are  kept  on  the  farm  or  driven  short  dis- 
tances along  country  roads  do  not  re- 
quire shoeing,  except  occasionally,  and 
then  often  only  on  the  front  feet.  The 
art  of  horse  shoeing  may  be  learned  by 
the  ordinary  farmer  so  that  he  can  keep 
his  horses'  feet  in  good  condition,  but 
if  the  farmer  does  not  care  to  bother 
with  this  operation,  it  is  at  least  desirable 
that  he  give  enough  attention  to  the 
matter  to  know  when  the  job  is  prop- 
erly done  by  the  blacksmith.  Too  much 
cannot  be  said  in  condemnation  of  the 
practice  of  indiscriminate  paring  away 
of  the  hoof  in  order  to  make  it  fit  the 


shoe.  The  hoof  may  in  certain  cases 
grow  irregularly  and  require  some  par- 
ing, but  none  is  needed  if  the  growth  is 
uniform  and  no  tendency  to  cracking 
is  observed.  The  normal  hoof  of  the 
horse    is   well    designed    to    protect    the 


REGULAB    HOOF 


more  delicate  parts  which  it  covers  and 
to  furnish  an  elastic  cushion  to  relieve 
the  jar  upon,  the  joints  of  the  legs. 
When  too  much  of  the  hoof  is  pared 
away,  the  elasticity  is  lost,  and  tbe  sole 
becomes  too  sensitive  so  that  some  form 
of    lameness    may    develop.      Lameness 


Fig.    117 — FULLERED   SHOE 


166 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


may  also  result  from  driving  the  nails 
too  deeply  into  the  horn  of  the  hoof. 
A  slight  study  of  the  structure  of  the 
horse's  hoof  will  convince  anyone  that 
the  frog  and  bars  of  the  hoof  should  be 


Fig.     118 NARROW    FORM 

left  with  as  little  interference  as  pos- 
sible. It  is  merely  necessary  to  rasp 
off  the  ragged  edges  of  the  toe  and  sides 
when  these  parts  grow  out  so  far  as  to 
incur  danger  of  breaking.     In  order  to 


Fig.  119 — WIDE  FORM 

insure  the  normal  development  of  the 
hoof  in  colts  it  is  desirable  that  they  be 
allowed  plenty  of  exercise  out  of  doors, 
so  that  the  wear  on  the  hoof  will  be 
uniform. 


Fig.  120 — FORE  FEET  IN  REGULAR  FORM 

It  is  sometimes  thought  that  the  shoe 
should  be  heavy  in  order  to  wear  as 
long  as  possible.  A  light  shoe,  however, 
will  often  wear  nearly  as  long  as  a  heavy 


one,  and  for  all  practical  purposes  the 
lighter  the  shoe  the  better  and  the  least 
likely  it  is  to  interfere  with  the  gait  of 
the  horse.  In  summer  and  at  all  times 
wben  the  roads  are  not  slippery,  no  calks 
should  be  allowed  on  the  shoes,  but  on 
icy  roads  in  winter  a  permanent  calk  may 
be  used,  or  one  of  the  forms  of  "never- 
slip"  calks.  A  convenient  calk  of  this 
sort  is  of  a  conical  shape  and  furnished 
with  threads  by  means  of  which  it  may 
be  screwed  into  the  shoe.  Recently  con- 
siderable success  has  been  had  with  the 
use  of  a  rubber  pad  between  the  bars  of 


Fig.  121 — CONFORMATION  OF  THE  FORE 
FOOT.   A,  AN  ACUTE -ANGLED  FOOT;  B, 
A  REGULAR  FOOT;  C,  A  STUMPY  FOOT 

the  shoe.  This  gives  a  large  surface  of 
contact  and  thus  prevents  slipping  at  the 
same  time  and  an  added  elasticity  is 
secured. 

POISONOUS  PLANTS  AND  MINEEAL 
POISONS 

Domestic  animals  occasionally  be- 
come poisoned  by  eating  dangerous  min- 
erals by  accident  or  from  malicious  poi- 
soning. Brief  notes  may  be  given  on  a 
few  of  the  most  common  forms  of  min- 
eral poisons. 

Lead  poisoning  has  been  noted  as  the 
results  of  eating  sugar  beet  pulp  carried 
in  freight  cars  which  had  previously  been 
used  for  lead  ore.  The  same  trouble 
occasionally  develops  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  smelters,  where  lead  dust  is  pre- 
cipitated on  the  vegetation.  In  acute 
cases,  the  attack  is  sudden  and  resem- 
bles staggers  or  mill?  fever,  being  accom- 
panied with  paralysis.  Treatment  may 
consist  of  sulphuric  acid  in  60-drop  doses 
diluted  in  water,  followed  by  linseed  oil 
in  doses  of  V2  pint;  these  doses  are  the 
proper  size  for  horses  or  cattle. 

Arsenic  may  also  be  given  maliciously 
or  may  be  taken  on  vegetation  in  the 
neighborhod  of  smelters.  Usually  the 
poisonous  effects  are  not  noted  for  sev- 
eral days,  after  which  the  abdominal 
pain,  sweating  and  nervous  excitement 
are  very  pronounced.  Arsenic  causes  a 
violent  inflammation  in  the  stomach, 
which  may  best  be  treated  by  adminis- 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


167 


tering  laudanum  and  linseed  oil.  In 
some  cases  hypodermic  injections  of 
morphine  may  be  given. 

Poisoned  pastures — In  smelter  re- 
gions it  has  been  observed  that  the 
continual  use  of  forage  on  wnich  sul- 
phurous or  sulphuric  acid  is  precipitated 
may  lead  to  a  weakness  and  softening  of 
the  bone,  accompanied  with  other 
troubles,  particularly  an  inflammation 
of  the  respiratory  passages.  Under 
such  circumstances  the  only  treatment 
which  can  be  recommended  is  to  re- 
move animals  beyond  the  influence  of 
these  poisons. 

Poisonous  plants — A  large  number  of 
wild  plants  have  been  shown  to  be  poi- 
sonous to  a  greater  or  less  extent  to 
domestic  animals  and  man.  Naturally 
the  most  serious  cases  of  plant  poison- 
ing in  stock  occur  on  the  western 
ranges,  where  for  all  or  a  greater  por- 
tion of  the  year,  stock  are  allowed  to 
graze  on  the  native  vegetation.  In 
cultivated  pastures,  particularly  where 
a  system  of  rotation  is  followed,  such 
weeds  do  not  secure  a  foothold  and  losses 
from  poisonous  plants  are  therefore 
much  less  serious  in  the  thickly  settled 
regions.  It  has  been  observed  in  the 
study  of  poisonous  plants  during  recent 
years  that  the  losses  are  most  severe 
at  times  and  under  conditions  where  the 
range  is  over  pastured,  so  that  grass 
and  more  palatable  plants  are  not  to  be 
obtained  in  sufficient  quantities.  Farm 
animals  do  not  voluntarily  choose  to 
eat  poisonous  weeds  in  preference  to 
grass,  but  may  be  driven  to  eat  such 
plants  under  stress  of  hunger.  The 
losses  from  poisonous  plants  in  the 
western  states  are  annually  a  very  se- 
rious matter,  but  this  problem  as  a 
whole  may  be  looked  at  as  a  part  of  the 
problem  of  range  management  and  range 
improvement.  Where  the  ranges  are  so 
managed  that  the  animals  are  able  to 
secure  good  grass  in  sufficient  quanti- 
ties, little  danger  need  be  apprehended 
from  stock  being  poisoned  by  harmful 
plants.  Briefs  notes  follow  on  the  more 
important  plants  which  are  concerned 
in  poisoning  farm  animals. 

Loco — Throughout  the  western  range 
country  there  are  a  number  of  wild  le- 
guminous plants  which  have  been  sus- 
pected of  causing  the  loco  disease  and 
are  commonly  known  as  loco  weeds.  The 
most  abundant,  species  in  Colorado  and 
Kansas  is  Astragalus  moUissimus; 
while   in   Montana  the  plant  most  fre- 


quently concerned  in  causing  loco  dis- 
ease is  Aragallus  spicatus*  Contro- 
versy has  prevailed  regarding  the  loco 
disease.  It  has  been  supposed  by  va- 
rious investigators  to  be  due  to  eating 
alkali,  to  tapeworms,  stomach  worms, 
insect  parasites  contained  in  the  loco 
weed  and  to  the  poisonous  or  injurious 
effects  of  various  loco  weeds.  In  in- 
vestigations which  were  carried  on  in 
Montana  it  appeared  that,  in  some 
parts  of  the  state,  horses  and  sheep 
were  badly  affected  as  the  result  of 
eating  the  common  loco  weed  of  those 
sections.  In  the  southern  Rocky  moun- 
tain states  the  disease  is  more  preva- 


Fig.  122 — purple 


LOCO    WEED 


lent  among  cattle.  The  symptoms  are 
those  of  extreme  emaciation,  malnutri- 
tion and  weakness  accompanied  with  va- 
rious cerebral  symptoms  such  as  perver- 
seness  and  stupidity  on  the  part  of  the 
animal.  In  fact,  affected  animals  are 
commonly  crazy  or  foolish,  as  is  indi- 
cated by  the  Spanish  word  'loco."  There 
is  no  medical  treatment  for  loco  disease, 
but  affected  animals  may  be  removed 
from  pastures  where  the  loco  weed  grows 
and  fed  on  a  nutritious  diet.  When  this 
is  done  they  soon  recover,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes.  Locoed  sheep  may  be 
readily  fattened  and  make  good  mut- 
ton. Similarly  with  locoed  cattle,  the 
disease  does  not  interfere  with  their  sub- 
sequent use  for  beef  purposes.  Locoed 
horses  may  be  restored  to  a  serviceable 


168 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


condition  by  keeping  in  cultivated  pas- 
tures or  in  the  stable  on  a  well  balanced 
ration. 

Death  camas  (Zyadenus  venenosus)  is 
a  low  perennial  with  an  onion  like  bulb 
and  narrow  leaves  separating  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  give  rise  to  the  name  "crow 
foot,"  which  it  bears  in  some  localities. 
It  produces  a  cluster  of  yellowish  green 
flowers  about  the  first  of  May.  The 
plant  is  distributed  from  California  to 
South  Dakota.  The  symptoms  of  poi- 
soning are  irregularity  in  the  movements 
of  the  animal,  accompanied  by  fast 
breathing  and  spasms.  In  the  later 
stages  of  poisoning  in  sheep  there  is  a 
complete  paralysis  of  the  muscles  and  the 
animal  lies  upon  its  side  in  a  sort  of 
stupor.  Sometimes  the  stomach  contents 
are  regurgitated  through  the  mouth  and 
nostrils. 

Larkspurs  are  widely  distributed  over 
the  country  and  a  number  of  species, 
especially  in  the  western  states,  have 
been  shown  to  be  poisonous.  In  Mon- 
tana the  common  poisonous  species  are 
Delphinium  bicolor  and  D.  glaucum; 
while  in  Colorado  these  two  and  three 
other  species  have  recently  been  shown 


flowers  of  considerable  beauty.  The 
larkspurs  are  especially  poisonous  in 
their  younger  stages.  The  symptoms 
are  stiffness,  irregularity  in  the  gait  at 
first  and  later  violent  spasms  interrupted 
by  periods  of  quiet. 

Water    hemlock—Several     species     of 
this  plant  are  known  to  be  exceedingly 


Fig.    123 TALL    LARKSPUR 

by  Glover  to  be  poisonous.  These  plants 
grow  from  6  inches  to  7  feet  in  height 
and  carry  a  spike  of  pale  or  dark  bine 


WYOMING    WATER    HEMLOCK 


poisonous  to  man  and  animals,  the  most 
common  poisonous  species  being  Cicuta 
vagans,  C.  maculata  and  C.  occidentalis. 
These  plants  are  smooth  perennials  with 
stems  2  to  6  feet  high  and  com- 
pound leaves  which  arise  from  the 
ground  and  flat  topped  clusters  of  white 
flowers.  The  first  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing are  severe  pain  and  frenzied  move- 
ments of  the  animal.  Affected  animals 
die  in  spasms  sometimes  within  15  min- 
utes after  the  first  symptoms  appear. 

Aconite  is  a  common  wild  species  at 
high  altitudes  throughout  the  Rocky 
mountains.  In  some  localities  it  oc- 
curs in  such  quantities  about  small 
streams  and  watering  places  as  to  be  a 
source  of  danger  to  both  cattle  and 
sheep.  It  requires  only  small  quantities 
to  cause  serious  results,  especially  if 
eaten  in  the  younger  stages. 


DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


169 


Lupines    are    frequently   called    "blue 
beans,"  or  "blue  peas,"  by  stockmen  and 


Fig.    125 — ACONITE 

may  be  recognized  by  the  striking  spikes 
of     blue,     pea-like     flowers     and     long 


kinds  of  domestic  animals  in  the  west- 
ern states  and  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances are  perfectly  harmless,  and  in- 
deed, a  valuable  forage.  Occasionally 
serious  losses  from  poisoning  occur  from 
these  plants,  especially  if  they  were  har- 
vested at  the  time  when  the  seeds  were 
nearly  mature.  The  poisoning  element 
appears   to   be  contained  chiefly  in   the 


Ergot  is  a  parasitic  fungus  which  in- 
fests rye,  rye  grass,  blue  joint  and  va- 
rious other  grasses.  It  may  be  recog- 
nized as  black  or  brown  spurs  in  the 
heads  of  infested  grasses,  these  spurs 
often  being  mistaken  by  stockmen  for 
the   seed   of   the   grasses.      Ergot   some- 


Fig.    127 ERGOT    IN    WILD    RYE-GRASS 


Fig.   126 LUPINE 

stemmed  leaves  with  seven  to  10  leaflets 
which  arise  from  a  common  point.  Lu- 
pines are  largely  used   as  hay  for   all 


times  causes  abortion,  paralysis  of  the 
muscles,  especially  of  the  head  and  neck, 
and  if  eaten  in  large  quantities  causes 
a  sloughing  of  a  ring  of  tissue  around 
the  leg  near  the  crown  of  the  hoof. 

Treatment  for  plant  poisoning—Ac- 
cording to  our  experiments  in  Montana, 
which  have  been  corroborated  by  Glover 
in  Colorado  and  other  investigators,  one 
of  the  most  effective  and  universally 
applicable  remedies  for  poisonous  plants 
is  potassium  permanganate,  which  may 
be  combined  with  an  acid  salt,  such  as 
sulphate  of  aluminum.  The  remedy 
may  be  dissolved  in  water  and  given  as 
a  drench.  Adult  sheep  may  be  given 
5  to  10  grains;  horses,  20  grains,  cat- 
tle 30  to  50  grains.  Young  animals 
should  receive  doses  proportionately 
smaller.  The  effect  of  potassium  per- 
manganate is  to  destroy  the  active  poi- 
sonous principles  in  the  stomach  before 
they  have  been  absorbed  and,  therefore, 
before  they  have  had  any  effect  upon  the 
animals.  It  is  not  a  physiological  anti- 
dote and  does  not  antagonize  the  symp- 
toms which  are  produced  by  plant 
poisons.  It  simply  oxidizes  the  poison 
still  remaining  in  the  stomach  and  pre- 
vents it  being  absorbed  into  the  blood. 
For  combating  symptoms  which  have  al- 
ready appeared,  various  other  drugs  may 
be  used,  according  to  the  symptoms  pres- 


170 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


ent.  In  .arkspur  or  aconite  poisoning, 
hypodermic  injections  of  atropine  may- 
be administered  in  doses  of  ^  to 
1  grain  for  horses  and  cattle,  and  from 
1-10  to  1-5  of  a  grain  for  sheep.  This' 
remedy  has  recently  given  excellent 
results  in  Colorado  in  experiments  car- 
ried on  by  Glover.  In  poisoning 
from    water    hemlock     morphine    may 


be  given  hypodermicany,  or  chloral  hy- 
drate irr  the  stomach.  Chloral  hydrate 
may  be  given  in  doses  of  1  ounce  to 
horses  and  cattle  and  about  *4  of  an 
ounce  to  sheep.  Morphine  may  also  be 
administered  in  such  cases  in  doses  of 
IV2  grains  for  sheep  and  3  to  10  grains 
for  cattle  and  horses. 


PART  IV 


Systems  of  Stock  Raising, 

Soil  Fertility, 

Live  Stock  Institutions,  and 

Stock  Marketing 


w    5 


to    I 


FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


Stock  raising  is  the  only  kind  of  farm- 
ing that  maintains  the  land  in  its  virgin 
productiveness.  On  a  carefully  managed 
stock  farm  the  soil  should  be  as  produc- 
tive after  a  hundred  years  of  farming  as 
on  the  day  when  the  first  furrow  was 
turned.  This  cannot  be  said  of  grain 
farming,  or  hay  farming,  or  any  other 
kind  of  farming,  where  crops  raised  are 
sold  off  the  farm. 

The  growing  plant  takes  food  from  the 
soil  for  its'  development.  When  first 
broken  up  the  virgin  soil  is  mellow  from 
the  remains  of  plant  and  animal  life  that 
have  accumulated  in  it  for  ages.  It 
absorbs  and  holds  the  rainfall.  Its  rich 
dark  color  retains  the  warmth  of  the 
sun  and  it  bountifully  yields  up  its  food 
in  fields  of  grain  and  hay  that  gladden 
the  heart.  But  as  crop  after  crop  is  re- 
moved from  the  field  and  sold  off  the 
farm,  the  original  stock  of  available  plant 
food  in  the  soil  grows  less  and  less.  The 
humus  that  once  served  to  make  the  soil 
mellow,  and  hold  the  summer  rains  for 
the  thirsty  crop,  burns  out.  The  soil 
bakes  and  packs.  The  rain  washes  over 
its  surface  and  wears  great  gullies  in  it. 
The  plant  searches  for  the  scanty  stores 
of  food,  but  the  dwarf  growth  and  sickly 
color  of  the  crop  tell  the  story  of  the  ex- 
hausted soil  and  the  reasons  for  the 
abandoned  farm. 

The  stock  farmer  a  manufacturer — 
Legitimate  stock  farming  never  leads  to 
this  result.  It  is  a  higher  class  of  farm- 
ing. A  higher  grade  of  intelligence  is  re- 
quired to  carry  it  out  successfully.  The 
stock  farmer  must  know,  as  a  first  re- 
quisite, how  to  produce  hay  and  grain. 
But  these  are  simply  the  crude  product 
in  his  business  and  correspond  to  pig 
iron  in  the  steel  industry.  Out  of  the 
crude  hay,  grain,  roots,  etc,  grown,  the 
stock  farmer  must  know  how  to  manu- 
facture marbled  mutton  and  beef, 
English  breakfast  bacon,  stanch  draft 
horses,  speed,  butter  with  the  flavor  of 
June,  wool,  eggs,   cheese. 


The  stock  farmer  is  a  manufacturer. 
His  animals  are  the  machines  he  works 
with  and  they  constitute  a  mechanism 
more  profound  and  delicate  than  any- 
thing ever  conceived  by  the  mind  of  man. 
To  know  just  what  crude  materials  to 
use,  in  just  what  amounts  and  just  how 
to  combine  them  for  the  production  of 
the  choicest  product,  to  know  when  the 
machine  is  working  to  its  fullest  capac- 
ity, and  to  know  how  to  repair  it  should 
it  get  out  of  order,  requires  an  intelli- 
gence of  as  high  order  as  that  required 
to  build  a  battleship. 

Utilization  of  by-products — In  many 
of  the  great  industries  of  today  the 
profits  come  in  the  careful  husbanding 
and  utilization  of  the  by-products — ma- 
terials that  once  were  considered  of  no 
value  and  thrown  away.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  in  stock  farming.  Success  in 
this  business  depends  very  largely  on 
what  use  is  made  of  the  by-products.  The 
one  great  by-product  in  stock  farming, 
the  one  that  maintains  the  fertility  of 
the  farm  unimpaired,  and  which  makes 
it  an  inexhaustible  gold  mine,  is  the 
manure  pile. 

Value  of  manure— This  material  con- 
tains every  element  essential  to  the 
growth  of  crops.  The  nourishment  it 
contains  is  in  a  form  readily  available 
to  plants.  It  also  supplies  to  the  soil 
that  great  ameliorator  known  as  humus. 
Humus  is  not  directly  a  plant  food  in  it- 
self, but  it  makes  the  soil  friable,  mellow 
and  porous,  so  that  rain  can  soak  in  and 
the  air  penetrate  to  the  roots  of  plants. 
It  absorbs  and  retains  the  rains,  yielding 
up  its  moisture  slowly  to  the  growing 
crops  and  in  a  large  measure  it  consti- 
tutes the  life  of  the  soil.  Enormous 
quantities  of  the  highest  grade  mineral 
fertilizers  are  of  little  value  to  the 
farmer  unless  the  soil  also  contains 
humus. 

Selling  fertility — Every  crop  grown  on 
the   farm   has   a   value    as   a   fertilizer. 


1Y4 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


When  the  crop  is  sold,  so  much  of  the 
fertility  of  the  farm  is  removed  per- 
manently. If  the  crop  is  fed  on  the  farm 
and  the  manure  saved  and  returned  to 
the  soil,  this  great  loss  of  fertility  is 
checked.  If  in  addition  to  the  crop 
raised  on  the  farm,  others  are  bought  and 
fed  and  the  manure  spread  on  the  fields, 
the  farm  may  actually  grow  richer  and 
richer  from  year  to  year.  In  fact,  many 
a  run-down  farm  has  been  brought  to  a 
high  state  of  productiveness  by  this 
method    of    stock    farming. 

In  selling  animals  or  animal  products 
from  the  farm,  there  is  also  a  certain 
amount  of  fertility  removed  from  the 
farm.  The  amount,  however,  is  very 
much  less  than  where  the  raw  crops  are 
sold.  Thus  it  takes  about  15,000  pounds 
of  hay  and  grain  to  produce  1,000  pounds 
of  beef.  This  hay  and  grain  if  sold, 
would  remove  fertility,  which  if  bought, 
would  cost  at  least  $100.  At  the  same 
prices  the  value  of  the  fertility  removed 


when  the  1,000  pounds  animal  produced 
on  this  feed  is  sold,  would  be  but  about 
$12. 

If,  instead  of  meat,  butter  is  sold  from 
the  farm,  the  fertility  removed  is  prac- 
tically nothing.  If  extra  feed  is  bought, 
as  is  common  on  the  modern  stock  farm, 
then  the  fertility  thus  brought  to  the 
farm  might  exceed  that  removed  in  the 
meat  and  milk.  The  degree  of  success  of 
a  farmer  can  usually  be  accurately 
gauged  by  counting  the  number  of  loads 
of  manure  he  hauls  out  on  his  fields 
annually. 

Losses  in  fertility  by  different 
methods  of  farming — The  loss  of  fertil- 
ity on  a  160-acre  farm  from  (1)  all  grain 
farming,  (2)  mixed  grain  and  general 
farming,  (3)  mixed  potato  and  general 
farming,  (4)  stock  farming  and  (5) 
dairy  farming  has  been  worked  out  in 
considerable  detail  by  Snyder  at  the 
Minnesota  Station  (Bui.  41)  with  the 
following  general  result: 


LOSS     OF     FERTILIZING     CONSTITUENTS    UNDER    DIFFERENT    SYS- 
TEMS   OF    FARMING 


Nitrogen 
Kind  of  farming  pounds 

All  grain  farming 5,000 

Mixed  grain  and  general  farming 2,600+ 

Mixed  potato  and  general  farming 2,300+ 

Stock    farming    900 

Dairy   farming S00 


Phosphoric 

acid 

Potash 

pounds 

pounds 

2,500 

4,200- 

1,000 

1,000+ 

1,000- 

2,400+ 

150 

60 

175 

85 

These  figures  are  conservative.  The 
loss  of  nitrogen  in  grain  farming  is 
greater  than  represented  because  of 
losses  that  occur  in  the  drainage  water 
and  in  the  decomposition  of  humus.  In 
the  other  systems  of  farming  the  loss  of 
nitrogen  may  not  be  as  great  as  repre- 
sented if  clover,  alfalfa  or  other  nitro- 
gen-gathering crops  are  grown.  The 
losses  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
shown  for  dairy  and  stock  farming  may 
be  entirely  eliminated  if  purchased 
feeds  are  used  in  addition  to  those 
grown   on   the   farm. 

Elements  of  plant  life — It  is  well 
known  that  plants  utilize  many  different 
elements  in  their  growth  such  as  lime, 
sulphur,  magnesia,  potash,  chlorine,  so- 
dium, phosphorus,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  car- 
bon, etc.  These  elements,  except  three, 
are  sufficiently  abundant  in  all  soil  for 


the  full  growth  of  all  plants.  These  three 
elements  are  nitrogen,  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid ;  on  some  soils  lime  is  needed 
in  addition. 

The  value  of  fertilizers  is  based  on  the 
percentage  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  they  contain.  These  sub- 
stances are  always  present  in  all  farm 
crops,  and  hence  we  may  estimate  the 
manurial  value  of  these  crops  by  the 
amount  of  these  elements  they  contain. 
Professor  Armsby  has  done  this  for  a 
number  of  farm  crops  and  animal  prod- 
ucts, estimating  the  value  of  the  nitro- 
gen they  contain  at  17  cents  a  pound, 
which  is  about  the  usual  price  when  this 
fertilizer  is  bought,  the  phosphoric  acid 
at  7  cents,  and  potash  at  4  cents  a 
pound.  The  results  are  given  in  the 
table  herewith. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


175 


MANURE  VALUE  OP  FARM  PRODUCTS 


Nitrogen 

Meadow  hay o „   20.4 

Timothy   hay    19.7 

Hungarian   hay    23.1 

Red  clover  hay 40.2 

Wheat  straw   11.0 

Barley   straw    12.S 

Oat   straw 12.2 

Corn  stalks 16.9 

Potatoes 7.0 

Mangels 4.6 

Sugar  beets 6.1 

Turnips     „ 3.7 

Carrots    3.7 

Wheat   bran 49.2 

Rye  bran    48.9 

Wheat    middlings 48.5 

Brewers'  grains 17.8 

Oil  meal 105.1 

Cottonseed  meal 135.7 

Winter    wheat 37.5 

Winter  rye 33.9 

Oats    36.4 

Corn    (Indian) 33.1 

Barley     39.7 

Cow's   milk    10.2 

Cheese     90.6 

Live  cattle    53.2 

Live  sheep    44.8 

Live  swine 40.0 

Eggs 43.6 

Unwashed  wool   . . .  o 108.0 

MANURIAL       VALUE       OF       FARM 
PRODUCTS 

How  farm  fertility  is  lost — The  table 
shows  that  when  the  farmer  sells  a  ton 
of  timothy  hay  off  the  farm,  he  sells 
about  $6  worth  of  manure  with  it.  When 
he  sells  a  ton  of  wheat  bran  he  sells  fer- 
tility to  the  value  of  $12.50.  A  ton  of 
pigs  takes  away  $8.17  worth  of  the  farm 
fertility  and  a  ton  of  unwashed  wool, 
$24.27  worth.  In  other  words,  when  a 
man  sells  a  ton  of  timothy  hay  for  $14, 
the  net  price  is  but  $8,  because  with  it 
he  has  taken  away  $6  worth  of  his  work- 
ing capital  in  the  form  of  farm  fertility. 

Nitrogen  costly — The  most  expensive 
element  in  fertilizers  is  nitrogen  and 
the  greater  the  amount  of  this  element 
sold  in  any  product  the  greater  will  be 
the  financial  loss  to  the  farmer.  This  is 
not  strictly  true,  however,  because  all 
leguminous  plants  like  beans,  peas, 
clover,  alfalfa,  etc,  have  the  power, 
through  tubercles  on  their  roots,  of 
utilizing  some  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  air 
for  their  growth  and  thus  actually 
leave  the  ground  richer  in  this  element 
than  before  they  were  planted.  ^  As  an 
offset  to  this,  however,  very  considerable 
quantities  of  nitrogen  are  lost  to  the 
farm  through  volatilization  from  stable 
and  yard  manure. 


-Pounds  per  ton- 
Phosphoric 
acid 

8.2 
14.4 

6.8 
11.2 

4.4 

3.8      . 

3.8 
10.0 

3  2 

1.2 

1.6 

1.9 

2.0 
28.6 
68.6 

7.4 

8.2 
32.2 
29.2 
10.6 
11.2 
12.4 
11.8 

9.0 

3.4 
23.0 
37.2 
24.6 
17.6 

7.4 

o  o 


Potash 

26.4 

40.8 

42.4 

36.6 

12.6 

18.8 

17.8 

19.2 

11.4 

8.2 

7.8 

6.6 

5.6 

54.6 

38.6 

5.2 

1.0 

24.8 

56.2 

15.8 

17.8 


7.4 
15.4 
3.0 
5.0 
3.4 
3.0 
3.6 
3.0 
149.2 


Value  per 

ton 

dollars 

$5.10 

5.99 

6.10 

9.07 

2.69 

3.32 

3.06 

4.39 

1.87 

1.19 

1.46 

1.02 

1.00 

12.45 

14.65 

8.96 

3.64 

21.11 

28.35 

7.75 

7.26 

7.43 

6.75 

7.99 

2.09 

17.21 

11.78 

9.45 

8.17 

8.05 

24.47 


Plant  food  retained    in    manure In 

feeding  animals  farm  crops  or  purchased 
feeds,  it  has  been  shown  by  innumerable 
experiments  that  nearly  the  whole  fer- 
tilizing value  of  the  material  is  recov- 
ered in  the  manure.  The  amount  re- 
covered is  dependent  to  a  considerable 
extent  upon  the  age,  condition  and  kind 
of  animal.  Full  grown  animals  which 
maintain  their  normal  weight  excrete 
practically  all  of  the  fertilizing  constit- 
uents consumed  in  the  food.  Young 
and  rapidly  growing  animals  retain  a 
considerable  portion  for  building  up 
their  bodies  and  may  not  excrete,  there- 
fore, more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  fer- 
tilizing constituents  of  the  food.  Milch 
cows  take  some  of  the  mineral  elements 
and  nitrogen  from  the  food  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  so  may  not  excrete 
more  than  65  to  85  per  cent  of  the  fer- 
tilizing constituents  of  the  food.  Fat- 
tening and  working  animals  excrete  from 
90  to  95  per  cent  of  the  fertilizing 
constituents  of  the  food. 

Necessity  for  preserving  manure — - 
We  thus  see  that  by  utilizing  the  crops 
grown  on  the  farm,  for  the  production 
of  animals  or  animal  products,  a  very 
large  percentage  of  the  fertility  of  the 
farm  is  retained  on  the  land  in  the  form 


176 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


of  manure.  The  proper  care  and  utili- 
zation of  this  manure  will  determine  in  a 
large  measure  the  degree  of  success  at- 
tained by  the  stock  farmer.  The  proper 
method  of  caring  for  the  manure,  there- 
fore, is  well  worthy  most,  careful  consid- 
eration, for  the  more  manure,  the  bigger 
the  crops;  the  bigger  the  crops,  the  more 
animals ;  and  the  more  animals  the  more 
profit  and  the  more  manure.  There  are 
as  many  failures  among  stock  farmers  as 
among  grain  farmers  and  the  chief  rea- 
son is  because  the  manure  produced  is 
not  properly  husbanded  and  utilized. 
The  by-product  which  gives  the  profit  is 
overlooked. 

Quantity  and  value  of  farm  manure 
produced — The  money  value  of  the  ma- 
nure produced  on  a  farm  during  the 
seven  winter  months  where  4  horses,  20 
cows,  50  sheep  and  10  hogs  are  kept,  is 
estimated  by  Professor  Roberts  at  about 
$250.  By  the  usual  method  of  handling 
from  one-third  to  one-half  the  value  of 
the  manure  is  leached  out  or  otherwise 
lost  before  it  is  put  back  on  the  field. 

The  quantity  of  manure  produced  and 
its  value  varies  greatly  with  different 
animals.  It  has  been  estimated  by  Arms- 
by  that  a  horse  requires  about  2500 
pounds  of  straw  for  bedding  purposes 
per  year,  and  that  this,  with  the  normal 
amount  of  manure  produced,  will,  under 
favorable  conditions,  result  in  about  6 
tons  of  fresh  manure,  but  ordinarily 
hot  more  than  5  tons,  and  under  unfav- 
orable conditions,  as  where  only  one 
horse  is  kept,  or  the  manure  infrequently 


hauled  away,  perhaps  not  more  than 
2V2  tons.  Heiden  estimates  that  100 
pounds  of  dry  matter  consumed  by  a 
horse  will  yield  about  210  pounds  of  fresh 
manure.  The  same  amount  with  a  cow 
will  produce  384  pounds  of  manure,  in- 
cluding tirine.  Sheep  produce  about  183 
pounds  for  100  pounds  of  dry  matter 
consumed.  A  hog  produces  from  8  to  12 
pounds  of  manure  a  day,  or  from  IV2  to 
2  tons  a  year. 

The  following  table  is  based  on  results 
secured  at  the  New  York  Cornell  station 
and  shows  the  average  amount  of  manure 
produced  per  day  by  animals  fed  liberally 
and  given  sufficient  bedding  to  keep  them 
clean,  calculated  to  a  uniform  basis  of 
1,000  pounds  live  weight : 

AMOUNT      AND      VALUE      OF     MANURE 
PRODUCED    PER    1000    POUNDS    OF 
LIVE  WEIGHT  OF  DIFFERENT 
ANIMALS 
Amount  Value  Value 

per  day  per  day,  a  per  year,  a 

Pounds  Cents 

Sheep    34.1  7.2  $26. OS 

Calves     67.8 

Hogs     83.6 

Cows     74.1 

Horses    48.8 

a  Valuing  nitrogen  at  15  cents,  phos- 
phoric acid  at  6  cents,  and  potash  at  4V2 
cents   per  pound. 

Value  of  manure — The  fertilizing 
value  and  the  cash  value  of  the  manure 
produced  by  different  animals  under 
normal  conditions,  is  shown  in  the  table 
below  prepared  by  Beal,  the  manure 
being  understood  to  include  both  solid 
and  liquid  excrement: 


6.7 

24.45 

16.7 

60.88 

8.0 

29.27 

7.6 

27.74 

ANALYSES  AND  VALUE  PER  TON  OF   MANURE    OF   DIFFERENT   ANIMALS 


/alue 
per  ton 

$3.30 
2.18 
3.29 
2.02 

7!07 


Phosphoric 

Water 

Nitrogen 

acid 

Potash 

per  cent 

per  cent 

per  cent 

er  cent 

Sheep 

59.52 

0.768 

0.391 

0.591 

Calves    .  . . 

77.73 

.497 

.172 

.532 

Hogs    

74.13 

.840 

.390 

.320 

Cows    .... 

7.r).2r> 

.426 

.290 

.440 

Horses    . . . 

48.69 

.490 

.260 

.480 

Hens 

56.00 

0.S0  to  2 

0.50  to  2 

0.S0  to  .90 

The  two  tables  taken  together  show 
:hat,  with  equal  weight  of  animals,  hogs 
produce  more  manure  a  day  than  any 
other  animal.  Cows  and  calves  come 
next,  followed  by  sheep  and  horses.  If 
we  consider  the  money  value  of  a  ton  of 
manure,  as  shown  in  the  last  table,  we 
see  that  the  most  valuable  manure  is 
that  produced  by  hens,  followed  by  that 
produced  by  sheep,  then  hogs,  while  that 
produced  by  calves,  cows  and  horses  is 
about  equally  valuable.    Under  ordinary 


farm  practice,  it  is  not  common  for  each 
kind  of  manure  to  be  saved  separately  but 
all  are  put  into  a  common  heap.  The 
composition  of  manure  thus  made  varies 
a?cording  to  Beal,  about  as  follows: 
Nitrogen,  0.4  to  0.8  per  cent ;  phosphoric 
acid,  0.2  to  0.5  per  cent;  potash,  0.4  to 
0.8  per  cent;  water,  60  to  75  per  cent. 

Preventing  losses  of  plant  food  in 
manure — In  ordinary  handling  of 
barnyard  manure  enormous  losses  occur 
because  the  liquid  portion  is  allowed  to 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


m 


go  to  waste.  A  part  is  absorbed  in  tbe 
bedding  used  and  finds  its  way  to  the 
common  heap,  but  large  quantities  are 
lost  through  the  cracks  in  the  barn 
floor  and  leaching  in  the  yard.  If  the 
real  fertilizing  value  of  this  material 
were  well  known,  much  greater  care 
would  be  taken  to  preserve  it.  European 
farmers  understand  this  better  than 
American  farmers  do,  and  preserve  this 
material  with  as  much  care  as  any  pro- 
duct produced  on  the  farm. 

■Relative  value  of  solid  and  liquid 
manure — As  between  the  solid  and  liquid 
excrement  the  liquid  is  by  far  the  more 
valuable  from  a  fertilizing  standpoint. 
The  urine  of  all  farm  animals  is  espe- 
cially rich  in  nitrogen  and  potash,  but  is 
lacking  in  phosphoric  acid.  Investiga- 
tions at  the  Pennsylvania  station  showed 
that  the  urine  of  milch  cows  contains 
nearly  one-half  the  nitrogen  and  three- 
fourths  of  the  potash  of  the  food  con- 
sumed and  almost  no  phosphoric  acid. 
The  dung  on  the  other  hand  contains 
about  one-third  of  the  nitrogen,  one- 
sixth  of  the  potash  and  three-fourths  of 
the  phosphoric  acid  of  the  food. 


Fig.     129 FRENCH     METHOD     OF     KEEPING 

MANURE 

Similarly,  experiments  with  sheep  at 
the  Maine  station  showed  that  the  urine 
contained  nearly  half  the  potash,  and 
from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  the 
nitrogen.  All  of  the  phosphoric  acid 
was  found  in  the  solid  excrement.  These 
data  show  that  neither  the  solid  excre- 
ment nor  the  liquid  is  a  complete  ferti- 
lizer in  itself ;  the  one  is  lacking  in  nitro- 
gen and  potash  and  the  other  in  phos- 
phoric acid  and  much  better  results  will 
be  secured  where  both  are  Combined. 
This  is  effected  in  a  large  measure  by 
using  such  materials  for  bedding  as  will 
absorb  the  liquid,  when  it  may  be  mixed 
with  the  solid  excrement.  The  best  ab- 
sorbents from  the  standpoint  of  economy, 
fertilizing  value  and  effectiveness  are 
straw,  peat  and  peat  moss.  Sawdust  is 
a  good  absorbent,  but  has  no  value  as  a 
fertilizer. 

On  the  average  2.2  per  cent  of  the  ni- 


trogen of  manure  is  in  the  solid  matter 
and  10.8  per  cent  in  the  liquid;  1.67 
per  cent  of  the  phosphoric  acid  is  in  the 
solid  matter  and  only  a  trace  in  the 
liquid  of  cows  and  horses,  but  practi- 
cally 5  per  cent  in  the  liquid  of  hogs; 
1  per  cent  of  the  potash  and  soda  is  in 
the  solid  matter  and  13.2  per  cent  in 
the  liquid. 

Character  of  manure  from  different 
farm  animals — The  various  kinds  of 
manures  produced  by  the  different  farm 
animals,  differ  markedly  in  their  physi- 
cal characteristics  as  well  as  their  chemi- 
cal composition,  and  have  greatly  differ- 
ing values  for  the  various  purposes  to 
which  manures  are  put. 

Poultry  manure,  since  it  always  con- 
tains both  the  solid  and  liquid  excre- 
is  the  richest  of  all  farm  manures,  par- 
ticularly in  nitrogen.  This  manure, 
however,  quickly  loses  its  nitrogen  by 
fermentation,  when  not  properly  mixed 
with  absorbents  or  preservatives.  Pmt 
neither  this  manure  nor  any  other  farm 
manure  should  ever  be  mixed  with  such 
alkaline  substances  as  lime,  wood  ashes, 
etc,  as  they  set  free  the  nitrogen  of  the 
manure  in  the  form  of  ammonia,  which 
is  lost  in  the  air. 

"Sheep  manure  contains  a  smaller 
amount  of  water,  and,  weight  for  weight, 
is  the  richest  manure  produced  by 
any  of  the  common  farm  animals.  It  is 
what  is  called  a  hot  manure,  fermenting 
rapidly  with  the  development  of  heat. 
Like  horse  manure,  it  is  especially  likely 
to  lose  ammonia. 

"Horse  manure  is  very  dry  and  is 
therefore  difficult  to  thoroughly  mix  with 
litter.  It  is  a  hot  manure,  undergoing 
fermentation  rapidly  and  generating  a 
high  heat  on  account  of  its  loose  texture. 
It  is  likely  to  lose  ammonia  more  rapidly 
than  sheep  manure  and  requires  careful 
management  from  the  moment  it  is 
voided.  The  composition  of  horse  man- 
ure is  more  uniform  than  that  of  any 
other  farm  animal,  chiefly  because  the 
food  of  horses  is  more  uniform.  The 
urine  is  especially  rich. 

"Hog  manure  is  variable  in  composi- 
tion owing  to  the  variable  nature  of  the 
food  supplied  to  this  animal,  but  is  gen- 
erally rich,  although  containing  a  high 
percentage  of  water.  It  generates  little 
heat  in  decomposing. 

"The  manure  of  neat  cattle,  like  that 
of  hogs  and  for  the  same  reason,  is  vari- 
able in  character,  but  is  generally  poorer 
than  that  of  other  farm  animals  on  ac- 
count of  its  large  percentage  of  water. 


178 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


It  decomposes  slowly  and  develops  little 
heat." 

Fermentation  of  manure — Both  solid 
and  liquid  excrement  undergo  rapid 
changes  from  the  time  they  are  voided 
and  the  chief  concern  of  the  farmer  is 
how  he  may  prevent  losses  of  valuable 
constituents  before  these  manures  are 
returned  to  the  soil.  If  the  manure 
can  be  hauled  directly  from  the  stable 
to  the  field  as  rapidly  as  made,  or  at 
very  short  intervals,  there  will  be  but 
little  loss  in  fertilizing  value.  If,  how- 
ever, it  is  left  in  piles  to  accumulate  for 
six  months  or  more,  exposed  to  the  rain, 
sun  and  winds,  very  large  losses  may 
occur  from  fermentation,  leaching,  etc. 
Beal  states  that:  "The  fermentation 
of  manure  is  due  to  the  action  of  minute 
miscroscopic  organisms  which  belong  to 
two  great  classes:  (1)  those  which  re- 
quire an  abundant  supply  of  air  (oxy- 
gen) and  which  die  when  deprived  of 
oxygen — known  as  aerobic  ferments;  and 
(2)  those  which  grow  without  oxygen 
and  die  when  exposed  to  it — known  as 
anaerobic  ferments. 

"The  decomposition  observed  in  the 
manure  heap  is  due,  as  a  rule,  to  the  com- 
bined action  of  these  two  classes  of  fer- 
ments. On  the  outer  surface  of  the 
heap,  where  the  air  circulates  freely,  the 
first  class  (aerobic)  is  active,  while  in 
the  interior  of  the  heap,  where  the  supply 
of  air  is  limited,  the  fermentation  is  due 
to  the  anaerobic  ferments.  The  latter 
soon  run  their  course  and  cease  to  exist. 
Their  function  seems  to  be  principally  to 
break  up  the  more  complex  substances  of 
the  manure  and  prepare  them  for  the 
further  action  of  the  aerobic  ferments, 
which  finally  convert  them  into  simpler 
compounds,  such  as  water,  carbon  dioxide 
and  marsh  gas. 

"Where  the  manure  is  compacted  (as 
in  deep  stalls,  for  instance),  the  carbon 
dioxide  formed  by  fermentation  soon  per- 
meates the  mass  so  completely  as  to  ex- 
clude the  air  entirely,  thus  arresting  fer- 
mentation. In  loose  heaps  into  which 
air  is  freely  admitted,  fermentation  of 
the  aerobic  form  may  go  on  indefinitely. 
"The  fermentations  of  manure  are 
very  complex  and  vary  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. The  principal  conditions 
affecting  these  processes  are:  (1)  tem- 
perature; (2)  supply  of  air  as  deter- 
mined by  compactness  of  heap ;  (3)  mois- 
ture ;  (4)  the  composition  of  the  manure, 
and  (5)  the  nature  of  the  preservatives 
added. 


"The  higher  the  temperature  the  more 
rapidly  will  manure  decay.  In  aerobic 
fermentation  of  manure  the  temperature 
may  rise  to  122°  to  140°,  or  even  158°  F. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  interior  of  the 
heap,  where  anaerobic  fermentation  is  in 
progress,  the  temperature  rarely  rises 
above  95°  F.  Experiments  have  indi- 
cated that  131°  F.  is  the  most  favorable 
temperature  for  manure  fermentations." 
It  is  thus  seen  that  the  successful  rot- 
ting of  manure  is  dependent  upon  the 
proper  regulation  of  the  two  kinds  of 
fermentation  necessary.  In  loosely 
packed  heaps  fermentation  may  be  too 
rapid  and  the  temperature  may  rise  so 
high  as  to  burn  the  strawy  portion  pro- 
ducing what  is  known  as  fire-fanging. 
This  must  be  avoided  because  the  bene- 
ficial effect  of  barnyard  manure  lies  not 
only  in  the  fertilizing  elements  it  con- 
tains, but  also  in  the  ameliorating  influ- 
ence of  the  humus  in  it. 

How  to  check  injurious  fermentation 
in  manure  piles_One  of  the  chief  means 
used  in  checking  rapid  fermentation  is 
by  increasing  the  moisture  supply  of  the 
heap.  This  drives  out  the  air  and  pre- 
vents the  rapid  multiplication  of  the 
aerobic  fermentation.  Horse  and  sheep 
manures  are  especially  dry  and  require 
moistening  oftener  than  other  manures. 
In  the  best  European  practice,  a  pit  is 
dug  beside  the  manure  pile  into  which 
the  leachings  are  drained.  These  are 
pumped  regularly  over  the  manure  to 
keep  it  at  a  uniform  degree  of  moisture, 
and  when  the  leachings  are  not  sufficient 
for  this  purpose,  water  is  used.  The 
manure  pile  is  kept  in  a  close,  compact 
heap  and  the  fresh  manure  from  the  sta- 
bles placed  on  top.  If  the  liquid  is  stored 
separately  in  tanks,  it  undergoes  rapid 
fermentation  and  deterioration  and  the 
solid  excrement  requires  much  more 
attention  to  prevent  fire-fanging  than 
when  the  liquid  portion  is  mixed  with  it. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  liquid  portion  by 
itself  requires  special  tanks  or  cisterns. 
Everything  considered,  the  best  results 
will  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  water-titj'ht 
stall  floors  and  gutters  and  the  use  of 
sufficient  bedding  to  absorb  the  liquid 
portion  of  the  manure. 

In  properly  fermented  manure,  the 
coarse  materials  are  gradually  decom- 
posed and  the  bulk  greatly  decreases. 
It  is  easily  handled  and  readily  mixes 
with  the  soil  and  its  plant  food  is  readily 
available  for  the  production  of  crops. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


179 


Losses  due  to  leaching—Next  to  the 
losses  which  occur  in  the  fermentation 
of  manures  is  that  caused  by  leaching1. 
Horse  manure  thrown  into  a  loose  pile 
out  of  doors  and  subject  to  changing 
weather  conditions  loses  practically  one- 
half  of  its  fertilizing  constituents  within 
six  months.  If  mixed  with  cow  or  hog 
manure  and  kept  close  in  a  compact  mass 
so  that  the  water  will  quickly  run  off, 
the  loss,  while  still  considerable,  is  not 
nearly  so  great.  Manure  allowed  to  lie 
in  the  barnyard  over  summer,  loses  fully 
one-half  or  more  of  its  fertilizing  value. 


very  effective.  Only  so  much  should  be 
used,  however,  as  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  animals  clean,  as  it  is  very  poor  in 
fertilizing  constituents  and  its  presence 
serves  simply  as  a  means  of  dilution. 

Chemicals  are  sometimes  used  to  fix 
the  ammonia.  Gypsum  or  land  plaster 
is  one  of  the  best  of  these.  This  may  be 
sprinkled  on  the  fresh  dung  and  urine 
in  small  amounts  and  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  materials  for  this  purpose,  be- 
sides being  a  lime  fertilizer  of  consider- 
able value.  The  manure  heap  itself 
as  stated  above,  should  be  kept  compact 


Fig.    130 — THESE   15   LOADS   OF   CORN   SHOULD    HAVE   BEEN    CONDENSED   INTO   2 
LOADS  OF  MEAT  AND  $150  WORTH  OF  MANURE    RETAINED    ON    THE    FARM 


Manure  preservatives—The  organisms 
causing  the  decomposition  of  manure  are 
voided  with  it  and  commence  their  ac- 
tivity at  once.  Through  their  opera- 
tions considerable  losses  of  ammonia  oc- 
cur in  the  manure  of  horses  and  sheep 
in  a  comparatively  short  time.  The 
most  effective  means  of  retarding  this 
loss  is  by  the  use  of  absorptives,  such  as 
straw,  leaves,  peat,  sawdust,  etc.  These 
not  only  take  up  the  liquid  portions, 
but  absorb  to  a  considerable  extent  the 
ammonia  produced  by  fermentation 
which  would  otherwise  be  lost  in  the  air. 

The  most  effective  absorptives  are  peat 
moss  and  peat.  Straw,  however,  is  the 
material   most   widely   available   and   is 


and  uniformly  moist.  When  this  pre- 
caution is  observed  the  use  of  land 
plaster  or  any  other  chemical  will 
scarcely  be  necessary.  The  various  kinds 
of  manure  should  be  mixed  together  in 
the  heap,  the  horse  manure  with  the  cow 
manure,  etc. 

Yards  for  manure_The  barnyard  in 
which  the  manure  is  kept  should  be 
dished  so  that  when  the  manure  pile  is 
built  in  the  center,  the  leachings  will 
drain  towards  it.  The  ground  should  be 
uniformly  packed  down  to  prevent  the 
percolation  of  the  liquid  into  the  soil, 
and  on  sandy  or  gravelly  yards  it  may 
be  advisable  to  cement  over  the  lower 
portion. 


180 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Covered  yards  for  manure — There  is 
considerable  discussion  as  to  the  value 
of  covered  yards  for  preserving  the  ma- 
nure. Where  such  sheds  are  loosely  built, 
so  that  the  manure  preserved  under  them 
may  be  rapidly  dried  out,  they  are  more 
harmful  than  beneficial,  but  where  they 
are  tightly  built,  so  that  the  manure  re- 
mains in  a  moist  condition,  they  un- 
doubtedly furnish  a  valuable  means  for 
preserving  manure  in  a  first  class  condi- 
tion. 

The  New  England  barn  cellars,  in 
which  manure  is  stored  and  worked  over 
by  hogs,  constitute  one  of  the  best  meth- 
ods of  preserving  manure.  Another 
method  is  that  known  as  the  deep  stall 
method.  These  stalls  are  built  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  the  manure 
left  in  them  to  accumulate  during  winter. 


also  renders  soluble  considerable  quan- 
tities of  the  insoluble  fertilizing  constit- 
uents of  the  soil  itself. 

Fresh  manures  are  particularly  valu- 
able on  heavy  clay  soils  while  on  sandy 
soil  or  light  soil  well  rotted  manure  per- 
haps gives  best  results.  In  rather  moist 
years,  however,  fresh  manures  will  do 
better  on  sandy  lands  than  on  heavy 
soils  because  on  the  heavy  soils  they  de- 
compose very  slowly,  while  on  the  lighter 
soils  with  sufficient  moisture,  decom- 
position is  much  more  rapid.  On  light 
soils  there  may  be  some  loss  by  drainage, 
but  there  is  scarcely  any  loss  whatever 
in  manures  when  applied  to  heavy  soils, 
since  these  soils  possess  powerful  absorb- 
ent qualities,  which  prevent  the  loss  of 
fertilizing    ingredients. 


Fig.    131 — MANURE   SPREADER   READY    FOR   OPERATION 


Experiments  have  shown  that  manure 
thus  kept  is  preserved  in  ideal  condition. 
It  is  kept  uniformly  moist,  the  fermen- 
tation is  slow  and  there  is  practically  no 
loss  of  fertilizer  constituents.  This 
is  the  method  in  common  use  by  most 
farmers  in  their  sheep  pen,  and  expe- 
rience has  shown  that  this  manure  when 
drawn  out  in  the  spring  is  in  the  most 
valuable  form  for  turning  under. 

Applying  manure  on  the  land — Kela- 
tive  to  the  application  of  manure  to  the 
soil,  both  scientific  and  practical  men 
hold  that  the  fresher  it  can  be  spread 
on  the  land  the  less  loss  there  is  and  the 
greater  the  benefit.  The  fresh  manure 
when  turned  under  readily  undergoes  fer- 
mentation which  not  only  disintegrates 
the  coarser  particles  of  the  manure,  but 


Fresh  manures  tend  to  the  production 
of  a  rank  succulent  growth  of  stems  and 
weeds  rather  than  grain.  They  are, 
therefore,  most  useful  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  hay  crop,  while  for  grain,  the 
more  rotted  material  gives  the  better  re- 
sults. 

In  applying  manure  it  should  be 
spread  in  a  thin,  even  layer  over  the  sur- 
face, the  method  of  leaving  in  piles  for  a 
month  or  more  gives  unsatisfactory  re- 
sults, because  where  the  piles  have  been 
made  the  growth  is  especially  rank  and 
produces  an  uneven  harvest.  If  the 
fields  are  hilly,  the  manure  should  be 
plowed  under  very  soon  after  being 
spread ;  otherwise,  there  will  be  consider- 
able loss  in  the  drainage  waters  from 
heavy  rains, 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


181 


On  heavy  soils  the  manure  may  be 
plowed  4  to  5  inches  deep,  and  on  light- 
er soils  7  to  8  inches  deep.  From  10  to 
15  tons  of  manure  are  usually  sufficient 
for  the  production  of  maximum  grain 
crops. 

Frequent  light  applications  for  both 
hay  and  grain  give  much  better  results 
than  occasional  heavy  applications. 

SYSTEMS   OF  STOCK  FABMING 

There  are  5,739,657  farms  in  the 
United  States.  Live  stock  is  kept  on 
96  per  cent  of  these  farms,  while  on 
about  one-third  of  them,  live  stock  or 
live  stock  products  is  the  principal 
source  of  income. 

On  the  majority  of  the  stock  farms  in 
the  United  States,  a  number  of  different 
classes  of  stock  is  maintained;  horses  to 
work  the  farm,  from  which  a  few  colts 
may  be  bred  for  sale;  sheep  to  keep  the 
weeds  down  in  the  meadows,  graze  over 
the  rough  land,  eat  up  the  surplus 
roughage  of  winter,  and  produce  wool 
and  lambs  for  sale ;  cows,  to  supply  milk 
and  butter  and  furnish  some  stock  for 
fattening  and  for  sale;  hogs  to  eat  up 
the  waste  and  odds  and  ends  about  the 
farm,  dairy  and  house,  and  to  condense 
and  turn  the  corn  crop  into  money;  and 
poultry  for  eggs  and  for  the  table. 

In  the  complete  utilization  of  all  farm 
crops,  and  in  the  maintenance  of  soil 
fertility,  there  is  a  place  for  the  profita- 
ble use  of  each  of  the  different  farm 
animals. 

Advantages  of  general  stock  farming 
— If  corn  is  grown  for  hogs  alone,  the 
fodder  would  be  an  entire  waste,  but  by 
feeding  it  to  cattle,  horses  or  sheep,  this 
waste  material  is  turned  to  profitable  ac- 
count. The  large  quantities  of  skim 
milk  obtained  as  a  by-product  on  the 
dairy  farm  would  represent  a  severe  loss 
were  not  hogs,  calves  or  poultry  kept  to 
convert  it  into  veal,  pork  or  eggs.  These 
various  reasons  and  the  further  fact  that 
all  the  animals  fit  in  one  way  and  an- 
other to  further  the  pleasure  and  comfort 
of  the  daily  life  of  the  farm  family,  show 
why  general  stock  farming  is  more  pop- 
ular than  special  stock  farming. 

Factors  which  determine  the  kind 
of  stock  farming  in  a  locality — While 
these  reasons  generally  hold,  there  are 
certain  other  factors  which  go  to  deter- 
mine the  kind  of  stock  farming  that  is 
followed  in  any  community,  these  are 
soil,  climate,  population,  etc.  Thus  we 
find   that  the  finest  race  horses  of  the 


country  are  produced  on  the  limestone 
soil  and  blue  grass  region  of  Kentucky. 
White  breeds  of  hogs  are  unsuccessfully 
grown  in  the  South  because  of  sun  scald. 
Dairy  farming  is  most  highly  developed 
in  the  more  densely  settled  portions  of 
the  country.  Live  stock  ranching,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  profitable  only  in  the 
sparsely  settled  western  states  and  in  a 
climate  where  stock  can  remain  out  all 
winter.  Sheep  diseases  are  especially  se- 
vere in  the  South  and  tend  to  restrict 
the  development  of  the  sheep  industry 
in  the  more  southern  states.  The  large 
poultry  farms  are  usually  located  within 
easy  access  to  the  larger  markets. 

Since  general  stock  farming  represents 
the  most  common  type  in  America,  and 
in  fact  all  countries,  a  concrete  example 
of  the  system  followed  on  one  of  the 
better  classes  of  these  farms  may  be 
suggested.  The  farm  is  that  of  Mr. 
E.  _  E.  Chester,  of  Champaign  County, 
Illinois,  and  the  description  is  that  of 
Prof.  W.  J.  Spillman. 

Typical      general      stock     farm The 

stock  raised  on  this  farm  are  cattle,  hogs 
and  horses.  The  farm  contains  about 
440  acres  of  rich,  black,  prairie  loam. 
Enough  stock  is  kept  to  consume  all  the 
produce  of  the  farm  and  a  little  more. 
About  100  acres  are  kept  in  permanent 
blue  grass  pasture  and  100  more  in  tem- 
porary timothy  and  clover  pasture.  The 
leading  cultivated  crop  is  corn,  of  which 
l'+O  acres  are  annually  grown.  About  50 
to  60  acres  are  planted  to  wheat  and  oats 
each  year  and  the  remainder  of  the 
farm  with  clover  or  timothy  and  clover. 
No  systematic  rotation  is  followed.  This 
is  seldom  necessary  on  a  stock  farm  since 
the  fertility  of  the  farm  is  maintained 
by  the  use  of  manure,  which  is  applied 
on  the  fields  that  need  it  most. 

The  manure  on  this  farm  is  usually 
applied  to  the  corn  crop.  Corn  averages 
50  bushels  per  acre;  oats  50;  wheat  20; 
hay  about  2  tons  to  the  acre.  Some  50 
acres  of  hay  are  cut  each  year.  A  100-ton 
silo  is  filled  each  year  and  about  40  acres 
of  corn  cut  for  fodder.  The  blue  grass 
pasture  is  grazed  off  during  the  early 
part  of  the  season  but  usually  sufficient 
stock  is  sold  off  so  that  it  is  given  com- 
parative rest  during  the  summer  time. 
The  pasture  accumulates  so  much  fer- 
tility that  it  is  occasionally  broken  up 
and  cropped. 

The  stock  kept  consists  of  about  100 
head  of  cattle,  100  hogs  or  more  and  some 
20  head  of  horses,  which  is  about  twice 


182 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


as  many  as  is  necessary  to  do  the  work 
of  the  farm.  The  original  herd  of  high 
grade  Shorthorns  has  been  gradually 
changed  into  a  herd  of  registered  stock. 
By  this  means  the  average  price  of  the 
calves  sold  has  been  raised  from  $15 
to  $100  a  head,  many  of  these  cattle  be- 
ing sold  for  breeding  purposes.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  home  grown  stock,  calves, 
yearlings  and  two-year-olds  are  also 
bought  to  feed  for  market.  Young  light 
cattle  weighing  between  500  to  800 
pounds  are  preferred  for  this  purpose. 

Calves  for  beef — Mr.  Chester's 
method  of  handling  calves  for  beef  is 
never  to  let  them  get  hungry,  but  make 
their  feed  as  cheap  as  possible  up  to  the 


Hogs  raised — About  100  hogs  are 
kept  on  the  farm  all  the  time.  They 
are  kept  on  pasture  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, but  fed  grain  the  year  round,  ex- 
cept when  following  cattle  on  feed. 
They  are  sold  when  they  reach  a  weight 
of  about  300  pounds  each.  As  much 
growth  as  is  possible  is  made  on  pas- 
ture, and  as  soon  in  the  spring  as  possi- 
ble, the  sows  and  pigs  are  put  after  the 
cattle  on  pasture. 

The  horses  kept  are  both  raised  and 
bought.  They  are  all  high  grade,  draft 
animals  and  sent  to  market  only  in 
prime  condition.  "No  exercise  is  given 
while  fitting  for  market  except  to  lead 
them  out  three  times  a  day  for  water. 


Fig.   132 — CALVES  READY  FOR  THEIR  SKIM    MILK,   KANSAS    EXPERIMENT    STATION 


fattening  period  and  then  stop  cheapen- 
ing. Before  fattening,  the  animals  are 
given  pasture,  corn  stalks,  clover  hay 
and  silage.  The  steers  are  fattened 
when  they  reach  a  weight  of  1,000 
pounds.  Several  lots  of  one  or  more 
carloads  are  fed  annually,  a  lot  be- 
ing on  feed  the  most  of  the  year.  In 
early  winter  fattening,  each  steer  is  fed 
20  to  40  pounds  of  silage,  1-4  to  1-3 
bushel  of  corn  and  all  the  clover  hay  it 
will  eat.  The  corn  is  fed  as  broken 
from  the  stalks,  grain,  husks  and  cob 
all  crushed  together.  In  summer  fat- 
tening, steers  are  kept  on  blue  grass 
pasture  and  fed  about  a  peck  of  corn 
each  daily,  either  crushed  or  whole  on 
the  stalk.  The  fattening  period  usually 
lasts  100  to  120  days, 


When  put  on  feed  to  be  prepared  for 
market,  horses  are  given  all  the  clover 
hay  they  will  eat  and  a  gradually  in- 
creasing ration  of  corn  and  oats  till  they 
have  all  they  will  eat  up  clean.  In 
season,  green  corn  is  used  instead  of 
dry,  the  change  being  accomplished  by 
substituting  one  ear  of  green  corn  for 
one  of  dry  each  day."  Mares  are  us- 
ually sold  off  before  they  become  old 
unless  unusually  valuable  for  breeding. 

While  this  general  live  stock  farming 
is  the  most  usual  kind  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  highest  type  of  live  stock 
farming  is  represented  by  the  man  who 
grows  only  pure  bred  stock.  We  may 
therefore,  well  consider  that  subject 
next,  following  it  by  other  special  types 
of  live  stock  farming, 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


183 


PURE   BREED  STOCK   FARMING 

It  was  noted  above  that  when  the  herd 
of  high  grade  cattle  was  changed  into  a 
registered  herd,  the  selling  price  of  the 
calves  was  raised  from  $15  to  $100  a 
head.  This  suggests  at  once  the  greater 
profit  in  growing  pure  bred  over  grade 
and  scrub  stock.  There  are  a  number 
of  matters  that  must  be  considered, 
however,  before  taking  up  this  kind  of 
farming. 

All  our  pure  breeds  of  stock  have 
originated  from  the  common  species. 
They  have  developed  as  a  result  of  con- 
stant, careful  attention  to  feed,  care  and 
breeding.     Under  conditions  of  neglect, 


ing  to  give  his  pure  bred  animals  much 
more  care  and  attention  as  to  shelter, 
food  and  general  well  being,  had  better 
keep  out  of  pure  breed  stock  farming.  It 
is  like  putting  a  piece  of  highly  special- 
ized machinery  in  the  hands  of  a  man 
used  to  a  grub  hoe. 

Additional  requirements  of  breeders 
— Furthermore,  if  a  man  is  willing  to 
give  his  pure  bred  stock  this  greater 
care,  he  must  still  have  in  addition  a 
keen  accurate  judgment  of  the  merits 
and  demerits  of  each  individual  animal 
he  breeds  or  buys,  in  order  to  sustain  the 
standard  of  the  breeds  he  is  handling. 
This    means    he    must    know    personally 


Fig.  133 A  BREEDING  HERD  OF  BERKSHIRE3 


therefore,  there  is  a  constant  tendency 
to  revert  to  the  original  unimproved 
form.  The  man  who  goes  into  the  busi- 
ness of  raising  pure  bred  stock,  must 
thoroughly  understand  this. 

Greater  care  necessary  for  im- 
proved stock — Pure  bred  stock  cannot 
be  handled  in  the  same  manner  as  scrub 
or  common  grade  stock.  Scrub  stock 
has  learned  to  shift  for  itself  and  will 
make  a  living  and  will  get  along  very 
well  where  the  most  carefully  reared 
pure  bred  stock  would  be  a  failure.  We 
do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  under  the 
average  conditions  of  farming,  grade 
stock  will  prove  fully  as  profitable  as 
high  priced  pure  bred  stock  and  perhaps 
much  more.     The  man  who  is  not  will- 


every  animal  in  his  herd,  its  peculiari- 
ties and  capabilities.  He  must  also 
know  the  kinds  of  animals  other  men 
are  breeding  so  that  when  he  introduces 
new  blood  into  his  herd  he  may  secure 
animals  that  will  add  an  element  of  im- 
provement to  them. 

Pure  bred  sires — Many  men  who  do  not 
find  it  profitable  to  breed  pure  bred 
stock  because  of  inaptitude  for  the 
business,  may  still  find  it  profitable  to 
keep  pure  bred  sires  for  mating  with 
grade  animals.  Such  sires  can  be  re- 
lied upon  to  impress  their  chief  charac- 
teristics upon  the  offspring  and  thus 
greatly  raise  the  standard  of  excellence 
of  the  herd.  Even  here,  the  breeder 
must  be  prepared  to  give  his  stock  thus 


184 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


produced  better  care  than  common  in 
order  to  take  advantage  of  the  improve- 
ment introduced  by  the  sire.  The  use 
of  a  $500  pure  bred  Angus  bull  on  grade 
cows  for  beef,  should  impart  to  the  off- 
spring a  tendency  to  the  beef  form  and 
rapid  fattening  qualities  of  the  Angus 
breed.  But  if  this  stock  be  skim;  ed  on 
pasture  or  feed,  the  gain  will  not  be 
more  rapid  and  there  will  be  no  more 
profits  than  on  scrubs,  handled  under 
like  conditions. 

Breeder  must  be  a  specialist — The 
whole  theory  of  breeding  is  treated  in 
detail  in  another  chapter  of  this  work. 
It  is  introduced  here  among  systems  of 
stock  farming  to  call  attention  Ao  the 
special  requirements  necessary  to  make 
this  kind  of  farming  a   success.     It  is 


Proportion  of  pure  bred  stock  ill 
the  country — The  total  number  of  pure 
bred  animals  in  the  United  States  is 
not  large.  In  1904  the  numbers  were 
about  as  follows:  Horses,  185,000; 
dairy  cattle,  224,000;  beef  or  other  cat- 
tle, 452,000;  sheep,  222,000;  hogs,  181,- 
000.  In  round  numbers  this  is  only  1 
per  cent  of  the  horses  and  beef  cattle 
produced  in  the  country;  1.3  per  cent  of 
the  dairy  cattle  and  less  than  0.5  per 
cent  of  the  swine  and  sheep  grown. 

Beginning  blooded  stock  raising — In 
entering  the  business  of  producing  pure 
breeds  of  live  stock,  much  study  and 
care  is  essential  in  the  beginning  to 
understand  the  characteristics  of  the 
breed  which  it  is  desired  to  handle.  The 
breed  selected  should  be  adapted  to  the 


134 — HAMPSHIRE   HOG  CRATED  FOR 
(Photo  furnished  by  E.  C.  Stone) 


the  work  of  the  specialist  and  in  his 
hands  succeeds,  bringing  in  much  larger 
returns  than  from  general  feeding  or 
grade  breeding.  But  when  attempted  by 
men  unfamiliar  with  its  requirements, 
it  more  often  brings  failure  than  profits. 
The  breeder,  of  all  stock  men,  must  be 
a  business  man  as  well  as  a  stock  raiser. 
His  success  depends  on  both  good  breed- 
ing and  wide  advertising. 

Much  the  larger  part  of  the  men  en- 
gaged in  growing  pure  bred  stock  are 
located  in  the  corn  belt  and  eastern 
states.  It  is  from  these  states  that 
the  western  range  men  buy  their  pure 
bred  sires  to  use  on  the  grade  range 
stock,  though  direct  importations  from 
Europe  are  frequently  made.  With 
large  herds,  pure  bred  sires  soon  pay  for 
themselves  in  the  higher  grade  and 
better  quality  of  the_  progeny  produced. 


locality  of  the  breeder.  In  the  little 
country  of  England  practically  each 
county  has  its  particular  breed  of  live 
stock  best  suited  to  the  local  condition 
of  the  county. 

There  are  sheep  which  will  thrive 
on  low  wet  lands,  and  others  which  do 
best  on  the  highlands.  Breeds  of  hogs 
that  will  flourish  in  the  south  and  others 
that  sun  scald.  Breeds  that  return  a 
considerable  profit  from  grazing  and 
others  which  are  noted  for  their  ability 
to  utilize  large  quantities  of  grain 
profitably.  The  market  requirements  in 
the  neighborhood  must  also  be  consid- 
ered. 

In  laying  the  foundation  of  a  herd  or 
flock,  it  is  best  to  start  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptionally good  animals  and  grow  into 
the  business  slowly  rather  than  to  at- 
tempt to  build  up  a  herd  rapidly  with. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


185 


animals  of  average  merit.  The  reputa- 
tion of  a  herd  is  usually  built  up  on 
the  performance  of  a  few  remarkable 
animals,  usually  not  more  than  one  or 
two. 

Selling  stock — After  one  has  grown 
a  few  animals,  the  question  arises  as 
to  how  to  dispose  of  the  surplus  stock. 
One  of  the  many  ways  is  to  select  a  few 
of  the  best  animals  and  to  exhibit  them 
at  the  county  fairs. 

Exhibiting  at  fairs — The  animals 
should  be  shown  in  their  best  possible 
condition.  It  is  well  for  the  breeder  to 
be  on  hand  early  and  secure  as  promi- 
nent pens  as  possible  and  to  remain  at 
the  pens  or  stalls  with  his  exhibit,  in 
order  to  answer  all  questions  regarding 
them.  This  is  a  practical  point  often 
overlooked  and  while  the  exhibitor  is 
watching  the  races,  some  other  fellow 
will  be  selling  stock. 

Should  he  fail  to  take  any  prizes  at 
the  fair,  which  is  likely  to  be  the  case 
the  first  time  he  exhibits,  it  would  be 
well  to  look  closely  at  the  animals 
which  won.  If  he  cannot  see  why  his 
animals  failed,  he  should  ask  the  judge. 
Judges  are  usually  willing  to  state  the 
grounds  on  which  they  made  Jheir  de- 
cision. The  following  year  he  should 
be  able  to  show  his  animals  to  still  bet- 
ter advantage  and  within  a  short  time 
will  be  taking  his  full  share  of  the  prizes. 
In  this  way  his  breed  is  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  public  and  he  may  be 
able  to  dispose  of  all  of  his  surplus  stock 
locally. 

Advertising  in  stock  journals — In 
case  he  is  breeding  extensively  and  the 
local  demand  is  not  sufficient,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  advertise  in  the  more 
prominent  stock  journals.  The  adver- 
tisement should  be  short  and  state  ex- 
actly what  the  breeder  has  to  sell  and 
the  character  of  his  animals.  Adver- 
tising is  something  that  cannot  be  car- 
ried on  spasmodically,  but  should  be 
continued  every  week  or  month,  year 
after  year. 

Broadening  the  field  at  state  and 
national  fairs — After  exhibiting  at  the 
county  fairs,  the  next  step  will  be  to 
make  exhibits  at  the  state  fairs.  Here 
the  competition  will  be  very  much 
sharper  indeed  and  the  breeder  may 
have  his  vanity  seriously  jarred,  before 
he  succeeds  in  carrying  home  any  of  the 
coveted  prizes.  Every  experience  at 
these  fairs,  however,  makes  him  a  closer 
observer  and  broadens  his  outlook.  If 
he  takes  his  lessons  seriously,  however, 


and  can  come  back  a  little  stronger 
each  year,  he  will  soon  be  winning  his 
share  of  the  prizes. 

The  next  great  step  is  to  show  at  the 
international  expositions;  here  he  will 
come  in  competition  with  the  solons 
of  the  show  business.  All  this  time  his 
acquaintance  with  breeders  and  live 
stock  men  is  growing  as  well  as  his  repu- 
tation and  the  notoriety  of  his  flocks  and 
herds. 

Selling  stock  by  auction — Another 
method  of  disposing  of  surplus  stock  is 
that  of  the  auction  sale.  Such  a  sale 
must  be  advertised  in  the  papers. 

Usually  the  beginner  will  find  it  ad- 
vantageous to  join  in  with  other  breed- 
ers, in  holding  an  auction  at  some  cen- 
tral point.  In  this  way  the  small  breed- 
er shares  in  the  advertising  advantages 
and  sale  privileges  secured  by  his  con- 
nection with  other  breeders  whose  opera- 
tions are  more  extensive.  This  is  a 
quick  means  of  disposing  of  the  sur- 
plus stock,  and  frequently  stimulation 
of  the  bidding  in  the  auction  ring  se- 
cures much  higher  prices  than  might 
otherwise  be  obtained  by  private  sale. 
Whenever  a  sale  is  made,  the  breeder 
should  furnish  the  buyer  as  promptly 
as  possible  a  pedigree  of  the  stock  he 
has  sold. 

Mail  order  sales — Many  breeders  do 
a  large  mail  order  business.  In  the 
mail  order  trade  the  breeder  should 
be  careful  to  keep  a  copy  of  all  letters 
regarding  the  description  and  sale  of 
any  of  his  stock.  It  frequently  happens 
that  a  buyer  wishes  to  purchase  an 
animal  similar  to  one  purchased  one 
to  five  years  previously,  but  not  related 
to  it.  The  correspondence  record  should 
enable  the  breeder  to  satisfy  his  cus- 
tomer. Great  effort  should  be  taken 
to  satisfy  each  customer  because  they 
become  advertisers  for  the  breeder,  and 
in  case  complaint  is  made,  though  it 
may  not  be  altogether  the  breeder's 
fault,  he  should  do  more  than  what  is 
required  of  him  to  meet  the  complaint. 
Occasionally  one  may  be  imposed  upon 
but  not  often.  With  care,  in  replying 
to  inquiries  and  in  describing  animals 
the  complaints  will  be  few  and  far  be- 
tween. 

Breeding  record — Careful  records 
should  he  kept  at  all  times  and  nothing 
left  to  guess  work.  Every  detail  should 
be  known  to  a  certainty.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  of  the  breeding  of  pigs 
where  there  are  large  numbers  in  each 
litter,  and  every  breeding  animal  should 


186 


'FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


be  recorded  in  the  record  association  for 
the  breed. 

DAIRY  FARMING 

Next  to  pure  breed  live  stock  farming, 
it  is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  special  stock 
farming  that  pays  better  than  dairy 
farming.  In  case  the  dairy  farmer  has 
judgment  and  ability  he  may  also  breed 
and  sell  high  grade,  pure  bred  dairy 
stock.  Dairy  farming  is  the  most  exact- 
ing of  all  kinds  of  farming  on  the  time 
of  the  farmer — there  is  no  second  morn- 
ing nap  and  no  Sunday  in  dairy  farm- 
ing. 

Owing  to  the  demand  for  dairy  prod- 
ucts in  a  fresh  condition,  particularly 
milk  and  cream,  and  to  the  extensive 
use  of  these  materials  in  every  house- 
hold, dairy  farming  tends  to  center  in 
the  more  densely  populated  regions, 
particularly  about  the  great  cities.  It 
is  the  one  kind  of  live  stock  farming 
that  pays  best  on  high  priced  land 
where  an  intensive  system  of  farming 
must  be  followed.  There  are  two  sys- 
tems of  dairy  farming  as  regards 
management  of  crops  and  cows.  These 
may  be  designated  as  the  soiling  sys- 
tem and  the  pasture  system. 

Soiling  system_In  the  soiling  sys- 
tem the  farmer  plans  to  have  a  succes- 
sion of  green  forage  throughout  the 
growing  season  for  his  cows.  The  cows 
are  kept  in  stables  or  yards  and  all  the 
green  food  they  require  is  cut  and  car- 
ried to  them.  By  the  pasture  system 
the  cows  are  turned  out  onto  the 
meadows  as  soon  as  the  grass  starts  in 
the  spring,  and  are  made  to  gather  their 
own  food. 

The  soiling  system  has  the  following 
advantages:  (1)  More  stock  can  be 
kept  on  the  same  area,  since  all  the  land 
can  be  cropped  and  heavy  yielding 
forage  plants  grown  instead  of  the  usual 
light  yielding  pasture  grasses.  There 
is  no  loss  from  the  trampling  of  stock. 
Shaw  estimates  that  twice  the  number  of 
animals  can  be  kept  on  the  same  acre- 
age by  the  soiling  system  as  by  pas- 
turing. (2)  There  is  less  wacte  in  har- 
vesting and  feeding.  The  crops  are  cut 
green  when  most  palatable,  and,  hence, 
are  more  nearly  all  eaten  up.  None 
of  the  finer  parts  is  lost  as  in  curing 
for  hay.  Less  energy  is  expended  by 
the  cows  in  masticating  and  digesting 
the  crops.  (3)  The  animals  are  main- 
tained in  better  form  and  in  a  more 
uniform    condition,    because    they    get 


sufficient  food  each  day,  properly  com- 
bined, to  meet  their  physical  require- 
ments. Drouths  which  wither  the  pas- 
tures and  decrease  the  milk  flow  in 
summer  time  do  not  affect  them.  During 
the  heat  of  the  day,  they  are  coolly 
stabled  away  from  the  annoying  flies, 
and  in  the  drizzling  rain  and  bleak 
days  of  early  spring  and  late  fall,  they 
are  snugly  sheltered.  All  the  energy 
of  the  animal  is  conserved  and  con- 
centrated for  the  manufacture  of  milk. 
(4)  All  the  fertility  of  the  farm  is 
preserved,  since  where  the  stock  is  kept 
stabled  all  the  manure  can  be  saved 
and  utilized  to  the  best  advantage.  If 
purchased  feeds  are  used  in  addition  to 
the  home  crops  which  is  nearly  always 
done,  their  fertility  is  nearly  all  saved 
at  a  clear  profit.  (5)  No  fences  are  re- 
quired. No  weeds  accumulate,  since 
they  are  cut  before  they  have  a  chance 
to  produce  seed. 

Objections  to  soiling — There  are  cer- 
tain objections  to  the  soiling  system.  In 
the  first  place,  there  is  considerable  in- 
crease in  the  cost  of  labor  involved  in 
cutting  the  crops  and  carrying  them  to 
the  cows,  caring  for  the  manure,  etc. 
Cows  demand  more  attention  and  more 
intelligence  is  required  to  keep  them  in 
a  good,  healthy,  vigorous  condition. 

The  winter  treatment  of  cows  by 
both  the  soiling  and  pasturage  system 
is  practically  the  same.  Succulent  food 
in  the  form  of  either  silage  or  roots,  is 
provided  as  a  substitute  for  the  grasses 
and  green  forage  of  summer.  Various 
hays  and  fodders  are  used  and  also 
grains  and  milling  product. 

Illustration  of  soiling  system — A 
striking  illustration  of  intensive  dairy 
farming  is  presented  in  the  widely 
known  case  of  the  Rev.  J.  D.  Detrich  of 
Pennsylvania,  described  by  Prof.  W.  G. 
Johnson  in  the  American  Agriculturist. 
December  6  and  13,  1902.  On  a  farm  of 
15  acres,  Mr.  Detrich  raised  all  the 
roughage  for  30  head  of  stock,  17  of 
which  were  milch  cows.  On  this  farm, 
Mr.  Detrich  cleared  on  the  average, 
$2,200  a  year.  The  cows  and  young 
stock  were  kept  in  the  stable  all  the 
time,  and  after  15  years  of  such  treat- 
ment appeared  to  be  sound  and  healthy 
as  those  that  run  at  large.  For  a  com- 
plete account  of  this  remarkable  place, 
see  the  book  published  by  Orange  Judd 
Company,  entitled,  Profitable  Dairying 
by  C.  L.  Peck. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


187 


All  manure  was  carefully  saved,  the 
gutter  behind  the  cows  was  made  water- 
tight and  not  a  pound  of  solid  or  liquid 
manure  went  to  waste  on  the  farm. 
Every  day  the  gutters  were  thoroughly 
cleaned.  Rotten  sod,  leaf  mold,  etc, 
were  then  placed  in  them  as  absorbents. 
When  cleaned  out  the  manure  was 
drawn  immediately  to  the  field  and 
spread  on  the  land  from  which  soiling 
crops  had  been  removed,  or  in  winter 
on  rye  and  grass  fields. 

All  the  cows  kept  were  registered  Jer- 
seys and  good  niilk  producers.  The 
male  calves,  if  promising,  were  raised, 
otherwise  they  were  killed  at  birth.  It 
did  not  pay,  Mr.  Detrich  held,  to  feed 
$18  worth  of  milk  to  a  calf  that  would 
sell  for  $7.  The  17  cows  kept  produced 
about  26  gallons  of  milk  daily,  which 
was  sold  for  25  cents  a  gallon,  giving  a 


silage  was  fed.  All  the  roughage  fed  on 
the  farm,  including  hay,  soiling  crops 
and  bedding  was  cut  in  quarter  inch 
lengths.  No  system  of  rotation  was  fol- 
lowed in  cropping  the  farm.  It  was  not 
necessary  as  a  means  of  soil  improve- 
ment, since  the  manure  returned  to  the 
land  kept  it  fully  supplied  in  organic 
matter  and  food  constituents.  Each 
acre  in  cultivation  produced  the  equiva- 
lent of  6.7  tons  of  hay  during  the  sea- 
son. On  this  farm  one  man  and  a  boy 
did  practically  all  the  work  except  at 
haying  time.  This  example  of  intensive 
dairying  shows  what  can  be  accomplished 
on  a  small  place,  where  system  is  fol- 
lowed and  every  pound  of  fertilizer  pro- 
duced is  returned  to  the  soil. 

Pasture   system — At  a   distance  from 
the    city,    where   farms    are   larger    and 


135 — FILLING    SILO   WITH    BLOWER 


gross  income  of  about  $2400  a  year  from 
this  source.  About  five  head  of  young 
cattle  were  sold  off  the  place  each  year 
at  an  average  price  of  $100  apiece. 
About  $625  a  year  was  spent  for  con- 
centrated feeding  stuffs. 

The  cows  were  fed  a  balanced  ration 
and  each  ration  consisted  of  three  parts : 
(1)  Succulent  material,  as  silage  in 
winter,  and  rye,  timothy  and  clover, 
corn,  peas  and  oats,  or  some  other  green 
crop  in  summer;  (2)  dry  hay  or  fodder 
to  give  the  manure  proper  consistency 
which  made  it  easier  to  keep  the 
cows  clean  and  to  handle  the  milk, 
and  (3)  mill  products,  consisting  of 
bran,  oil  meal  and  gluten.  The  amount 
of  mill  products  fed  daily  was  regulated 
by  the  consistency  of  the  manure  and 
by  the  milk  flow. 

During  the  growing  season  green 
crops  were  fed  until  the  corn  was  put 
into   the   silo   in   the   fall,    after   which 


land  cheaper,  it  is  more  common,  and 
usually  more  profitable,  to  pasture  dur- 
ing the  growing  season  than  to  feed 
soiling  crops.  The  pasture  system  has 
the  advantage  of  great  convenience, 
since  the  cattle  do  their  own  harvesting 
and  no  attention  is  required  of  the 
farmer  after  they  are  turned  into  the 
pasture  in  the  morning  until  time  to 
milk  at  night.  It  is  the  natural  system. 
By  it  there  is  no  danger  of  loss  of 
vigor  or  stamina   in   the   animals. 

This  is  the  system  usually  followed 
where  milk  is  sold  to  the  creamery  for 
butter  and  cheese  production.  During 
the  dry  season  of  summer,  some  green 
fodder  may  be  fed  in  addition,  but 
this,  while  very  desirable,  is  rather 
the  exception  than  the  rule.  Silage  is 
quite  generally  put  up  for  winter  use. 
This  method  is  much  less  demanding  on 
the  time  of  the  farmer  than  the  soil- 
ing   system,    the    greater    part    of    the 


188 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


manure  is  returned  to  the  soil  and  the 
fertility  of  the  farm  well  maintained. 

This  method  of  farming  is  well  suited 
to  combining  with  hog  feeding  and 
poultry  raising,  since  the  skim  milk 
obtained  as  a  by-product  is  especially 
valuable  feed  for  both  hogs  and  poultry. 
If  the  reader  has  read  that  intensely 
interesting  book  called,  the  Fat  of  the 
Land  written  by  Streeter,  he  will  re- 
member that  butter  making,  combined 
with  hog  and  poultry  raising,  was  the 
combination  used  with  such  good  results. 
When  asked  by  the  dairymen  why  he  se- 
lected Holstein  instead  of  Jersey  cows, 
his  reply  was  that  they  were  greater  eat- 
ers, produced  a  larger  flow  of  milk  and 
more  manure.  These  are  points  not  al- 
ways considered  in  their  true  light  by 
the  live  stock  farmer. 


der  of  the  corn  fodder  is  shredded  for 
feed.  Milk,  butter  and  cream  are  sold. 
The  skim  milk  is  fed  to  hogs  and  about 
100  fat  hogs  are  sold  annually.  Net 
profits  on  this  farm  are  stated  to  be 
about  $8,000  per  year. 

The  pasture  system  of  dairy  farming 
can  be  much  more  profitably  carried 
out  on  a  large  farm  than  on  a  small  one 
and  on  higher  priced  land  than  is  re- 
quired for  other  kinds  of  stock.  The  great 
dairy  states  are  New  York,  Wisconsin, 
Iowa,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Michigan, 
Minnesota,   Texas  and  Missouri. 

The  dairy  industry,  while  not  greatly 
developed  in  the  southern  states,  is  par- 
ticulally  suited  to  southern  conditions, 
because  of  the  great  variety  of  feeds 
that  can  be  grown  and  the  long  growing 
season.     The    mild    climate    makes  ex- 


136 — RECEIVING  THE   MORNING   MILK   SUPPLY    IN   THE    CITY 


Pasture  system  illustrated — Prof. 
Spillman  in  a  recent  yearbook  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  gives  the 
pasturage  system  observed  on  the  dairy 
farm  of  Mr.  T.  E.  Ellison  of  Allen 
county,  Indiana.  The  farm  contains 
about  320  acres  and  all  the  crops  grown 
are  fed  and  considerable  additional 
feed  purchased.  One  hundred  and 
five  acres  of  the  farm  is  kept  in  blue 
grass  pasture.  Corn  is  grown  on  about 
170  acres  and  the  remainder  is  put  into 
oats,  clover,  alfalfa,  etc.  In  addition  to 
the  crops  grown,  50  to  60  tons  of  bran 
and  gluten  meal  are  fed  annually. 

About  100  head  of  registered  Jersey 
cows  and  about  75  head  of  young  stock 
are  kept.  No  breeding  stock  is  sold. 
The  heifer  calves  are  raised  on  skim 
milk,  clover  hay  and  pasture.  His  650 
ton  silo  is  filled  each  year  with  about 
50  acres  of  the  corn  crop.    The  remain- 


pensive  buildings  unnecessary.  Ice  is 
needed,  of  course,  in  butter  making, 
but  the  recent  investigations  of  Babcock 
and  Russell  have  shown  that  it  is  not 
at  all  necessary  for  cheese  making. 

SYSTEMS   OF   CATTLE   FARMING 

The  raising  of  cattle  for  beef  is  an  en- 
tirely different  proposition  from  dairy- 
ing. Under  ordinary  conditions,  cattle 
are  not  marketed  for  beef  until  two  or 
three  years  old.  During  this  time  it  is 
necessary  to  carry  them  over  at  least 
two  winters  at  a  considerable  expense 
for  feed  and  care.  On  high  priced  land, 
therefore,  it  requires  especial  skill  to 
raise  beef  cattle  profitably.  Prof.  Spill- 
man  states  that  "very  few  men  even  in 
the  great  live  stock  regions  of  the  middle 
west  are  able  to  make  large  profits  from 
the  production  of  beef." 

There  are  many  methods  of  producing 
beef.     In  the  dairy  sections  practically 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


189 


half  of  the  calves  are  born  males,  some 
of  these  are  sold  for  veal,  a  few  are  kept 
for  breeding  purposes  and  some  are 
grown  for  beef.  There  is  no  great  money, 
in  the  beef  thus  produced,  since  it  costs 
about  as  much  to  produce  it  as  it  will 
bring  in  the  market.  The  aim  here  is 
to  utilize  as  much  roughage  and  pasture- 
age  as  possible  in  the  growing  of  the 
stock  and  to  finally  finish  off  with  four 
to  six  months'  feeding  on  grain  and 
fodder. 

Range  cattle — Much  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  beef  cattle  produced  in  the 
United  States  is  grown  on  the  vast  west- 
ern ranges  which  extend  from  Texas 
northward  into  Canada.  In  this  region 
lie  thousands  of  square  miles  of  land 
fit  only  for  grazing  purposes.  On  this 
great  area  cattle  may  be  maintained  the 
year  around  with  little  other  expense  than 
the  cost  of  herding  and  shipping  to  mar- 
ket. A  few  years  ago,  the  range  cattle 
were  largely  represented  by  the  Texas 


Fig.    137 — THE       OUTCOME       OF      THE 

RANGE      CATTLE     BUSINESS      WHEN 

NO     ATTENTION     IS     GIVEN     TO 

FEED     OR     WATER 

steer  type,  but  recently  a  very  large  ele- 
ment of  the  improved  beef  breeds  has 
been  introduced,  until  today  the  western 
range  cattle  represent  on  the  average  a 
higher  grade  of  feeders  than  those  pro- 
duced in  the  sections  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. 

The  herds  maintained  on  these  ranges 
vary  from  a  few  hundred  to  60,000  in 
numbers  and  the  size  of  the  ranges  from 
a  few  thousand  to  1,000,000  acres.  Meth- 
ods of  ranging  have  changed  greatly 
within  recent  years.  At  the  present 
time  the  system  of  managing  cattle  on 
the  ranges  may  be  briefly  described  a3 
follows : 


Each  cattle  raiser  or  company,  pos- 
sesses an  area  of  grazing  land  upon  which 
alfalfa  and  other  forage  crops  are  raised 
for  winter  feeding.  During  the  graz- 
ing season,  cattle  are  left  for  the  most 
part  to  their  own  resources  in  securing 
forage,  but  as  a  rule  are  inspected  by 
cowboys  about  once  a  month  and  if 
found  upon  poor  grass  are  driven  to 
more  desirable  locations.  The  cattle 
range  over  wide  areas  and  are  rounded 
up  about  twice  a  year.  A  spring  round- 
up takes  place  between  April  and  June 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  At 
this  round-up  the  stock  is  counted  and 
the  calves  branded.  Each  calf  is  given 
the  brand  borne  by  its  mother.  The 
brands  of  each  owner  are  published  and 
are  well  known.  Each  owner  furnishes 
a  number  of  cowboys  for  the  general 
round-up  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
cattle  he  owns.  The  fall  round-up  us- 
ually takes  place  in  September  or  Octo- 
ber and  is  for  the  purpose  of  selecting 
animals  suitable  for  beef. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  cattle  under 
these  conditions  without  hay  for  winter 
feeding  is  from  $1.50  to  $2  a  year, 
while  with  winter  feeding  the  cost  va- 
ries from  $4  to  $10  a  head.  Owing 
to  the  gradual  withdrawing  of  the  better 
farming  lands  along  the  water  courses 
by  settlers  and  to  the  increasing  atten- 
tion given  to  sheep  farming,  the  great 
cattle  range  business  is  gradually  de- 
creasing. The  large  herds  are  being 
broken  up,  more  hay  is  being  grown 
and  more  alfalfa  feeding  done. 

Fattening  range  cattle — Under 
range  conditions  cattle  are  seldom  fat- 
tened for  market.  They  are  kept  on  the 
range  for  one  to  four  or  five  years  and 
then  shipped  east  to  be  fattened  in  the 
corn  belt.  In  the  corn  belt,  particularly 
in  the  states  of  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Kansas 
and  Missouri,  there  are  a  large  number 
of  farmers  and  companies  who  make  a 
special  business  of  fattening  range  cat- 
tle. In  addition  to  this,  thousands  are 
sent  to  the  great  central  markets  like 
Chicago,  and  reshipped  to  be  fed  on 
farms  all  over  the  corn  section.  The 
men  and  companies  who  form  the  back- 
bone of  the  beef  feeding  industry  are 
the  ones  who  own  and  operate  farms  in 
connection  with  their  feeding  operations 
and  grow  a  large  part  of  the  forage 
used. 

One  of  the  largest  companies  of  this 
kind  is  the  Standard  Cattle  Company 
of  Ames,  Nebraska.  This  company 
feeds  from  1,200  to  7,000  range  cattle 


190 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


every  year.  Many  of  them  are  grown  on 
the  company's  ranges  in  Montana,  but  a 
large  number  are  bought  for  feeding  in 
addition.  This  company  has  a  number 
of  farms  aggregating  several  thousand 
acres.  It  grows  a  large  part  of  the  corn 
and  forage  used  and  buys  enormous 
quantities  of  bran,  oil  meal  and  other 
grain  feeds. 

The  steers  fed  are  usually  at  least, 
four  years  old.  They  average  between 
900  and  1,000  pounds  in  weight,  when 
put  on  feed.  They  are  fed  from  five 
to  seven  months  and  average,  when  sold, 
between  1,100  and  1,300  pounds.  The 
grains  chiefly  fed  are  corn,  bran,  oats, 
and  oil  cake.  Corn  usually  constitutes 
from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  the  total 
grain    fed.       It    is    fed    ground.      The 


by  machinery.  No  summer  feeding  is 
practiced.  When  wheat  bran  is  bought 
at  a  cost  of  $7  to  $10  a  ton  it  is  made 
to  constitute  10  to  15  per  cent  of  the 
grain  ration. 

Beef  cattle  farms_The  corn  belt  is 
the  center  of  the  beef  cattle  farms  of 
the  country.  Usually  on  these  farms 
pure  bred  bulls  of  the  beef  type  are  used 
with  grade  cows  of  the  beef  type.  The 
stock  is  pastured  during  the  growing 
season  on  blue  grass  and  native  pas- 
tures and  fed  corn,  corn  fodder,  hay, 
bran,  oil  meal  or  cottonseed  meal  dur- 
ing the  fattening  period  which  usually 
covers  the  fall  and  winter  months. 

Even  on  these  beef  cattle  farms  it  is 
usual  to  save  the  cream  and  bring  the 
calves  up  on  skim  milk  rather  than  let 


. 

■■■    M*        ;^ 

v     *■-.         *V,,: 

J9S 

.'■-,-■■■:,  ■■■.'■/,■■  /-:  V, 

■.-,.'■  ■:-:•-..•  ••'"-  "  J^S 

r; 


-CATTLE  IX  FEED  LOTS.   MILLS  FARM 


amounts  fed  per  steer  during  the  fatten- 
ing period  vary  from  45  to  75  bushels  a 
head.  The  average  annual  cost  of  the  food 
for  11  years  was  about  $19  a  head  and  the 
labor  involved  in  feeding  $2.82  a  head. 
The  company  has  a  barn  682  feet  long, 
a  little  more  than  200  feet  wide,  with  a 
capacity  of  about  3,000  steers  at  one 
time.  It  is  arranged  so  that  each  steer 
can  have  a  separate  stall  and  is  sup- 
plied with  all  the  labor  saving  devices, 
like  carriers  for  hay,  etc.  Fresh  water 
is  kept  before  them  all  the  time  and 
the  manure  gutters  can  be  flushed  out 
into  the  river  near  by.  Much  the 
larger  portion  of  the  cattle  fed,  how- 
ever, is  fed  out  of  doors,  and  followed  by 
hogs.  About  150  head  are  considered 
enough  for  one  feed  lot.  The  entire 
corn  crop  is  harvested,  cut  and  shredded 


them  suck  the  cows,  as  is  done  on  the 
western  ranges.  As  a  rule  also,  addi- 
tional steers  are  bought  for  feeding. 
These  are  picked  up  in  the  surrounding 
country,  or  brought  in  from  the  large 
stock  centers.  The  majority  of  the  cat- 
tle thus  fed  are  range  cattle.  Home- 
grown beef  cattle  are  usually  marketed 
when  about  two  and  a  half  to  three 
years  old.  Range  steers  average  a  little 
older.  Farmers  buy  these  in  the  fall 
in  a  thin  condition,  feed  them  from  five 
to  six  months,  then  market. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  river  it  is 
seldom  that  any  special  precautions  are 
taken  to  save  the  manure.  Its  removal 
to  the  land  is  regarded  rather  as  an  ex- 
pense. Much  of  tbe  western  land  is 
still  so  fertile  that  the  need  of  manure 
is  not  felt  yet.    Whatever  of  profit  there 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


191 


is,>  therefore,  in  feeding,  must  be  con- 
sidered on  the  basis  of  the  market  value 
of  the  crop  and  the  price  of  beef.  If 
corn  and  hay  are  cheap,  feeders  low,  and 
finished  beef  high,  there  is  a  good  mar- 
gin of  profit. 

There  is  another  phase  also  that  must 
be  considered.  A  farmer  located  several 
miles  from  the  railroad  is  at  consider- 
able expense  to  haul  his  crops  to  mar- 
ket. If  he  feeds  his  crop  he  does  away 
with  the  expense  of  hauling  and  his  fat 
cattle  can  walk  to  market.  The  freight 
too,  on  the  carload  of  fat  cattle  is  con- 
siderably less  than  it  would  be  on  the 
five  or  six  carloads  of  feed  required  to 
produce  a  carload  of  cattle. 

There  are  thousands  of  farmers 
throughout  the  corn  belt  who  feed  from 


At  present  there  is  an  indication  that 
beef  production  will  constitute  a  grow- 
ing feature  of  both  eastern  and  south- 
ern agriculture.  In  building  up  the  ex- 
hausted soils  of  the  cotton  and  tobacco 
states,  stock  is  needed.  The  shipment  of 
feeders  from  the  West  to  the  eastern 
and  southern  states,  where  manure  is 
valued  by  each  cartload,  promises  satis- 
factory returns,  even  where  nothing  is 
made  on  the  beef,  if  the  manure  is  ob- 
tained at  a  clear  profit.  The  millions 
of  dollars  annually  spent  for  factory 
fertilizers  could,  in  a  large  measure,  be 
saved  to  the  farmer  by  a  carefully 
planned  system  of  stock  feeding. 

Baby  beef  farming—The  relatively 
long  time  required  by  cattle  to  reach 
marketable  size  has  led  to  the  develop- 


ing. 139 — TRACTION  ENGINE  FOR  USE  ON  LARGE  RANCHES 


one  to  10  carloads  of  beef  cattle 
throughout  the  winter,  using  their  own 
home  grain  and  buying  grain  in  addi- 
tion. 

1  There  are  also  many  feeders  located 
near  the  large  cities  who  buy  both  feed 
and  cattle.  This  was  once  a  highly 
developed  industry  about  Minneapolis 
and  St.  Paul,  and  other  northwestern 
cities,  where  mill  screenings  were  abun- 
dant and  cheap.  This  industry  has 
declined  lately,  owing  to  the  increased 
cost  of  the  screenings.  Where  all  the 
feed  is  bought,  the  profit  in  the  busi- 
ness lies  in  adding  250  to  300  pounds 
to  the  weight  of  the  animals  and  sell- 
ing the  whole  animal  at  a  slight  ad- 
vance on  the  cost.  When  fee-Is  are  low 
and  beef  high,  there  is  a  profit,  but  this 
is  more  or  less  speculative  farming. 


ment  of  a  system  of  forced  feeding  for 
the  production  of  what  is  known  as 
baby  beef.  By  this  system  it  is  planned 
to  have  the  calves  dropped  in  the  fall. 
They  are  taught  to  eat  grain  at  as  early 
an  age  as  possible  and  given  the  best 
hay.  The  following  spring  they  are 
turned  out  to  pasture  and  the  grain 
ration  still  kept  up.  By  fall  they  are 
ready  to  put  in  the  feeding  pen  and 
forced  on  grain,  hay  and  silage,  and 
marketed  after  about  six  months'  feed- 
ing, or  when  from  14  to  18  months  old. 
This  method  of  feeding  is  successful 
only  with  the  better  beef  grade  stock. 
Scrubs  mature  too  slowly  for  forcing. 
This  system  takes  advantage  of  the  fact 
that  much  less  food  is  reqidred  to  pro- 
duce a  pound  of  gain  during  the  grow- 
ing period  of  the   animal  than  at  any 


192 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


later  period.  By  this  method  of  feed- 
ing, money  is  turned  over  twice  as  fast 
as  by  the  normal  method  of  feeding  and 
the  profits  are  considerably  greater. 
Heifer  calves  can  also  be  forced  in  the 
same  manner  as  steers. 

HORSE  FARMING 

While  horses  are  used  all  over  the 
country,  the  states  most  largely  engaged 
in  raising  horses  for  market  are  the  corn 
belt  and  western  states.  The  important 
centers  for  the  horse  trade  are  Chicago, 
Omaha  and  Kansas  City.  Most  of  the 
pure  bred  horses  are  produced  east  of 
tbe  Mississippi  river,  but  much  the 
larger  part  of  the  grade  market  horses 
are  grown  on  the  ranges  of  the  West,  and 
the  basis  of  the  western  horse  industry  is 
the  native  range  horse. 

The  range  horses  trace  back  in  their 
origin  to  a  small  breed  of  animals 
known  as  mustangs,  which  escaped  from 
the  early  Spanish  settlers  of  the  South- 
west. "With  tbe  advent  of  eastern  set- 
lers  many  horses  of  larger  and  better 
breeds  escaped  and  served  to  modify  to 
some  extent  the  character  of  the  early 
Spanish  horses.  These  breeds,  thus  de- 
veloped in  wild  and  semi-wild  condi- 
tions are  known  in  different  localities 
as  cayuse,  bronchos,  mustang  and 
Indian  ponies.  At  the  present  time 
these  breeds  are  being  greatly  improved 
by  the  use  of  pure  bred  sires  of  practi- 
cally all  the  different  prominent  breeds 
of  horses. 

Under  range  conditions  horses  can 
take  care  of  themselves  better  than  cat- 
tle, especially  in  winter  time,  since  they 
are  able  to  paw  away  the  snow  to  the 
grass  underneath.  The  improved  siren 
are  not  allowed  to  run  wild  with  the 
herd,  but  are  kept  stabled-  or  pastured 
and  the  mares  rounded  up  twice  a  year 
for  breeding  purposes.  In  some  states, 
laws  have  been  passed  prohibiting  the 
running  at  large  of  native  wild  sires. 
The  horses  thus  grown  are  brought  east 
and  sold  in  great  numbers  for  all  the 
various  purposes  for  which  horses  are 
used. 

Farm  horse  breeding—Farmers  all 
over  the  country  when  they  own  good 
brood  mares  raise  one  or  more  colts 
nearly  every  season,  and  many  men  now 
make  a  special  business  of  breeding 
horses  for  market.  Colts  are  marketed 
when  four  to  five  years  old,  after  first 
breaking  to  work  in  harness.  It  costs 
but  little  more  to  grow  a  horse  to  ma- 


turity than  to  grow  a  steer  and  the 
horse  usually  sells  for  four  to  six  times 
as  much.  Where  a  farmer  has  only  a 
few  mares  he  must  depend  largely  on 
such  service  as  the  community  affords. 
As  a  result  of  this  he  seldom  produces 
a  high-priced  market  horse.  Where  a 
man  has  sufficient  mares  to  warrant 
keeping  a  pure  bred  sire,  he  can  pro- 
duce a  definite  market  class  of  horses 
and  can,  moreover,  match  them  to  bet- 
ter advantage. 

Mule  growing  is  confined  quite 
largely  to  the  corn  belt  and  southern 
states.  The  mule  is  produced  by  cross- 
ing the  male  ass  or  jack  on  mares  and 
the  business  is  carried  on  under  practi- 
cally the  same  conditions  as  horse  breed- 
ing. (See  Chapter  on  Horses  and 
Mules.) 

SHEEP  FARMING 

In  nearly  every  state  the  general 
farmer  maintains  a  small  flock  of  sheep 
as  a  part  of  the  stock  of  the  farm.  Sheep 
are  the  farm  scavengers.  They  keep 
down  the  weeds  and  pick  up  a  living  in 
the  wood  lot  and  the  rough  lands  that 
cannot  be  plowed.  In  winter  they  eat  up 
the  oat  and  bean  straw  and  a  portion  of 
the  corn  fodder  and  cheaper  feeds.  They 
supply  both  a  crop  of  wool  and  a  crop 
of  lambs  and,  under  general  farm  con- 
ditions, pay  as  well  as  any  stock  on  the 
farm. 

Sheep  are  most  extensively  raised  in 
the  northern  and  western  states.  Owing 
to  dogs  and  various  diseases  they  are 
less  grown  in  the  South.  A  good  many 
farmers  devote  their  whole  attention  to 
sheep,  the  sheep  being  grown  for  both 
wool  and  mutton. 

Illustration  of  sheep  farming — One 
of  the  well-known  eastern  sheep  farms 
is  that  of  Joseph  E.  Wing  in  Ohio.  The 
farm  consists  of  260  acres.  About  75 
registered  Dorsets  are  maintained  on  the 
farm  and  in  addition  700  to  1000  west- 
ern range  lambs  are  fed  each  winter. 
The  lambs  when  bought,  average  40  to 
55  pounds  in  weight  each.  They  are 
fed  about  four  months  at  the  end  of 
which  time  they  weigh  from  70  to  95 
pounds.  The  principal  crops  grown  on 
this  farm  are  alfalfa,  corn  and  beardless 
barley.  Alfalfa  is  the  crop  of  first  im- 
portance. The  home  flock  is  pastured 
on  alfalfa,  and  alfalfa  hay  is  fed  to  all 
sheep  in  winter.  From  1,000  to  4,000 
bushels  of  corn  are  bought  in  addition. 

The  lambs  are  fed  not  quite  all  the 
corn  they  will  eat  up  clean.     In  winter 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


193 


feeding  they  are  kept  in  a  single  barn 
without  partitions.  Twice  daily  the  fat- 
tening lambs  are  turned  out  for  a  half 
hour,  while  the  feed  racks  are  being 
filled  with  hay.  They  are  kept  in  the 
rest  of  the  time  to  save  the  manure, 
which  is  necessary  for  successful  crop 
production  on  the  farm.  The  manure 
is  used  on  the  corn  land  and  as  a  thin 
top-dressing  for  meadows  and  pastures. 
The  barn  is  arranged  so  that  plenty  of 
fresh  air  is  available  all  the  time.  The 
labor  bill  amounts  to  about  $1,500  an- 
nually and  the  net  profits  about  $2,500. 
With  sheep  as  with  cattle,  thousands 
of  head  are  annually  fattened  by  farm- 
ers throughout  the  corn  belt  for  market. 
While  many  of  the  lambs  may  be  bought 
in  tbe  neighborhood,  the  bulk  are  from 
the  western  ranges. 


son  and  fattened  with  corn  in  the  fall. 
Clover,  alfalfa  and  blue  grass  pastures 
furnish  ideal  conditions  for  the  summer 
range  of  the  hog.  The  gains  on  pasture 
alone  are  slow  and  on  business  farms 
some  grain  or  other  feed  is  supplied  in 
addition. 

In  the  western  tier  of  corn  belt  states, 
alfalfa  and  sorghum  are  extensively 
grown  as  a  forage  crop  for  hogs.  In 
many  northern  states  and  Canada,  rape, 
clover,  peas  and  oats  are  the  special 
crops  grown  to  provide  hogs  with  pas- 
ture. In  the  South,  cowpeas,  peanuts, 
sorghum  and  Bermuda  grass  furnish 
unsurpassed  pastures  for  hogs.  Good 
brood  sows  will  produce  from  five  to 
10  pigs  each  litter  and  have  two  litters 
a  year.  With  good  pasture  and  grain 
feeding,  pigs  are  ready  for  market  when 


Fiff.  140 — DRY,  CLEAN  FEED  LOT,  ILLINOIS  EXPERIMENT    STATION 


Sheep  ranching  in  the  West  and  the 
fattening  of  western  sheep  are  consid- 
ered in  detail  in  the  chapter  on  sheep. 

SWINE  FARMING 

Tbe  hog  is  grown  more  generally 
throughout  the  country  than  any  other 
farm  animal.  Even  a  man  with  only  a 
small  village  lot  frequently  keeps  a  pig 
or  two  to  eat  up  the  household  waste. 
Nc  other  farm  animal  makes  such  good 
use  of  its  food  in  the  production  of  meat 
as  the  hog.  He  is  an  omnivorous  eater. 
His  ration  may  consist  of  kitchen  slop, 
farm  grains,  hay,  pasture,  roots,  fruits, 
nuts,  meat,  milk,  fish — everything.  He 
is  a  benediction  to  the  poor  man  and 
swells  the  bank  account  of  the  rich.  Un- 
der general  farm  conditions,  hogs  are 
kept  on  pasture  during  the  growing  sea- 


nine  to  12  months  old  and  at  that  time 
will  weigh  from  200  to  300  pounds  each. 
When  properly  managed,  there  is  more 
money  in  hogs  from  the  meat  stand- 
point, than  from  any  other  farm  animal. 
Swine  producing  states — The  states 
which  supply  the  bulk  of  hogs  for  the 
packing  houses  are  known  as  the  surplus 
corn  states.  These  states  are  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Wisconsin, 
Nebraska,  Ohio,  Indiana.  So  much 
corn  is  grown  in  these  states  that  it  is 
cheaper  to  send  the  surplus  to  market 
in  the  form  of  pork  than  in  its  original 
bulky  condition.  Berkshire  and  Poland- 
China  are  the  favorite  breeds.  The 
system  of  growing  is  simple.  As  soon 
as  spring  pasture  is  suitable,  pigs  are 
turned  on  pasture  and  given  a  little 
grain  each  day.     As  soon  as  the  corn 


194 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


matures  in  the  fall,  "which  is  usually  in 
early  September,  the  pigs  which  at  the 
age  of  six  months  have  become  hogs, 
are  fed  all  the  corn  they  can  consume 
without  waste.  In  addition  they  are 
given  all  the  pure  water  and  ashes  they 
need.  Within  three  or  four  months  on 
this  feeding  they  are  ready  for  market. 
Swine  and  cattle  farming  go  well 
together  since  in  the  case  of  fattening 
beef  animals  on  corn  about  one  shote  is 
put  in  the  lot  after  each  steer,  and  picks 
up  a  large  portion  of  his  living  from 
the  droppings.  On  dairy  farms  also 
hogs  form  a  valuable,  adjunct  in  con- 
suming the  surplus  skim  milk.  While 
all  other  grains  and  mill  products  are 
fed  to  hogs  more  or  less  extensively, 
corn  is  the  principal  grain  ration  used 
in  America. 

GOAT  FARMING 

Angora  goats  are  grown  under  west- 
ern range  conditions  to  the  extent  of 
nearly  300,000  head.  Small  flocks  are 
also  scattered  throughout  all  the  states. 
These  goats  furnish  mohair,  meat  and 
skins.  Under  range  conditions  they  are 
handled  in  practically  the  same  manner 
as  sheep.  On  eastern  farms  they  are 
used  in  small  numbers  as  brush  destroy- 
ers. When  confined  in  sufficient  num- 
bers on  brush  land,  they  soon  gnaw  and 
strip  off  the  bark  and  browse  on  the 
leaves  to  the  entire  destruction  of  the 
brush.  This  land  is  easily  cleared  then 
for  agricultural  purposes,  after  which 
they  are  not  as  profitable  in  general 
farming  as  sheep. 

Goats  are  not  as  good  mothers  as 
sheep  and  provision  must  be  made  for 
caring  for  the  kids  during  the  early 
stages  of  growth  while  the  does  are  out 
feeding.  Goats  defend  themselves 
against  animals,  as  dogs,  much  more 
effectually  than  sheep. 

Milch  goats  are  kept  in  small  num- 
bers in  cities  and  towns,  principally  by 
foreigners.  They  are  not  yet  present  in 
sufficient  numbers  to  be  considered  from 
the  standpoint  of  American  systems  of 
farming. 

POULTRY    FARMING 

The  raising  of  poultry — chickens, 
turkeys,  ducks,  geese,  etc.,  may  be  car- 
ried on  successfully  anywhere  in  the 
United  States.  Poultry  farming  is  a 
kind  of  farming  well  adapted  to  men 
with  small  means  and,  when  given  rea- 
attention,    affords    satisfactory 


profits.  It  is  light  work  and  is  suc- 
cessfully carried  on  by  women. 

While  probably  95  per  cent  of  the 
poultry  grown  in  the  country  is  pro- 
duced on  farms  and  by  the  old  method 
of  letting  the  mother  bird  hatch  out  the 
eggs,  there  are  many  large  poultry 
farms  in  which  practically  all  the  eggs 
are  hatched  out  in  incubators  and  the 
chicks  raised  in  brooders. 

Under  general  farm  conditions  the 
eggs  are  hatched  under  the  mother  birds. 
The  flock  is  fed  grain  in  winter  and  a 
small  amount  in  summer,  and  allowed, 
for  the  most  part,  to  run  at  large  and 
pick  up  a  living  on  pasture,  insects  and 
in  the  grain  fields  and  about  the  barn. 

By  this  method  most  of  the  eggs  are 
produced  in  spring  and  early  summer 
when  the  price  is  lowest.  It  is  at  this 
time  that  the  cold  storage  egg  man 
lays  in  his  supply  of  cheap  eggs  to  be 
kept  three  to  nine  months  and  sold  when 
the  farmer's  hens  are  not  laying  and 
prices  are  higher.  Many  eggs  at  this 
time  are  also  packed  in  lime  water,  or 
in  water-glass  and  kept  for  three  or  four 
months,  which  is  a  very  satisfactory 
way  of  prolonging  the  natural  egg  sea- 
son. 

Eggs  and  broilers—Near  the  larger 
markets  there  is  considerable  demand 
for  absolutely  fresh  eggs  and  for  broil- 
ers. These  demands  have  called  into 
existence  many  large  poultry  plants  in 
which  practically  all  eggs  are  hatched 
in  incubators,  and  the  chicks  reared  in 
brooders.  Especial  effort  is  made  to 
secure  eggs  in  winter  when  prices  are 
highest.  Chicks  are,  therefore,  hatched 
eary  in  spring.  March  hatched  chicks 
will  usually  begin  to  lay  in  October  and 
early  November.  The  feed  is  the  great 
factor  on  these  farms  and  is  made  up 
of  meat  scraps,  grain,  grit,  green  food, 
pasture  or  grass  range,  skim  milk,  etc. 

As  about  half  the  hatch  is  likely  to 
be  cockerels  many  raisers  caponize  them 
and  get  a  little  better  price  for  the 
caponized  birds.  The  aim  is  to  keep 
only  one  and  two-year-old  hens  for  eggs 
and  to  have  them  molt  in  July  and 
August,  in  order  to  be  in  good  egg  lay- 
ing condition  by  November,  when  the 
farmer's  hens  have  stopped  for  the 
winter. 

Details  of  the  different  methods  for 
handling  each  kind  of  poultry  will  be 
found  in  the  chapter  on  poultry. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


195 


LIVE   STOCK    ORGANIZATIONS,    IN- 
STITUTIONS AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

In  this  section  we  purpose  to  bring 
together  and  briefly  describe  all  the 
various  agencies  and  factors  that  are 
working  together  to  foster  and  improve 
the  live  stock  industry  of  the  country. 
Such  a  discussion  will  necessarily  take 
into  account  the  work  of  the  state  and 
United  States  governments,  the  experi- 
ment stations  and  agricultural  colleges, 
the  national,  state  and  county  live 
stock  associations,  the  yearly  fairs  and 
expositions  and  the  agricultural  journals 
of   the   country. 

Live  stock  work  in  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture — One  of  the 
most  far-reaching  agencies  in  the  pro- 
tection and  promotion  of  the  live  stock 
industry  of  the  country  is  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  At 
the  present  time  this  department  is  de- 
voting the  greater  share  of  its  energies 
to  this  industry.  The  division  imme- 
diately concerned  with  the  live  stock 
interests  is  known  as  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry.  This  bureau  is 
charged  with  the  enforcement  of  the 
laws  relative  to  the  exportation  and 
importation  of  live  stock  to  and  from 
foreign  countries. 

America  still  looks  to  England,  Scot- 
land and  some  other  foreign  countries 
for  much  of  its  blooded  stock.  Under 
the  laws  of  the  United  States,  pure 
blooded  stock  which  is  registered  in  the 
countries  from  which  it  comes,  may  en- 
ter the  United  States  free  of  import  du- 
ties if  imported  for  breeding  purposes. 
The  importer  must  first  secure  a  permit 
from  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  If  the  animals  come  from 
countries  in  which  contagious  diseases 
are  prevalent,  they  may  be  prohibited 
from  entrance  altogether,  or  may  be  kept 
in  quarantine  for  90  days  before  they 
are  allowed  to  be  shipped  to  interior 
points. 

The  law  on  this  subject  reads  as  fol- 
lows :  Any  animal  imported  by  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States  specially  for  breed- 
ing purposes  shall  be  admitted  free, 
whether  intended  to  be  so  used  by  the 
importer  himself  or  for  sale  for  such 
purpose:  Provided,  That  no  such  ani- 
mal shall  be  admitted  free  unless  pure 
bred  of  a  recognized  breed,  and  duly 
registered  in  the  books  of  record  estab- 
lished for  that  breed:  And  provided 
further,  That  certificate  of  such  record 
and  of  the  pedigree  of  such  animal  shall 


be  produced  and  submitted  to  the  cus- 
toms officer,  duly  authenticated  by  the 
proper  custodian  of  such  book  of  record, 
together  with  the  affidavit  of  the  owner, 
agent,  or  importer  that  such  animal  is 
the  identical  animal  described  in  said 
certificate  of  record  and  pedigree:  And 
provided  further,  That  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  shall  determine  and  certify 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  what  are 
recognized  breeds  and  pure  bred  animals 
under  the  provisions  of  this  paragraph. 
Cattle,  horses,  sheep,  or  other  domestic 
animals  straying  across  the  boundary 
line  into  any  foreign  country,  or  driven 
across  such  boundary  line  by  the  owner 
for  temporary  pasturage  purposes  only, 
together  with  their  offspring,  may  be 
brought  back  to  the  United  States 
within  six  months  free  of  duty. 

Best  known  work  of  bureau  of  ani- 
mal industry — The  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  is  perhaps,  best  known  to  stock 
men  fr,om  a  veterinary  standpoint. 
Through  the  work  of  this  bureau 
pleuro-pneumonia,  which  a  few  years 
ago  was  a  dreaded  contagious  disease  of 
cattle  that  had  become  established  in  a 
number  of  eastern  and  central  states, 
and  threatened  the  cattle  industry  of 
the  whole  country,  has  been  entirely 
wiped  out  of  the  country.  The  disease 
known  as  Texas  fever,  once  so  myste- 
rious and  little  known  as  to  inspire 
terror  wherever  southern  cattle  were 
taken,  has  been  brought  under  control 
by  the  establishment  of  a  quarantine 
line  which  limits  it  to  the  southern 
states.  The  investigation  of  the  bureau 
has  clearly  indicated  the  character  and 
cause  of  the  disease  and  that  it  is  also 
possible  to  eliminate  it  entirely  from 
the  country. 

The  stamping  out  of  the  foot  and 
mouth  disease  of  cattle,  which  recently 
obtained  a  foothold  in  the  New  Eng- 
land states,  is  still  fresh  in  mind.  At 
the  present  time  the  bureau  is  busily 
engaged  in  eradicating  sheep  and  cattle 
scab  from  the  western  states.  Entire 
states  have  been  freed  from  this  disease 
through  its  efforts  and  the  work  is  going 
rapidly  forward  in  others.  Blackleg  of 
cattle  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the 
free  distribution  of  more  than  a  mil- 
lion doses  of  vaccine  yearly. 

It  is  the  stamp  of  this  bureau  also 
which  admits  our  meat  products  to 
European  countries.  The  large  packing 
houses  which  ship  millions  of  pounds  of 
dressed  meat  to  Europe  yearly  would 
scarce  find   market   for   a   single  pound 


196 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


were  their  meat  not  inspected  by  the 
government,  and  thus  assurance  given 
that  it  has  been  inspected  by  competent 
men  and  found  to  be  free  from  disease, 
cleanly  prepared  and  properly  labeled. 

Division  of  dairying — An  important 
division  of  the  Bureau  is  the  Division  of 
Dairying,  the  object  of  which  is  to  "col- 
lect and  disseminate  information  con- 
cerning dairy  farming,  the  care  and  im- 
provement of  dairy  cattle,  and  the  pro- 
duction, care  and  distribution  of  dairy 
products."  Especial  attention  is  given  to 
dairy  organizations,  dairy  schools,  the 
organization  and  management  of  cream- 
eries and  factories,  the  milk  supply  of 
cities  and  towns,  and  the  laws  relative 
thereto.  The  Division  Architect  prepares 
plans  and  technical  advice  for  the  con- 
struction of  sanitary  and  economical 
dairy  buildings.  The  manufacture  of 
butter  and  the  different  kinds  of  home 
and  foreign  cheeses  are  also  studied. 

The  work  broadening  in  scope — 
While  the  work  of  the  Bureau  hereto- 
fore has  been  chiefly  concerned  in  safe- 
guarding the  health  of  American  live 
stock,  it  is  each  year  broadening  the 
scope  of  its  activities.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  undertaking,  in  co-operation 
with  the  Colorado  experiment  station, 
to  originate  an  American  breed  of  car- 
riage horses,  based  upon  American  stock. 
Extensive  investigations  are  also  being 
made,  in  co-operation  with  the  Pennsyl- 
vania station,  to  ascertain  the  funda- 
mental principles  in  the  feeding  of  farm 
animals. 

In  this  work  the  actual  feeding  values 
of  different  crops  is  being  determined. 
Amounts  are  fed  in  an  expensive  piece 
of  apparatus  so  delicately  constructed 
that  the  energy  expended  in  chewing 
and  digesting  the  food  can  be  accurately 
measured.  This  work,  though  slow  and 
expensive,  should  in  time  give  us  ac- 
curate feeding  standards,  in  place  of 
the  very  unsatisfactory  standards  in  use 
at  the  present  time.  Poultry  breeding 
experiments  in  co-operation  with  the 
Maine  station,  and  beef  breeding  and 
feeding  experiments  in  co-operation 
with  the  Alabama  stations,  are  also  being 
carried  on. 

Bureau  of  plant  industry — Co-oper- 
ating with  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  is  another  division  of  the  de- 
partment, known  as  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry.  This  bureau,  among 
many  other  activities,  investigates  the 
best  method  of  culture,  harvesting  and 
curing    of    crops    for    the    use    of  farm 


animals.  One  branch  is  studying  range 
problems,  the  best  methods  of  maintain- 
ing them  in  their  highest  state  of  effi- 
ciency, improvement  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  better  forage  plants,  etc.  Studies 
are  made  of  the  plants  poisonous  to  live 
stock,  and  efforts  made  to  find  method 
whereby  their  injurious  effects  may  be 
corrected.  One  division  is  studying  sys- 
tems of  farm  management;  the  purpose 
of  which  is  to  learn  the  methods  of  the 
most  successful  stock  farmers  and  make 
these  methods  available  to  all  stockmen. 
This  division  also  plans  cropping  sys- 
tems for  farms  in  every  section  of  the 
country,  giving  in  detail  the  best  method 
of  laying  out  and  cropping  the  farm  and 
the  number  and  kind  of  animals  it  can 
carry  most  profitably. 

In  plant  breeding  work,  the  effort  is 
being  made  to  secure  varieties  of  corn 
richer  in  protein  and,  therefore,  more 
satisfactory  as  a  balanced  ration  for 
feeding,  and  heavier  yielding  varieties 
of  corn,  oats  and  other  grains.  The  world 
is  being  searched  for  better  forage  plants 
and  grains  than  we  now  have. 

The  bureau  of  entomology  of  the 
department,  has  made  exhaustive  studies 
of  the  insects  which  prey  upon  farm  an- 
imals, and  which  not  only  make  life  a 
burden  to  the  animals  themselves  and 
stunt  their  growth,  but  also  carry  con- 
tagious diseases.  Through  the  work  of 
this  Bureau,  stockmen  know  how  to  con- 
trol practically  all  of  the  more  serious 
vermin  affecting  stock. 

The  forest  service  controls  the  for- 
est reserves  of  the  United  States,  now 
amounting  to  over  126  million  acres. 
In  the  West  the  forest  reserves  are 
extensively  used  for  grazing  purposes. 
The  regulations  of  the  service  are  such 
as  to  maintain  the  reserves  in  the  high- 
est state  of  efficiency  for  both  forestry 
and  grazing.  The  work  of  the  Biolog- 
ical Survey  of  the  Department  and  of 
the  Fish  Commission  in  the  relations  to 
the  stock  farmer  are  considered  in  Part 
XII. 

Division  of  publications — Last  but 
not  least  may  be  mentioned  the  Division 
of  Publications  of  the  Department.  In 
this  division  are  published  the  results 
of  experimental  work  in  the  department 
Avith  both  animals  and  plants.  Man\? 
of  the  publications  issued  are  of  a  sci- 
entific nature  and  have  only  a  limited 
distribution;  but  much  the  larger  num- 
ber are  popular  and  of  direct  interest 
to  farmers. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


197 


Experiment  stations — These  are  state 
institutions  which  conduct  research 
work  in  agriculture.  There  is  at  least 
one  in  every  state  and  territory  of  the 
Union  as  well  as  in  Alaska,  Hawaii 
and  Porto  Rico.  By  the  Congressional 
act  of  1887  each  state  and  territory 
receives  $15,000  from  the  United  States 
government  toward  the  support  of  these 
stations.  In  1906  this  was  increased  to 
$30,000  for  each  state  and  territory 
within  the  United  States.  In  addition 
to  this,  many  of  the  states  contribute 
large  amounts  to  the  support  of  the  ex- 
periment   stations.      The    progress    that 


stations  also  act  as  a  bureau  of  informa- 
tion for  farmers  on  all  farm  problems 
and  generally  furnish  the  principal 
speakers  at  the  farmers'  institutes.  Us- 
ually the  stations  are  attached  to  and 
form  a  part  of  the  agricultural  col- 
leges, though  many  states  have  substa- 
tions located  in  different  sections  to 
study  local  problems. 

Every  live  stock  man  should  know  the 
workers  in  his  own  state  experiment 
station  and  receive  their  bulletins  and 
reports.  Below  is  given  the  location  of 
the  central  experiment  stations  in  each 
state  and  territory.     In  sending  for  pub- 


•,■ ' 


ma 


Fig.  Ill — STUDENTS  LEARNING  BUTTER  MAKING!  AT  THE  PENNSYLVANIA  AGRICUL- 
TURAL COLLEGE 


has  been  made  in  recent  years  in  agricul- 
tural knowledge  and  teaching  is  due  in 
large  measure  to  the  investigations  of 
the  stations. 

The  investigations  of  the  stations 
cover  the  whole  field  of  agriculture.  In 
animal  industry  especial  attention  has 
been  given  to  dairying  and  to  the  feeding 
of  animals.  This  whole  book  is  based 
primarily  on  the  findings  of  the  exper- 
iment stations  and  references  to  them 
will  be  found  on  practically  every  page 
of  the  special  chapters  dealing  with  ani- 
mals. The  stations  publish  the  results 
of  their  investigations  in  the  form  of 
bulletins  and  reports,  which  are  sent 
free   to    farmers   for   the    asking.      The 


lications     of     information     address     as 
follows : 

Director  Experiment  Station, 

(Place)  

(State)    


LIST    OF    STATE    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS 

Alabama — College     Station,    Auburn  ; 
Canebrake    Station,   Uniontown;    Tus- 

kegee  Station,  Tuskegee. 
Alaska — Sitka. 
Arizona — Tucson. 
Arkansas — Fayetteville. 
California — Berkeley. 
Colorado — Fort  Collins. 
Connecticut — State        Station,       New 

Haven;  Storrs  Station,  Storrs. 


198 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Delaware — Newark. 

Florida — Lake  City. 

Georgia — Experiment. 

Hawaii — Federal  Station,  Honolulu; 
Sugar  Planters'  Station,  Honolulu. 

Idaho — Moscow. 

Illinois — Urbana. 

Indiana — Lafayette. 

Iowa — Ames. 

Kansas — Manhattan. 

Kentucky — Lexington. 

Louisiana — State  Station,  Baton 
Rouge;  Sugar  Station,  Audubon 
Park,  New  Orleans;  North  Louis- 
iana   Station,   Calhoun. 

Maine — Orono. 

Maryland — College  Park. 


Oklahoma — Stillwater. 

Oregon — Corvallis. 

Pennsylvania — State  College. 

Porto  Rico— Mayaguez. 

Rhode  Island — Kingston. 

South  Carolina — Clemson  College. 

South  Dakota — Brookings. 

Tennessee — Knoxville. 

Texas — College  Station. 

Utah — Logan. 

Vermont — Burlington. 

Virginia — Blacksburg. 

Washington — Pullman. 

West  Virginia — Morgantown. 

Wisconsin — Madison. 

Wyoming — Laramie. 


Fig.  142— €LAS 


OF   FARMKRK   STI  DYINC   SHF.KI'  JULKJINC! 


Massachusetts — Amherst. 

Michigan — Agricultural    College. 

Minnesota — St.     Anthony     Park,     St. 

Paul. 

Mississippi — Agricultural    College. 

Missouri — College   Station,   Columbia 

Fruit  Station,  Mountain  Grove. 

Montana — Bozeman. 

Nebraska — Lincoln. 

Nevada — Reno. 

New  Hampshire — Durham. 

New  Jersey — New  Brunswick. 

New  Mexico — Mesilla   Park. 

New    York — State    Station,    Geneva; 

Cornell  Station,  Ithaca. 
North    Carolina — Raleigh. 
North    Dakota — Agricultural    College. 
Ohio — Wooster. 


Agricultural  colleges — The  agricul- 
tural college  is  the  live  stock  man's  col- 
lege. There  is  one  in  every  state  and 
territory  in  the  United  States.  They 
are  state  institutions,  endowed  by  the 
United  States  government  with  $50,000 
each  year,  the  income  from  certain  ex- 
tensive land  grants,  and  appropriations 
made  by  the  states,  amounting  in  all  to 
more  than  $3,000,000  annually.  The  exper- 
iment stations  and  agricultural  colleges 
are  usually  located  at  the  same  place. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  stations  to  in- 
vestigate the  principles  and  laws  under- 
lying agricultural  operations.  The  col- 
leges formulate  these  principles  and 
laws  into  pedagogic  form  and  teach 
them.     The  man  who  wants  to  learn  the 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


199 


live  stock  business  these  days  goes  to  an 
agricultural  college  to  get  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  business. 

College  courses — Nearly  all  of  these 
colleges  have  a  strong  animal  husbandry 
department  which  gives  special  instruc- 
tion in  the  different  phases  of  animal 
industry.  Students  study  the  anatomy, 
physiology  and  diseases  of  animals,  an- 
imal breeding  and  management,  the 
feeding  and  judging  of  stock  in  the  show 
ring,  dairying,  butter  and  cheese  making, 
blacksmithing,  construction  of  farm 
buildings,  growing  of  crops,  etc.  No  tu- 
ition is  charged. 

The  full  course  at  these  colleges  usu- 
ally covers  four  years  and  leads  to  the 
degree    of    Bachelor    of    Science,   but    a 


Practical  nature  of  college  work — ■ 
At  each  college  samples  of  all  the  various 
breeds  of  stock  are  usually  kept  for  the 
information  and  instruction  of  students, 
and  the  students  are  taken  on  excur- 
sions during  the  course  to  inspect  the 
barns,  stock  and  methods  of  management 
observed  by  the  best  stock  growers 
throughout  the  states.  In  addition, 
students  are  taught  to  feed  stock  and 
prepare  them  for  the  market  through 
all  the  stages  of  early  feeding  to  the  fi- 
nal slaughtering  and  cutting  up  of  the 
meats.  In  recent  years  also  the  colleges 
have  taken  part  and  made  exhibits  at 
the  state  and  international  fairs.  The 
students  of  different  institutions  also 
meet  in  competition  at  these  fairs  and 


Fig.    143 SHORT   COURSE   STUDENTS    STUDYING   STOCK    JUDGING    AT    THE    PENN- 
SYLVANIA   AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE 


number  of  institutions  provide  short  win- 
ter courses  giving  special  instruction  in 
such  subjects  as  dairying,  live  stock  feed- 
ing, butter  and  cheese  making,  first  aid 
to  animals,  etc.  These  courses  are 
from  three  to  six  weeks  long  and  are  de- 
signed for  the  boys  on  the  farm  who  are 
not  able  to  take  the  complete  course  at 
the  college.  Some  colleges  give  two  or 
three  year  courses. 

In  some  states  where  the  live  stock  in- 
terests are  not  extensive,  the  animal  hus- 
bandry department  of  the  college  is  not 
well  developed.  Among  the  states  hav- 
ing the  strongest  courses  in  animal 
husbandry  are  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Michi- 
gan, Illinois,  Ohio,  Indiana,  New  York, 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  Missouri,  Minnesota, 
and  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  at 
Guelph,  Canada, 


expositions  in  judging  according  to  a 
scale  of  points  the  excellencies  of  the 
various  animals.  The  professors  of  an- 
imal industry  of  the  various  institutions 
are  in  great  demand  as  expert  judges  at 
live  stock  shows. 

This  outline  will  serve  to  indicate 
the  intensely  practical  character  of  the 
work  carried  on  at  these  colleges  and  to 
show  that  the  original  purpose  for 
which  they  were  created  is  being  ful- 
filled in  overflowing  measure.  During 
the  past  15  years  the  work  of  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  and  experiment  stations 
has  served  to  place  American  agricul- 
ture on  a  higher  plane  than  it  has  ever 
before  reached  and  promises  even  great- 
er usefulness  in  the  future. 

Farmers'  institutes—The  farmers'  in- 
stitute is  a  kind  of  traveling  school  for 


200 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  instruction  of  the  adult  farmer  and 
his  family.  They  are  usually  carried  on 
under  the  auspices  of  the  state.  The 
principal  speakers  are  the  professors  and 
workers  in  the  agricultural  colleges  and 
experiment  stations,  and  successful 
farmers  who  are  able  to  present  their 
methods  clearly.  The  latter,  when  well 
versed  in  the  principles  of  agriculture, 
make  the  most  effective  speakers. 

How  farmers"  institutes  are  man- 
aged— These  institutes  in  each  state  are 
usually  under  the  direction  of  a  general 
state  manager,  who  provides  for  meet- 
ings throughout  the  state,  in  co-opera- 
tion with  local  societies.  The  state  usu- 
ally furnishes  two  or  three  speakers  and 
the  local  society  the  remainder.  At 
these  institutes,  the  best  and  most  re- 
cent  information   on   the  handling   and 


Iowa.  This  train  stopped  at  country 
towns  and  lectures  were  given  by  ex- 
perts on  methods  of  corn  growing  and 
improving  the  crop  by  means  of  se- 
lected seed.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  corn  crop  was  increased  in  value 
$15,000,000  in  one  year  as  a  result  of 
these  special  trains. 

Since  the  corn  special,  other  states 
have  run  special  trains  in  which  the 
principal  matters  discussed  were  dairy- 
ing, alfalfa  growing,  stock  raising,  etc. 

Farmers'"  Institute  Specialist — Keal- 
izing  the  importance  of  the  farmers' 
institute  movement,  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  has  recently 
established  an  office,  known  as  the 
Farmers'  Institute  Specialist.  This  of- 
fice is  under  the  direction  of  the  Office 
of  the  Experiment   Stations.     It  serves 


Lyw»TO 


"*■  8 


Fig.  144 — STUDENTS  SCORING  BEEF  CATTLE 

(Nebraska  Experiment  Station) 


care  of  stock,  the  value  of  improved 
stock,  the  growing  of  crops  for  stock, 
dairy  problems  and  kindred  agricultural 
subjects  are  presented  in  a  manner  to 
interest  and  instruct  the  farmer.  At 
these  meetings  the  college  professor 
comes  directly  in  contact  with  the  prac- 
tical side  of  farming  and  thus  learns  the 
needs  of  the  farmer.  When  he  returns 
to  his  classes  he  is  able  to  discuss  prob- 
lems of  living  interest.  At  the  same 
time,  the  farmer  is  brought  to  feel  that 
the  professor,  though  he  may  not  know 
all  the  practical  details  of  farming, 
nevertheless  has  a  knowledge  of  the  fun- 
damental principles  which  may  be  of 
great  value  to  him. 

Institute  train  specials — Within 
recent  years  a  new  phase  of  the  farmers' 
institute  has  been  the  running  of  special 
trains  over  the  states.  Among  the  first 
of  these  was  the  corn  special  train   in 


as  a  kind  of  center  of  information 
for  farmers'  institute  speakers,  to  which 
they  may  send  for  the  latest  infor- 
mation on  the  subjects  which  they  are 
to  discuss.  The  Institute  Specialist 
also  compiles  information  relative  to  the 
work  done  in  all  foreign  countries,  along 
similar  lines,  and  in  addition  publishes 
outlines  of  syllabi  which  may  be  used  by 
institute  speakers  on  special  subjects, 
such  as  profitable  cattle  feeding,  silage 
and  silo  construction,  care  of  milk,  etc. 
Lantern  slides  and  charts,  illustrating 
the  syllabi  are  loaned  by  the  department. 

In  1906,  a  total  of  11,000  farmers'  in- 
stitutes were  held  in  44  states.  The  at- 
tendance at  these  institutes  was  1,600,000 
persons. 

Such,  in  general,  are  the  provisions 
made  by  the  nation  and  states  to  promote 
the  -  interests  of  the  live  stock  industry. 
In  addition   to  these   agencies,  the  live 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


201 


stock  men  themselves  have  numerous 
national,  state  and  local  organizations, 
which  represent  in  strongest  measure, 
the  positive  side  of  the  live  stock  in- 
dustry- 
American  National  Live  Stock  As- 
sociation— This  association  is  largely- 
made  up  of  representatives  of  state  and 
local  associations  and  discusses  questions 
of  national  importance,  such  as  the  ex- 
tension of  our  foreign  trade,  reasonable 
shipping  regulations,  equitable  and  just 
transportation  rates  for  stock,  sanitary- 
regulations,  which  shall  provide  for  uni- 
form control  and  eradication  of  all  dis- 
eases affecting  the  live  stock  interests 
of  the  country,  the  protection  and  utili- 
zation of  public  grazing  lands,  the  se- 
curing of  staple  prices  for  animals  and 


Function  of  national  live  stock  as- 
sociations— These  national  associations 
push  the  interests  of  the  particular 
animal  or  breed  they  represent  and  pub- 
lish the  herd  book  of  the  breed  each 
society  represents.  The  particular  so- 
cieties advertise  the  breed  they  repre- 
sent and  publish  popular  information 
concerning  it,  so  that  its  merits  may  be- 
come widely  known  throughout  the  coun- 
try.* They  offer  premiums  at  county, 
state  and  national  fairs  or  expositions  in 
order  to  encourage  the  exhibition  and 
growing  of  high-grade  specimens  of  the 
breed  and  in  every  way  seek  to  promote 
its  interests. 

In  addition  to  these  national  organiza- 
tions, representing  the  breeds,  there  are 
state  associations  and  many  local  asso- 


Fig.     145 — JESUP     AGRICULTURAL     WAGON  OF  TUSKEGEE,   ALABAMA 

(This  wagon,  equipped  with  improved  forms  of  agricultural  implements,  visits  the  homes  of  negro  farmers,  and  a 
lecturer  gives  instruction  on  the  best  methods  of  tanning.  The  illustration  shows  the  lecturer  persuading  a  farmer 
to  test  a  modern  plow. ) 


animal  products  at  the  great  packing 
centers,  education  of  the  public  in  re- 
gard to  the  utilization  of  the  coarser 
parts  of  slaughtered  animals,  etc.  The 
association  also  acts  as  a  bureau  of  in- 
formation on  matters  of  general  and 
public  interest,  relating  to  live  stock. 

Breeders'  associations — In  addition  to 
this  national  society,  which  is  made  up 
of  representatives  of  the  live  stock  in- 
terests generally,  there  are  many  other 
societies  of  national  scope  devoted  to 
particular  animals  or  breeds,  such  as  the 
National  Pig  Breeders'  Association,  Na- 
tional Wool  Growers'  Association,  Na- 
tional Dairy  Association,  American 
Aberdeen-Angus  Association,  American 
Shorthorn  Breeders'  Association,  Ameri- 
can Poland-China  Becord  Company,  etc. 
There  is  a  national  association  for  prac- 
tically every  pure  breed  of  animal  now 
being  bred  in  the  United  States, 


ciations  throughout  the  states,  repre- 
senting the  same  breed. 

Registration  of  animals — Members  of 
the  associations  who  are  raising  pure 
bred  animals  can  secure  the  registration 
of  these  animals  and  their  progeny  in  the 
herd  book  of  the  association,  upon  the 
payment  of  a  small  fee  for  each  animal. 
The  purpose  of  these  herd  books  is  to 
record  the  genealogy  of  each  animal  in 
the  breed,  and  thus  give  information  to 
the  purchaser  or  breeder  regarding  the 
history  of  the  animal  he  is  using.  This 
is  of  tremendous  importance  in  esti- 
mating the  possible  future  value  of  the 
animal.  In  addition,  these  books  show 
the  standard  of  excellence  adopted  for 
the  breed  and  enumerate  the  points 
which  it  is  desired  to  perpetuate  in  the 
breed. 

Begistration  numbers — When  the  ped- 
igree of  an  animal  is  received  the  sec- 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


retary  of  the  society  assigns  to  it  a 
number  in  the  order  in  which  it  is  re- 
ceived. These  numbers  are  known  as 
the  Registration  Numbers.  They  are 
entered  in  the  book  variously  called  stud 
book,  herd  book  or  flock  book.  These 
books  are  usually  issued  yearly.  For 
American  animals  the  numbers  are  usu- 
ally given  without  brackets,  but  Cana- 
dian or  European  records  are  either  in 
brackets  or  marked  off  by  dashes.  Fol- 
lowing the  number  of  the  registered  ani- 
mal are  usually  found  certain  initials 
which  in  the  case  of  a  Jersey  animal 
might  be  A.  J.  C.  C,  which  stands  for 
American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  and  shows 
that  the  animal  is  recorded  in  the  reg- 
istry of  this  club. 

The  reliability  of  a  pedigree  in  any 
instance,  depends  upon  the  character  of 
the  association  which  publishes  the  rec- 
ord and  also  upon  the  integrity  of  the 
individual  breeder.  Nearly  all  of  the 
breeds  of  importance  are  divided  into 
families  and  there  may  be  as  many 
different  associations  and  registry  books, 
and  it  is  important  that  the  breeder  of 
pure  bred  stock  knows  the  initials  used 
by  all  of  these  associations  and  be  posted 
with  reference  to  their  standing.  It 
may  detract  greatly  from  the  value  of 
an  animal  to  be  recorded  in  a  herd  book 
which  does  not  have  the  support  of  the 
best  breeders,  or  with  an  association 
which  is  lax  in  its  requirements  of  reg- 
istration. 

A  complete  pedigree  should  be  trace- 
able for  at  least  six  generations.  When 
all  the  sires  and  dams  are  known  for 
that  length  of  time,  the  pedigree  is  said 
to  be  complete.  But  when  any  are  lack- 
ing, it  is  termed  short  bred.  With  im- 
ported animals,  however,  it  is  only 
necessary  that  the  registration  run  back 
to  the  importation,  and  the  initials  Imp. 
after  a  number  means  that  the  animal 
was  imported.  Not  all  societies  follow 
the  same  method  in  presenting  pedi- 
grees. In  the  case  of  Shorthorn  and 
some  other  cattle  breeders'  associations, 
a  simple  statement  is  given  of  the  sire 
and  dam  of  an  animal  and  then  of  the 
dams  in  successive  order,  thus  leaving 
out  the  breeding  of  the  sire's  side.  A 
complete  pedigree  requires  that  both 
lines  be  traced  out  for  at  least  six  gen- 
erations. 

In  presenting  a  pedigree  the  name  of 
the  animal  is  first  given  with  such  other 
data  as  are  necessary  to  identify  it  and 
then    an   ordinary   brace   is   used,    after 


which  the  sire  is  placed  above  and  the 
dam  below,  another  brace  follows  the 
name  of  the  sire  and  at  the  top  again 
of  this  brace  the  sire  is  given  and  the 
dam  below.  The  same  procedure  is  car- 
ried out  for  further  generations  and 
with  the  dam  also. 

Illustration  of  pedigree — To  illus- 
trate this  point  further,  a  Jersey  pedigree 
is  given  in  a  condensed  form  on  the  fol- 
lowing page  showing  not  only  the  sires 
and  dams,  but  also  their  performance 
records.  The  outline  presents  the  pedi- 
gree of  a  bull  calf  offered  for  sale  by  the 
Hartmann  Stock  Farm,  in  1906,  as  an- 
nounced in   "The  Jersey  Bulletin." 

A  glance  at  this  record  shows  that  the 
grandsire  and  great-grandsire  have  pro- 
duced cows  which  have  given  a  high 
yield  of  butter  and  that  the  grand- 
mother, great-grandmother,  and  great- 
great-grandmother  on  the  sire's  side, 
were  all  heavy  performers.  A  fairly 
complete  and  satisfactory  account  is 
also  given  of  the  ancestors  on  the  moth- 
er's side.  This  pedigree,  while  it  does 
not  prove  positively  the  merits  of  the 
bull  offered  for  sale,  indicates  that  it 
comes  from  good  stock  and  the  chances 
are  that  it  inherits  a  good  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  its  ancestors. 

Herd  books  and  other  records — The 
Jersey  breeders  have  an  official  book 
showing  the  butter  records  of  many  of 
the  registered  cows  of  the  breed,  which 
helps  greatly  in  estimating  the  prob- 
able value  of  an  animal.  In  tracing 
out  a  Shorthorn  pedigree,  we  would  look 
up  the  official  record  in  the  American 
Shorthorn  Herd  Book.  In  the  same 
way,  in  looking  up  the  pedigree  of  stand- 
ard bred  horses,  the  year  book,  published 
by  the  American  Trotting  Association, 
would  be  used. 

In  the  case  of  beef  cattle,  there  are 
no  official  records  of  production.  In 
such  cases,  the  show  yard  winnings  and 
sale  reports  take  the  place  of  other  rec- 
ords. In  order  that  the  pedigree  of  an 
animal  may  be  valuable  to  a  breeder,  it 
is  necessary  that  he  know  the  different 
families  of  the  breeds,  and  many  of  the 
noted  animals  in  the  different  families. 
The  number  of  times  these  noted  ani- 
mals or  their  progeny  appear  have  a 
definite  meaning  to  the  breeder  when 
he  knows  what  they  stand  for. 

Advanced  registry — Some  breeders 
have  what  is  known  as  an  Advanced 
Registry.  Animals  to  be  eligible  to  rec- 
ord in  the  advanced  registry  book  must 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY; 


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204 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


not  only  be  pure  bred,  but  must  come 
up  to  a  certain  high  standard  of  per- 
formance in  milk  yield,  butter  produc- 
tion, etc. 

Expositions  and  fairs — Another  im- 
portant agency  affecting  the  animal  in- 
dustry of  the  country  is  the  national, 
state  and  county  expositions,  stock  shows 
and  fairs. 

International  live  stock  exposition — 
The  greatest  of  these  shows  is  the 
International  Live  Stock  Exposition, 
held  annually  for  a  week  at  Chicago. 
This  exposition  in  recent  years  has  been 
attended  by  50,000  to  100,000  people 
daily.  A  fire  proof  pavillion  600  feet 
long  by  310  feet  wide  and  60  feet  high 
has  been  built.  In  the  center  of  this 
is  a  tan  bark  ring  235  feet  long  by  100 
feet    wide.      In    this    great    arena    the 


the  different  breeds  and  thus  have  their 
interest  stimulated  in  better  stock. 

The  exposition  is  also  attended  in 
large  numbers  by  students  from  the 
various  agricultural  colleges,  accompa- 
nied by  their  instructors.  At  the  expo- 
sition in  1905,  17  colleges,  in  addition  to 
the  province  of  Ontario,  sent  students. 
Teams  of  five  students  each  from  seven 
of  these  colleges  took  part  in  a  com- 
petitive contest  in  judging  the  different 
animals.  Such  work  as  this  is  exceed- 
ingly valuable  and  practical,  and  gives 
students  a  clear  conception  of  what  is 
desirable  in  an  animal  for  the  different 
purposes  of  meat,  speed,  work,  wool  and 
milk. 

The  colleges  and  experiment  stations 
of  the  country  also  make  extensive  ex- 
hibits at   this  exposition,   and  in  many 


FRONT     VIEW     (IF     SI  IlMl'Sl  I  IKES    READY    FUR    EXHIBITION    AT    THE    FAIR 


best  specimens  of  all  the  breeds  in 
America  compete' for  prizes.  Around  it 
are  boxes  and  tiers  of  seats,  which 
afford  a  good  view  of  the  animals  in 
the  arena  and  the  work  of  the  judges. 

At  the  meeting  in  1905  nearly  3,000 
cattle,  sheep,  swine  and  horses  were 
entered  in  the  catalog  of  the  exposition, 
aside  from  the  entries  for  prizes  of- 
fered by  the  breeding  associations,  etc, 
and  the  carload  lots  shown  in  the  stock 
yards. 

Educational  value  of  exposition — 
Large  numbers  of  breeders  and  stock- 
men from  all  over  the  country  attend 
these  meetings,  either  to  show  stock 
for  prizes  or  keep  track  of  the  prize- 
winning  animals,  and  perhaps,  buy  or 
sell  stock.  In  addition,  thousands  of 
farmers  and  stockmen  are  present  and 
are  enabled  to  see  the  best  specimens  of 


cases  carry  off  the  winning  prizes;  thus 
showing  that  these  institutions  are  keep- 
ing in  full  touch  with  the  practical  side 
of  breeding  and  feeding  animals,  and 
indicating  that  the  boy  who  attends 
these  institutions  to  learn  the  live  stock 
business  will  get  practical  instruction. 

At  the  international  expositions,  like 
those  at  St.  Louis,  Buffalo,  etc,  exten- 
sive live  stock  exhibits  constitute  one  of 
the  drawing  features  of  the  exposition, 
and  are  made  educational  factors  for 
all  farmers  and  stockmen  visiting  these 
shows. 

State  and  county  fairs — The  state 
and  county  fairs  serve  to  stimulate  and 
encourage  the  production  of  higher 
grades  of  stock.  The  first  fair  held  in 
the  United  States  w?=  in  1810,  in  Pitts- 
field,    Massachusetts.      Since    then    the 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


205 


movement  has  spread  all  over  the  coun- 
try, but  most  extensively  developed  in 
the  central  states. 

Premiums  offered  at  fairs — At  these 
fairs,  prizes  are  offered  for  the  best 
animal,  or  group  of  animals,  represent- 
ing all  the  more  prominent  breeds,  and 
in  addition,  prizes  are  offered  for  exhibi- 
tions of  the  best  grain,  animal  products, 
like  butter,  cheese,  etc,  exhibits  of  farm- 
ing implements,  and  the  products  of 
domestic  arts,  like  canning,  breadmak- 
ing,  etc.  At  small  county  fairs  as  much 
as  $5,000  may  be  offered  in  cash  pre- 
miums for  live  stock  exhibits,  while  at 
the  state  national  exhibits  $20,000  to 
$50,000  may  be  offered  in  premiums. 

At  the  present  time  about  900  fairs 
are  held  annually  in  the  United  States. 


The  fair  is  considered  from  the  stand- 
point of  its  educational  value  to  the 
farmer,  and  this  phase  is  kept  upper- 
most. In  addition  there  are  many  at- 
tractions of  a  legitimate  nature,  such 
as  horse  racing,  athletics,  bands,  games, 
good  speaking,  etc.  It  has  come  to  be 
a  recognized  fact  that  in  order  for  fairs 
to  be  successful  certain  aid  from  the 
state,  by  way  of  cash  appropriations,  is 
essential. 

The  management  of  many  fairs  gives 
permits  for  various  side  show  exhibits 
on  the  fair  grounds,  wheels  of  fortune 
and  various  fake  and  bunco  games. 
These  kill  any  fair.  They  should  be 
absolutely  prohibited.  They  detract 
from  the  main  purpose  of  the  fair, 
which  is  the  exhibition  of  the  best  prod- 


Fig.    147 REAR  VIEW  OF   SHROPSIIIRES   PROPERLY     PREPARED    FOR    EXHIBITION 

EN  THE  SHOW  RING 


Tn  many  of  the  states,  appropriations 
are  made  to  encourage  both  county  and 
state  fairs  by  the  offering  of  cash  pre- 
miums. In  Iowa  and  Wisconsin,  for 
instance,  the  state  contributes  40  per 
cent  of  all  the  premiums  paid.  Ohio 
contributes  $4,000  to  each  county  fair. 
In  1905,  Illinois  appropriated  $26,000 
for  prizes;  Minnesota,  $22,000;  North 
Dakota,  $10,000;  Missouri,  $145,000  for 
permanent  improvements ;  Colorado, 
$12,000;  Michigan,  $5,000;  New  York, 
$260,000 ;  Alabama,  $5,000 ;  North  Caro- 
lina, $2,300;    South   Carolina,   $2,200. 

Successful  agricultural  fairs — In 
the  states  in  which  fairs  are  most  suc- 
cessful, every  department  of  farm  work 
and    farm    life    receives    representation. 


uct  of  the  farm  and  stables,  for  the 
encouragement  and  improvement  of  ag- 
riculture and  the  farm  home. 

Newspapers  and  magazines — Finally, 
we  may  well  speak  of  the  great  value 
of  the  newspapers  of  the  country  to  the 
live  stock  industry.  These  papers  in- 
dustriously report  the  market  conditions 
of  live  stock  throughout  the  country 
daily  and  weekly.  They  record  the  suc- 
cesses and  the  failures  of  thousands  of 
men  who  are  engaged  in  the  business, 
and,  in  season  and  out,  discuss  all  the 
thousand  and  one  intricate  problems  and 
questions  that  come  up  during  the  year 
in  the  handling,  management  and  mar- 
keting of  stock.     They  popularize  and 


206 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


disseminate  the  scientific  facts  discov- 
ered at  the  experiment  stations  and  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, and  tell  it  in  a  way  that  the 
simplest  can  understand.  JSTo  wide- 
awake live  stock  man  can  hope  to  be  suc- 
cessful and  keep  abreast  of  his  business 
without  reading  the  stock  papers  and 
subscribing  regularly  for  two  or  three 
of  the  best. 

Some  of  the  better  stock  papers — It 
would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  all  the 
papers  which  stand  in  the  front  rank 
of  live  stock  journalism,  but  a  few  may 
be  mentioned  that  are  noted  for  their 
value  to  the  industry.  Among  these  are 
the  Breeders'  Gazette,  which  is  a  gen- 
eral stock  paper  representing  all  forms 
of   stock.      Hoard's   Dairyman    and   the 


effect  of  live  stock  farming  on  the  men- 
tal life  of  the  man  engaged  therein.  To 
be  identified  with  a  pure  breed  of  live 
stock  necessitates  wide  reading  and  wide 
acquaintance  with  men.  It  requires  a 
study  of  nature's  methods  and  the  mys- 
teries of  heredity  and  the  great  influ- 
ence of  environment.  The  human  re- 
sponse and  affection  and  absolute  trust 
in  the  master  of  the  horse  and  dog, 
and  even  the  sheep,  teach  lessons  con- 
cerning the  obligations  of  man  to  others. 
Outside  of  his  immediate  care  of  ani- 
mals, the  breeder  must  be  a  man  of 
business.  Not  only  must  he  know  how 
to  breed,  fatten  and  manage  his  animals, 
but  he  must  also  be  a  student  of  the 
market  and  be  capable  of  creating  a 
market    by   the    superior   product   which 


jetting  the  horses  ready  for  the  grand  parade  at  the 
ohio  state  fair 


Jersey  Bulletin  are  among  the  better 
papers  representing  the  dairy  interests. 
The  Horse  Review  and  the  American 
Horse  Breeder  deal  with  the  horse  inter- 
ests, American  Sheep  Breeder  and  Wool 
Grower  with  the  sheep  interests,  the 
Swine  Herd  with  hogs.  There  are  many 
others.  In  addition,  such  general  farm 
papers  as  American  Agriculturist, 
Orange  Jvdd  Farmer,  Neiv  England 
Homestead,  Farm  and  Home,  Wallaces' 
Farmer,  Country  Gentleman,  Rural 
Neiv-Yorlcer,  National  Stoclcman  and 
Farmer  and  the  many  state  papers  like 
Michigan  Farmer,  Ohio  Farmer,  Nc- 
brasha  Farmer,  Kansas  Farmer,  etc, 
are  doing  a  great  work  in  fostering  the 
live  stock  interests  of  the  country. 

Broadening   influence    of    live    stock 
farming — yye   mav  briefly  mention  the 


he  produces.  The  highest  type  of  farm- 
ing is  live  stock  farming,  and  the  high- 
est type  of  live  stock  farming  is  the 
growing  of  pure  breeds. 

TRANSPORTATION    AND    MARKET- 
ING OF  LIVE  STOCK 

The  marketing  of  live  stock  is  the 
business  end  of  the  industry.  At  what 
age  and  in  what  condition  the  animal 
should  be  marketed,  where  to  market 
and  how  to  ship  to  market,  are  all  busi- 
ness questions  on  the  correct  answering 
of  which  the  success  of  the  industry 
largely  depends. 

Animals  may  be  marketed  at  any  time 
from  birth  to  old  age.  They  may  be 
marketed  dead  or  alive.  They  may  be 
sold  to  traveling  buyers  who  call  at  the 
farm  and  take  the  stock  away  with  them. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


207 


They  may  be  driven  or  drawn  to  the 
local  town  market.  They  may  be  shipped 
in  crates  or  carload  lots  by  freight  or 
express  to  metropolitan  markets,  or  may 
be  shipped  in  ocean  steamers  to  foreign 
markets. 

In  practically  all  these  transactions, 
the  shipper  is  dependent  upon  otheV 
agents  in  the  handling  and  sale  of  his 
stock,  and  is  governed  largely  by  the 
rules  and  regulations  established  by 
local,  state  or  national  authorities,  as 
well  as  by  transportation  and  stock  yard 
companies,  commission  men,  etc.  The 
function  and  purpose  of  these  different 
agents  and  the  shippers'  relation  to  them, 
will  be  discussed  along  with  other  mat- 


been  a  profitable  one  or  not.  This  price 
must  be  such  as  to  cover  the  cost  at  least 
of  producing  the  animal,  or  the  grower 
will  soon  go  out  of  business. 

Advantage  of  selling  to  local  buyers 
— This  method  of  selling  is  advantage- 
ous from  a  number  of  standpoints.  The 
animals  show  up  to  the  best  advantage 
in  the  home  feed  lot ;  they  are  not  wor- 
ried or  frightened  or  tired  from  a  long 
railroad  journey,  and  the  grower  runs 
none  of  the  risks  incident  to  shipping, 
such  as  loss  from  dead  animals,  excess- 
ive railroad  rates,  and  commission 
charges. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  little,  if 
any,  competition  in  the  bidding  for  the 


Fia  140- 


3NS    IN    Til 


IOW   RING  AT  OHIO   STATE   FAIR 


ters  pertaining  to  the  marketing  of  live 
stock  in  this  chapter. 

Local  buyers—The  simplest  method 
of  marketing  stock  is  to  sell  to  local 
buyers  who  call  at  the  farm,  look  over 
the  stock  and  make  an  offer  for  it.  In 
all  of  the  more  thickly  settled  parts  of 
the  country  there  are  always  buyers 
going  through  from  time  to  time  pick- 
ing up  such  stock  as  may  be  offered  for 
sale.  If  the  owners  think  the  offer 
made  by  such  a  buyer  high  enough,  he 
can  accept  it.  If  the  buyer  pays  cash, 
which  he  usually  does,  and  takes  the 
animals  away  with  him,  that  ends  the 
transaction. 

The  grower  should  know  what  his  ani- 
mals have  cost  him  up  to  the  time  of 
their  sale.  The  price  received  then  tells 
him  at  once  whether  the  transaction  has 


stock.  The  grower  may  get  a  profitable 
price,  yet  a  lower  one  than  by  selling 
in  a  larger  market  where  competition 
stimulates  bidding.  The  buyer  also 
makes  allowance  in  his  offer  for  the 
shrinkage  in  weight,  which  the  stock  is 
sure  to  undergo  in  shipping.  lie  makes 
his  living  by  buying  below  the  market 
price  and  shipping  into  the  larger 
markets,  where  prices  are  higher.  If 
the  grower  has  only  a  few  animals,  this 
is  a  very  satisfactory  way  of  disposing 
of  them,  since  the  shipment  of  a  few 
animals  costs  relatively  much  more  on 
the  railroad  than  full  carload  lots. 

Desirability  of  dealing  with  same 
buyer — If  the  grower  sells  to  the  same 
buyer  year  after  year,  they  get  to  un- 
derstand each  other's  methods  of  doing 
business,  and  if  the  grower  produces  a 


208 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


high-grade  lot  of  animals,  the  buyer 
will  be  anxious  to  handle  them  and  is 
likely  to  give  him  as  good  figures  as  he 
could  obtain  by  shipping.  The  grower 
can  tell  by  consulting  his  weekly  or 
daily  stock  papers  about  how  prices  are 
running  in  the  larger  cities  and  well 
knows  whether  he  is  receiving  the  proper 
price  for  his  stock  or  not.  Furthermore, 
the  grower  deals  with  a  man  he  knows. 
He  understands  his  methods  of  doing 
business  and  can  call  on  him  when  his 
stock  is  ready  for  sale. 

The  local  butchers  furnish  a  market 
for  a  good  many  animals,  but  the  de- 
mand from  this  source  is  limited.   Even 


weight  of  the  animals.  Where  only  a 
few  hogs,  sheep  or  calves  are  to  be  mar- 
keted, they  can  be  shown  up  to  much 
better  advantage  and  better  prices  gen- 
erally secured  if  drawn  to  town  in  the 
farm  wagon  with  high  side  boards. 

Marketing  pure  breeds—Growers  of 
pure  bred  animals  are  generally  able  to 
dispose  of  a  part  of  their  breeding 
stock  with  stock  growers  in  the  neigh- 
borhood; in  such  cases  the  grower  asks 
a  price  commensurate  with  the  value  of 
the  animal  sold.  Some  breeders  do  an 
extensive  mailing  and  shipping  business, 
in  which  case  animals  are  shipped  in 
crates,  either  by  express  or  freight. 


Fig.   150 — EMPTY   MILK   CANS   READY   TO  RETURN   TO   THE  DAIRY 


in  the  smaller  cities  and  towns  the  local 
butchers  have  to  compete  with  the  meat 
sent  from  the  great  central  packing 
houses,  which  limits  the  price  they  are 
able  to  pay.  Men  buying  for  shipment, 
however,  can  handle  large  numbers  of 
animals. 

Marketing  in  local  cities  and  towns 
— If  the  grower  does  not  choose  to  sell 
to  the  traveling  buyers,  the  nearby 
butchers  and  towns  offer  a  market  and 
in  nearly  all  of  the  larger  towns  there 
are  one  or  more  men  who  buy  for  ship- 
ment. Many  towns  have  special  market 
days  when  buyers  and  sellers  meet,  and 
the  competition  thus  offered  serves  to 
secure  better  prices.  In  driving  stock 
any  distance  to  town,  there  is  always 
considerable    loss    in     appearance    and 


The  express  rates  on  live  stock  shipped 
in  crates  are  usually  "quite  reason- 
able and  but  little,  if  any,  more  expen- 
sive than  in  shipping  by  freight  and  the 
animals  reach  their  destination  much 
sooner.  It  is  not  advisable  to  ship  such 
animals  as  sheep,  hogs  or  calves  unless 
crated.  The  express  rates  are  lower  in 
the  eastern  and  central  states  than  in 
the  southern  or  western  states.  The  ex- 
press companies  have  special  cars  in 
which  to  ship  valuable  horses.  Show 
stock  of  all  kinds  is  usually  shipped  by 
express. 

In  shipping  crated  animals  by  ex- 
press, sufficient  feed  for  the  journey 
should  be  attached  to  the  outside  of  the 
crate.  "Properly  made  crates  will  have 
a  sack  pocket  fastened  at  the  end  within 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


209 


the  crate  in  which  hay  may  be  stuffed, 
which  sheep  or  calves  may  nibble  at 
leisure.  A  small  V-shaped  trough  may 
also  be  placed  in  the  end  of  the  crate,  in 
which  grain  may  be  fed.  If  these  addi- 
tions to  the  crate  are  provided,  the 
agents  along  the  line  will  see  that  the 
stock  is  watered. 

"Shipping  crates  should  be  neither 
too  large  nor  too  small,  just  giving  room 
for  the  animal  to  stand  erect  comfort- 
ably; the  width  should  be  only  3  inches 
greater  than  the  'width  of  the  body  at 
the  hips  and  shoulders;  much  room  is 
objectionable.  Animals  firmly  crated 
with  suitable  feed  accompanying  can 
be  expressed  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  with  no  trouble  or  injury  under 


practice  in  some  of  the  corn  belt  states. 
Where  a  breeder  has  only  a  small  num- 
ber of  animals  he  may  unite  with  one 
or  more  other  breeders  and  hold  an 
auction  in  some  central  place  conven- 
iently reached  by  railroad. 

Method  of  conducting  auction  sales 
— In  these  auction  sales,  the  advertising 
and  the  arrangements  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  buyers,  etc,  is  usually  left  to 
the  auctioneer,  who  receives  a  commis- 
sion on  the  sales  made.  Advertisements 
of  these  auction  sales  may  be  found  in 
nearly  every  week's  issue  of  the  more 
important  stock  papers.  Stockmen 
looking  for  auctioneers  will  also  find 
the  business  cards  of  these  men  in  the 
stock  papers. 


Fig.  151- 


WATER  FOWLS  at  a  faik 


ordinary  shipping  conditions.  Crates 
should  be  light  yet  strong." 

In  doing  a  mail  order  business  it  will 
be  necessary  to  advertise  continuously 
in  a  number  of  the  better  stock  papers. 
Many  breeders  have  built  up  envious 
reputations  in  the  mail  order  business 
by  sending  out  a  high  grade  of  stock, 
fulfilling  in  every  respect  their  adver- 
tisements. 

Auction  sales — Sale  at  public  auction 
frequently  offers  a  very  satisfactory  way 
of  disposing  of  stock.  In  all  the  larger 
cities  and  many  of  the  larger  towns, 
there  are  public  auction  sales  of  horses 
and  sometimes  of  cattle. 

Breeders  of  pure-bred  stock  fre- 
quently dispose  of  their  surplus  animals 
by   auction.      This   is   quite    a   common 


The  auction  sale  is  one  of  the  best 
ways  of  disposing  of  surplus  pure-bred 
stock  and  is  particularly  advantageous 
for  the  small  breeder,  as  he  receives 
considerable  advertising  through  associa- 
tion with  the  large  breeders  and  has  an 
opportunity  to  exhibit  his  stock  to  a 
large  number  of  buyers. 

European  auction  sales — In  many  of 
the  European  towns  there  are  regular 
days  on  which  stock  of  all  kinds  are 
offered  for  auction.  At  Hereford,  an  old 
English  town  of  about  20,000  inhabi- 
tants, the  auction  is  regularly  held  on 
Wednesdays.  They  are  largely  attended 
by  butchers,  farmers,  stock  buyers,  etc. 
The  animals  are  brought  in  from  sur- 
rounding districts,  or  are  shipped  in, 
and  buyers  have  opportunities  to  inspect 


210 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OP  LIVE  STOCK 


them  before  they  are  put  up  at  auction. 
Frequently,  as  many  as  2,000  cattle 
change  hands  in  a  day  at  these  auctions. 
The  auctioneer  at  these  sales  gets  a  com- 
mission of  about  IV2  per  cent. 

There  are  a  few  markets  of  a  some- 
what similar  character  in  the  United 
States,  though  most  of  them  are  limited 
to  the  auction  sales  of  horses.  These 
sales  are  usually  held  in  a  large  barn, 
public  square  or  street,  and  are  most 
numerous  in  the  central  western  states. 

Horse  markets  _  Professor  Plumb 
describes  one  of  these  horse  markets 
located  at  Orrville,  Ohio,  which  is  typi- 
cal of  many  others.  "The  horses  are 
brought  in  from  the  surrounding  coun- 
try and  are  offered  for  sale  in  a  building 
constructed  for  the  purpose,  containing 


not  removed  on  day  of  sale,  purchaser 
will  be  charged  at  the  rate  of  50  cents 
(each)  a  day  until  removed. 

Rule  2 — Guarantees  on  horses  sold 
shall  expire  on  the  following  Monday 
at  noon.  When  horses  are  not  as  repre- 
sented, and  cannot  be  returned  within 
the  limit  of  the  guaranty,  the  purchaser 
shall  telephone  or  telegraph  to  that  effect, 
and  such  notice  will  be  recognized,  and 
notes  or  money  will  be  refunded.  No 
horse  will  be  taken  back  on  account  of 
a  splint. 

Pule  3 — Purchasers  of  consigned 
horses  will  take  notice  that  the  owner 
is  the  only  responsible  party,  and  that 
the  proprietors  simply  act  as  his  agent. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  buyer  to  inquire 
as  to  the  conditions  upon  which  the  sale 


Fig.    152 — AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY    EXHIBIT 


many  stalls,  sales  rooms,  auctioneer's 
and  clerk's  box  and  seating  space  for 
buyers.  The  sales  are  attended  by  local 
buyers  and  men  from  a  distance  who 
come  to  secure  stock  for  special  orders." 

The  rules  of  this  company,  as  pub- 
lished by  them  for  1903,  are  as  follows : 

Rule  1 — Terms  of  sale:  On  all  sales 
of  less  than  $10  cash  payment  will  be 
required,  unless  otherwise  notified  by  the 
auctioneer.  On  all  sales  of  $10  or  over, 
a  credit  of  four  months  will  be  given 
upon  notes  drawing  7  per  cent  interest, 
with  approved  securities.  A  deposit  of 
$10  must  be  paid  at  the  time  of  pur- 
chase, unless  parties  are  known,  and 
balance  before  removing  property.  No 
stock  will  be  allowed  to  leave  the  prem- 
ises until  satisfactory  settlement  has 
been  made  with  the  clerk.  If  horses  are 


is  made,  and  upon  his  failure  to  do  so, 
should  the  conditions  upon  which  the 
horse  is  sold  (as  announced  by  conduc- 
tor of  sale  or  auctioneer)  be  different 
from  the  buyer's  understanding,  it  will 
be  no  cause  for  rejecting  the  same.  The 
horse  company  will  not  be  responsible  in 
cases  of  fire,  accidents,  or  sickness,  all 
stock  being  at  owner's  risk.  Consigners 
who  misrepresent  vicious  horses,  such  as 
kickers  or  runaways,  will  be  held  respon- 
sible. 

Rule  4 — All  consigned  horses  should 
be  examined  and  tried  by  purchasers  as 
soon  as  bought,  and  their  wind  and  work 
must  be  tried  and  accepted  or  rejected 
on  the  premises.  A  horse  sold  to  be 
sound,  proving  to  be  a  cribber,  a  heaver, 
crampy,  or  lame,  can  be  rejected  within 
the  limit  of  the  guaranty.     In  case  of 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


211 


a  dispute  between  the  buyer  and  seller 
as  to  points  of  unsoundness,  the  matter 
shall    be   referred   to   a   duly   graduated 


Fig.    153 DEVICE    FOR   LOADING    SWINE 

INTO  WAGON 

veterinary  surgeon,  whose  decision  shall 
be  final.  Age  and  weight  of  horses  are 
not  guaranteed.  Consigned  horses  are 
paid  for  by  cash  or  check,  less  commis- 
sion and  feed,  at  the  expiration  of  the 
guaranty. 

Rule  5 — All  horses  should  be  at  the 
stables  the  day  previous  to  the  sale.  A 
commission     will     be     charged     on     all 


"If  wind  and  work  are  guaranteed, 
the  horse  must  be  sound  in  wind,  a  good 
worker,  not  a  cribber  or  heaver,  and 
everything  else  goes  with  him. 

"A  horse  sold  serviceably  sound  must 
virtually  be  a  sound  horse  for  all  useful 
purposes  of  his  class.  He  must  be  per- 
fect in  eyes,  wind,  not  lame,  not  a 
cribber  and  must  be  able  to  do  as  much 
work  as  a  perfectly  sound  horse.  He 
can  be  serviceably  sound  and  be  a  little 
rounding  on  the  curb  joint,  but  not 
curbed  or  branded.  He  cannot  be 
scarred  from  fistula,  or  have  hip  down, 
but  may  be  slightly  cut  out  at  the  knee, 
or  puffed  a  little  at  the  ankle.  He  can- 
not have  scars  or  blemishes  that  con- 
stitute deformities,  or  that  deteriorate 
his  value  more  than  a  trifle,  or  that  in 
any  way  impair  his  usefulness  for  work. 
Car  bruises  must  be  of  a  temporary 
nature. 

"The  prices  quoted  in  the  horse  auc- 
tion reports  are  for  horses  sold  on  the 


c— 

—  -35'- 

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T 

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— 7"- 

—f± 

__> J 

,j',  k22"-> 

t-j-2" 

^W^W' 

—8'  — 

---rii STjf  Sg''~* 

W&, 

horses  entered,  whether  sold  at  auction 
or  private  sale.  Rate  of  commission : 
Home  consigned  horses,  $3  a  head 
western  horses,  $5  a  head;  feed,  50  cents 
a  day;  single  feed,  25  cents. 

Chicago  horse  market — One  of  the 
greatest  horse  markets  in  the  United 
States  is  Chicago.  Horses  are  sold  both 
by  auction  and  by  private  sale.  The 
following  information,  based  on  the 
practices  of  the  Chicago  market,  is 
quoted  from  Prof.  C.  S.  Plumb: 

"A  horse  negotiated  at  the  halter  is 
sold  as  he  stands;  all  imperfections, 
blemishes  and  unsoundness  go  with  him. 
He  is  sold  without  recommendation  and 
the  title  only  is  guaranteed. 

"A  horse  sold  for  a  worker  only  must 
be  a  good  worker,  and  all  imperfections 
go  with  him. 

"A  horse  sold  sound  must  be  so  in 
every  particular;  free  from  vices  and 
able  to  pass  a  perfect  veterinary  exami- 
nation. 


block  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  sales 
made  at  retail  are  not  published  unless 
they  are  for  extra  choice  animals  that 
sold  considerably  above  the  regular  auc- 
tion quotations.  Domestic  and  foreign 
buyers  carefully  inspect  all  the  arrivals 
as  soon  as  reported,  and  as  many  ani- 
mals as  possible  that  will  fill  their  orders 
are  purchased  privately,  dealers  pre- 
ferring  this   method,    as   it   gives   them 


Fig.  155 — simple  farm  gate 

more  time  to  examine  and  try  their 
purchases  than  can  be  accorded  where 
horses     are     sold     under    the    hammer, 


212 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Horses  sold  at  private  sale  generally 
command  better  prices  than  if  sold  at 
auction,  although  there  are  many  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule,  the  spirit  of  the 
bidder  creating  competition,  and  buyers, 
relying  on  one  another's  judgment,  bid 
the  offering  up. 

"All  kinds  of  vehicles  and  appliances 
are  at  hand  to  show  horses  according 
to  their  several  uses,  either  as  drafters, 
drivers,  or  saddlers,  and  all  sales  are 
void  if  the  animals  fail  to  perform  ac- 
cording to  the  recommendation. 

"The  animal  sold  must  have  all  the 
qualities  named  by  the  auctioneer  at  the 
time  of  the  sale.  Any  horse  falling 
short  of  the  recommendation  on  which 
lie  is  sold,  can  be  rejected,  but  the  pur- 
chaser must  examine  and  try  the  animal 
within  the  time  specified  in  the  rules. 


"The  rules  of  the  exchange  require 
the  payment  of  a  uniform  price  of  60 
cents  a  day  for  feed  charges  on  horses 
sold  in  the  market.  No  charge  is  made 
for. watering,  bedding  and  grooming.  If 
the  horse's  tail  is  to  be  soaked,  or  tail 
and  mane  braided,  extra  pay  must  be 
given  to  men  not  in  the  employ  of  the 
stock  yards  company." 

Shipping  to  market  —  When  the 
grower  has  sufficient  stock  to  ship  to 
market  in  carload  lots,  he  can  usually 
get  more  than  by  selling  in  the  local 
markets.  The  great  stock  markets  of 
the  country  are  Chicago,  Kansas  City, 
Buffalo,  Omaha,  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  In- 
dianapolis, Cincinnati,  Jersey  City  and 
St.  Paul,  Minn.  The  number  of  horses, 
cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  shipped  into  five 
of  the-  largest  of  these  markets  in  1904 
is  shown  in  the  table  below: 


RECEIPT    OP    LIVE    STOCK    AT    THE    LEADING    STOCK    YARDS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


IN  1904 


Horses 
and 

mules 

Chicago,  HI 105,949 

Kansas  City,  Kan 67,562 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 54,300 

Omaha,    Neb 46,845 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 28,704 


Cattle 

Sheep 

Hogs 

Total 

3,526,684 

4,504,630 

7,238,746 

15,376,009 

2,163,471 

1,004,099 

2,227,170 

5,462.302 

636,013 

2,466,657 

5,236,480 

8,393,450 

944,192 

1,754,365 

2,299,627 

5,025,029 

587,261 

794,379 

1,658,849 

3,067,193 

The  table  shows  that  by  fpr  the  larg- 
est number  of  animals  were  shipped  into 
Chicago.  The  Chicago  stock  market  is 
not  only  the  largest  market  in  the 
United  States,  but  the  largest  stock 
market  in  the  world.  Buffalo  stands  out 
conspicuous  as  a  hog  and  sheep  market. 

Market  for  everything — At  these 
large  stock  centers,  a  market  may  be 
found  for  every  grade  and  kind  of  ani- 
mal grown  on  the  farm,  every  day  in  the 
year.  The  large  packing  houses  of  the 
corn  belt  are  located  at  these  stock  cen- 
ters and  for  one  purpose  and  another 
can  utilize  every  kind  and  condition  of 
farm  animals.  Many  of  the  animals 
shipped  into  a  great  market  like  Chicago 
are  killed.  A  large  number  are  re- 
shipped  as  feeders  or  stockers  and  many 
are  exported  alive  to  Europe.  Of  the 
cattle  shipped  into  Chicago  in  1905, 
41  per  cent  were  reshipped  for  some  of 
these  various  purposes.  Over  28  per  cent 
of  the  sheep  received  were  reshipped 
and  about  26  per  cent  of  the  hogs. 

Shipping  dead  or  alive_practically 
all  animals  sent  to  the  larger  markets 
are    shipped    alive.      The  exceptions  to 


this  may  be  early  winter  lambs,  veal 
calves  and  poultry,  which  are  often 
shipped  dressed,  or  in  the  case  of  lambs 
and  calves  with  the  entrails  out,  but  the 
hides  still  on.  It  is  not  usually  profit- 
able to  ship  dressed  cattle,  hogs  or  sheep 
to  any  of  the  larger  city  markets,  since 
these  markets  are  supplied  by  the  big 
packing  houses,  and  it  is  absolutely  im- 
possible for  the  farmer  to  prepare  as 
nice  looking  and  as  high  a  grade  of 
meat  as  can  be  produced  by  the  packing 
houses,  because  he  has'  not  the  facilities 
for  killing,  dressing  and  curing,  nor  the 
skill. 

System  in  butchering — On  the  farm, 
or  in  the  small  towns,  one  or  two  men 
may  do  all  the  work  on  an  animal  from 
killing  to  cutting  up,  while  in  the  pack- 
ing house  150  or  more  men  would  be 
employed  on  the  various  details  of  this 
work.  Each  man  has  a  particular  piece 
of  work  to  do  and  learns  to  do  it  in 
the  most  skillful  manner.  If  a  wrong 
cut  is  made  it  can  be  traced  back  to 
the  man  who  did  it.  After  the  work 
of  dressing  is  completed,  the  meat  at 
the  packing  houses  can  then  be  run  into 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


213 


the  chilling  rooms  and  kept  there  until 
it  has  ripened  and  its  quality  is  greatly- 
improved,  a  convenience  seldom  found 
on  the  farm. 

Packing  house  gang — In  order  to 
show  how  minutely  the  work  in  the 
great  packing  houses  is  specialized  in 
the  killing  of  beef  cattle,  the  work  of  a 
beef-killing  gang  at  one  of  the  large 
Chicago  packing  houses  made  up  of  157 
men  may  be  cited.  During  a  working 
day  of  10  hours  1,050  cattle  were  slaugh- 
tered and  dressed  by  this  gang. 

The  gang  was  made  tip  as  follows: 
One  general  foreman,  one  foreman  over 
yard  gang,  one  driving  up  cattle,  two 
penning  cattle,  two  knocking  cattle,  two 


and  cutting  out,  one  pulling  tails,  two 
and  onedialf  gutters,  two  throwing  down 
guts  and  paunches,  three  tail  sawyers, 
two  hanging  off  from  splitter,  three 
beating  out  fells,  one  helper  sawing  tails 
and  ripping  open,  two  neck  splitters,  one 
tallow  lot  man,  one  trucking  feet,  one 
trucking  up  hooks,  one  hanging  up 
hoofs,  two  cleaning  out,  three  dropping 
hides.  In  the  washing  gang,  there  were 
one  foreman,  one  trimming  bruises  on 
rail,  one  wiping  beef,  one  putting  in 
neck  and  kidney  cloths,  one  scribe  saw- 
yer, one  hoseman,  one  washing  shanks, 
one  switchman,  three  washing  ribs  and 
necks  inside,  one  squeezing  beef,  one 
pumping     kidneys,     three     long     brush 


Fig.    156 — TEXAS    CATTLE    IN    STOCK    YARDS 
(Illinois  Experiment  Station) 


shackling  cattle,  one  hanging  off  for 
hackler,  one  squeezing  blood  from  beds, 
one  switching  onto  heading  beds  and 
putting  up  heads,  one  throwing  down 
heads,  one  pritching  up,  one  dropping 
cattle,  one  pritching  up  helper,  one  stick- 
ler, three  headers,  one  ripper,  four 
leg  breakers,  three  feet  skinners,  one 
gullet  raiser,  seven  floormen,  one  breast 
sawyer,  one  aitch  sawyer,  two  and  one- 
half  caul  pullers,  two  putting  in  hooks 
to  hoists  for  fell  cutter,  one  floor 
squeezer,  one  washing  crutches  and  bel- 
lies, four  fell  cutters,  one  cutting  out 
bladders,  two  rumpers,  one  rump  helper 
and  drop  hide  feller,  two  backers,  four 
splitters,  one  back  and  rump  hand,  one 
washing  hind  shank,   one   ripping  tails 


washers,  one  washing  rags,  two  wiping 
hinds,  two  ladder  men,  (knife),  two 
bruise  trimmers,  one  cutting  off  cords 
and  shanks,  one  tying  veins,  two  trim- 
ming skirts  and  necks,  one  pumping 
necks.  For  weighing  the  beef,  there  was 
one  scaler,  one  grader,  one  pushing  on 
scale  or  tagger,  one  pulling  off  scale, 
one  elevator  man.  For  refrigerating  and 
car  loading,  there  were  14  beef  coolers, 
five  trimmers,  seven  carriers  and  loaders, 
11  laborers.  With  work  systematized  in 
this  manner,  and  the  utilization  of  all 
modern  mechanical  appliances,  as  near 
perfect  results  as  it  is  possible  to  secure 
in  the  dressing  of  meat  are  obtained. 

Local     market     for     home-dressed 
meats — It    is    quite     possible,    however, 


214 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


for  a  stockman  living  near  the  smaller 
towns  and  cities  to  put  up  a  high-grade 
class  of  bacon,  ham,  mutton,  beef  and 
poultry  and  sell  to  private  consumers 
direct.  Where  a  high-grade  trade  of  this 
character  can  be  worked  up,  there  is 
nearly  double  the  profit  by  killing  and 
selling  in  this  manner  than  by  selling 
alive. 

Laws  relative  to  shipping  stock — In 
order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  animal 
diseases  from  one  state  to  another,  to 
protect  the  public  health  against  the 
killing  for  food  of  any  diseased,  ema- 
ciated, or  pregnant  animal,  and  to  pro- 
tect and  foster  the  export  trade  in 
sound  animals  and  meat,  national,  state 
and  local  laws  bearing  on  these  matters 
bave  been  enacted. 

The  national  laws  deal  with  inter- 
state and  foreign  trade,  and  their  admin- 
istration is  intrusted  to  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Diseased  animals  must  not  be 
shipped — These  laws  require  that  before 
any  cattle  or  other  stock  is  offered  for 
transportation,  the  shipper  shall  exercise 
reasonable  care  to  ascertain  that  his  ani- 
mals are  not  affected  with  any  con- 
tagious or  infectious  disease.  Should  a 
shipper  send  diseased  animals  to  mar- 
ket, they  might  be  quarantined  any- 
where on  the  road  or  after  they  had 
reached  their  destination,  which  would 
result  in  a  great  loss  of  time  and  a  total 
loss  of  all -profits  besides  subjecting  the 
shipper  to  arrest.  If .  the  animals  are 
diseased,  this  fact  must  be  stated  to  the 
transportation. company  at  the  time  of 
shipment  and  a  special  pen  set  aside  for 
receiving  them  at  the  stock  yard.  Be- 
fore using  the  same  cars  again  for  carry- 
ing stock,  they  must  be  thoroughly  dis- 
infected. 

Quarantine  line  area  —  To  pre- 
vent the  spread  of  splenetic  or  Texas 
fever  of  cattle,  a  national  quarantine 
line  has  been  established,  which  takes 
in  nearly  all  of  the  southern  and  south- 
western states.  Cattle  from  below  this 
line  can  be  shipped  into  markets  north, 
east  and  west  of  it  only  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the 
department  of  agriculture.  At  present 
these  provide  that  cattle  may  be  shipped 
during  the  months  of  January,  Novem- 
ber and  December  without  restrictions. 
They  may  be  shipped  at  any  time  by 
rail  or  boat  to  a  recognized  slaughter 
center  outside  the  quarantined  area  for 
immediate     slaughter,     but     cannot     be 


trailed,  driven  or  hauled  therefrom  in  a 
private  conveyance. 

When  thus  shipped,  the  cattle  must 
be  slaughtered  within  two  weeks  after 
arrival  at  destination.  Cars  containing 
such  stock  must  be  marked  Southern 
Cattle.  The  waybills,  bills  of  lading  of 
such  shipments,  must  contain  a  like 
statement.  Any  cattle  outside  of  the 
quarantine  line  which  may  be  infected 
with  the  southern  cattle  tick,  may  dis- 
seminate Texas  fever,  and  are,  there- 
fore, subject  to  the  regulations  govern- 
ing the  movements  of  cattle  originating 
in  the  quarantined  area. 

Dipping  required  —  Southern  cattle 
may  also  be  shipped  to  any  points  out- 
side the  quarantined  area  at  any  time, 
providing  they  have  been  properly 
dipped  under  the  supervision  of  an  in- 
spector of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Indus- 
try, and  are  shipped  in  clean,  disinfected 
cars  and  not  driven  through  the  quar- 
antined area  or  unloaded  therein,  except 
at  such  points  as  may  be  designated  in 
the  rules  of  t^e  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

When  cattle,  after  proper  dipping  and 
inspection,  are  shipped  from  the  quar- 
antined area,  to  points  outside,  for  pur- 
poses other  than  immediate  slaughter, 
the  owner  or  consigner  of  the  cattle 
must  give  a  signed  statement  to  the 
transportation  company,  showing  the 
purpose  for  which  the  cattle  are  shipped, 
and  this  statement  must  in  every  case 
accompany  the  waybills. 

Permits  granted  — In  states  which 
have  been  quarantined  against  scabies 
in  cattle  or  sheep,  a  permit  must  be 
obtained  from  the  inspector  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Animal  Industry,  before  the 
stock  can  be  sent  to  market.  If  diseased, 
such  stock  must  be  dipped,  in  dips  rec- 
ommended by  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  before  shipment  can  be  made. 
Stock  not  visibly  affected  with  the  scab- 
ies may  be  shipped,  without  inspection, 
from  points  in  the  quarantined  area, 
and  where  the  services  of  the  inspector 
are  not  readily  procurable  to  any  recog- 
nized slaughtering  center  for  immedi- 
ate slaughter.  The  car  in  which  such 
stock  is  shipped  must  be  labeled  "unin- 
spected cattle,"  or,  in  the  case  of  sheep, 
"dipped  scabby,"  or,  if  exposed  to  the  dis- 
ease, "exposed  sheep  for  slaughter." 

Stockers  must  be  dipped — If  scabby 
cattle  or  sheep  are  shipped  for  stockers 
or  feeders,  they  must  be  dipped  at  least 
twice  at  intervals  of  10  days  apart,  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  inspector  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


215 


Swine  diseased  with  hog  cholera  or 
swine  plague,  or  which  have  been  ex- 
posed to  either  of  these  diseases  by- 
contact  with  diseased  animals,  or  con- 
finement in  infected  cars,  pens  or  other 
premises,  cannot  be  transported  or 
driven  from  one  state  or  territory  to 
another,  and  all  persons  intending  to 
ship  swine  must  ascertain  before  offer- 
ing them  for  shipment  that  the  animals 
are  not  diseased  and  have  not  been  ex- 
posed to  the  contagion  of  either  disease. 
Swine  not  diseased  with  either  of  these 
diseases,  and  which  have  not  been  ex- 
posed to  the  infection,  may  be  shipped 
anywhere  subject  only  to  state  or  terri- 
torial laws. 

Infected  stock  yards — "Public  stock 
yards  shall  be  considered  infected,  and 
no  swine  shall  be  shipped  therefrom  for 
feeding  or  stocking  purposes.  No  dis- 
eased swine  shall  be  shipped  from  the 
stock  yards,  but  shall  be  slaughtered, 
subject  to  condemnation  on  post-mortem 
inspection;  and  all  swine  in  a  certain 
lot  or  shipment  shall  be  considered  dis- 
eased when  one  or  more  of  them  show 
evidence  of  the  disease.  Swine  that  are 
not  diseased  and  have  been  merely  ex- 
posed by  being  in  the  yards,  may  be 
shipped  to  a  recognized  slaughtering 
center  for  immediate  slaughter.  Where, 
however,  a  part  of  the  yard  is  set  apart 
for  the  reception  of  infected  shipments 
of  swine  and  is  kept  free  of  infection, 
swine  may  be  shipped  from  such  parts 
without  restriction." 

Transportation  requirements — The 
law  relating  to  the  transportation  of 
live  stock,  which  is  the  subject  of  inter- 
state commerce,  requires  that  in  the 
transporting  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine  or 
any  other  animals  from  one  state  to 
another,  they  shall  not  be  confined  in 
cars,  boats  or  vessels  of  any  description 
for  a  longer  period  than  28  consecutive 
hours  without  unloading  the  same  for 
rest,  water  and  feeding  for  a  period  of 
at  least  five  consecutive  hours,  unless 
prevented  from  unloading  by  storm  or 
other  accidental  causes,  or  by  special 
request  of  the  owner  or  person  in  charge, 
when  time  may  be  extended  to  36  hours. 
In  estimating  such  confinement,  the 
times  during  which  the  animals  have 
been  confined  without  such  rest  on  con- 
necting roads  from  which  they  are  re- 
ceived, shall  be  included;  if,  however, 
proper  arrangements  for  food,  water, 
space  and  opportunity  to  rest  are  pro- 
vided, the  provision  in  regard  to  their 
being  unloaded  does  not  apply.    All  the 


regulations  of  the  department  of  agri- 
culture relative  to  the  shipment  of  stock, 
transportation  of  diseased  animals,  etc, 
can  be  obtained  upon  application  to  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Attendants  on  stock  cars — Where  one 
or  more  carloads  of  stock  is  shipped  long 
distances,  it  is  expected  that  at  least  one 
attendant  will  accompany  them  to  look 
after  the  stock.  This  attendant  will  be 
given  free  transportation  by  the  railroad 
company  to  market,  but  must  pay  his 
own  expenses  on  the  return  trip.  He  is 
usually  given  accommodations  in  the 
caboose  of  the  stock  train,  and  must 
take  such  accommodations  as  are  avail- 
able. Where  but  one  or  two  animals 
are  shipped  in  a  box  car,  the  attendant 
may  ride  in  the  same  car  with  them. 
On  shorter  journeys  of  24  to  30  hours, 
where  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  either 
feed  or  water  stock,  an  attendant  is  not 
necessary. 

Even  with  the  larger  shipments,  if  no 
attendant  is  sent  with  the  stock,  the 
employees  of  the  railroad  will  see  that 
they  are  watered  and  feed  given  them. 
Upon  arrival  at  the  stock  yard,  the 
attendant  will  see  that  the  car  contain- 
ing his  stock  is  switched  off  at  the 
proper  station.  If  he  is  well  acquainted 
with  the  stock  yards,  he  may  be  able  to 
save  much  unnecessary  switching  in 
properly  placing  his  car. 

Inspection  of  stock — As  soon  as  stock 
arrive  at  the  stock  yards,  they  are  in- 
spected by  a  veterinarian.  At  the  Chi- 
cago stock  yards  there  are  three  separate 
sets  of  inspectors,  those  representing  the 
city  of  Chicago,  the  state  of  Illinois  and 
the  United  States.  Each  of  these  in- 
spectors has  clearly  defined  duties  and 
all  work  in  harmony  to  secure  pure 
meats  for  the  people  of  Chicago,  the 
state,  the  United  States  and  foreign 
countries  which  consume  animal  and 
meat  products,  shipped  from  the  Chi- 
cago markets. 

The  inspection  is  both  ante-mortem 
and  post-mortem,  and  in  case  of 
doubt,  microscopic  also.  If  animals 
suffering  from  disease  or  injury,  which 
makes  them  unfit  for  food  arrive,  they 
are  condemned.  These,  as  well  as  ani- 
mals which  arrive  at  the  yards  dead, 
are  sent  to  the  rendering  works.  Every 
day  considerable  numbers  of  pigs,  sheep 
and  occasionally  cattle,  arrive  dead. 

"Animals  in  poor  condition  and  under 
suspicion  as  unfit  for  food  are  marked 


216 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


with  metal  tags  in  the  ear  and  are 
placed  in  special  pens  for  further  obser- 
vation or  slaughter."  These  animals 
are  slaughtered  under  the  supervision 
of  attendant  veterinarians  and  records 
are  made  of  each  case.  In  case  of  ani- 
mals which  are  out  of  form  in  some 
respects,  yet  not  unfit  for  food,  the 
meat  is  sold  to  local  buyers.  Tu  the 
yard  inspection  it  may  happen  that  some 
animals  fall  under  suspicion  that  will 
later  be  allowed  to  go  with  the  passed 
animals  as  being  salable  on  open  market. 

Condemned  animals — "Cows  within 
a  month  of  parturition  and  for  10  days 
after  will  be  subject  to  condemnation. 
In  the  slaughter  houses,  the  meat  of  all 
cows  that  have  calves  inside  with  the 
hair  on  is  condemned.  So  also  are  all 
pregnant  sows  near  parturition,  hogs 
with  bunches,  boils,  cuts  on  hams  and 
shoulders,  etc.  Bob  or  deacon  calves 
(calves  less  than  a  month  old)  are  con- 
demned, and  also  sheep  emaciated  and 
in  bad  condition." 

The  live  stock  exchange  takes  charge 
of  all  dead  and  condemned  animals. 
The  condemned  animals  are  slaughtered 
and  with  the  dead  stock  are  sold  chiefly 
for  soap  grease  and  fertilizers.  What- 
ever returns  are  secured  from  this 
source  over  the  cost  of  handling  are 
turned  over  to  the  original  owners  of  the 
animals. 

The  system  of  meat  inspection  ob- 
served at  the  slaughtering  houses  has 
been  noted  in  another  chapter  of  this 
work.  It  is  sufficient  to  state  here  that 
by  its  thoroughness,  only  clean,  whole- 
some meat,  free  from  disease,  reaches 
the  public.  The  stamp  of  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  on  these  meats 
gives  notice  to  foreign  countries  that 
it  has  been  carefully  inspected  and 
found  absolutely  free  from  disease,  elean 
and  healthful. 

When  to  ship  stock — Stock  should  be 
shipped  to  market  only  when  it  is  in 
prime  condition;  50  to  100  pounds  of 
meat  added  to  a  horse  will  often  in- 
crease its  sale  value  as  many  dollars. 
The  cost  of  shipping  prime  animals  to 
market  is  no  more  than  for  shipping 
those  in  medium  condition,  and  it  is 
only  the  prime  stock  that  gives  top 
market  prices. 

Many  feeders  often  make  the  mistake 
of  holding  stock  that  should  be  sent  to 
market.  Thus,  if  a  man  is  feeding  100 
to  150  head  of  steers  and  one-half  to 
two-thirds  of  this    number    are    fit  for 


market,  he  may  keep  these  in  prime 
condition  at  a  loss  until  he  can  ship 
the  whole  bunch  at  once.  This  is  a 
lui stake.  Fat  stock  should  be  shipped 
as  soon  as  it  is  ready  and  enough  is 
on  hand  to  make  a  carload.  This  gives 
the  animals  that  are  left  a  better  chance 
to  improve  and  avoids  the  loss  that  in- 
evitably occurs  when  stock  ready  for 
the  market  is  still  retained  in  the  feed- 
ing yards.  Many  experiments  with  all 
manner  of  stock  have  shown  that  the 
last  few  pounds  added  to  an  animal's 
growth  before  marketing  cost  three  to 
four  times  as  much  as  it  is  worth. 

Consult  with  the  commission  man — 
The  greater  part  of  the  stock  sold  in  the 
larger  markets  is  sold  through  commis- 
sion men.  Before  sending  stock,  it  is 
extremely  desirable,  and  usually  saves 
both  disappointment  and  loss  to  the 
shipper,  if  the  commission  merchant  be 
notified  two  or  three  days  in  advance 
of  the  shipment.  Then,  if  the  commis- 
sion merchant  thinks  the  stock  will  be 
benefited  by  still  longer  feeding,  or  that 
the  prospect  is  vmfavorable  at  the  time 
the  feeder  expected  to  have  his  stock  on 
the  market,  he  can  so  advise  the  ship- 
per, and  thus  save  him  from  sacrificing 
his  stock  or  getting  it  to  market  at  the 
wrong  time. 

This  is  a  matter  of  special  impor- 
tance in  November  or  the  beginning  of 
winter,  when  the  markets  are  being 
crowded  with  half-fat  cattle  that  ought 
to  be  held  back  30  to  60  days  longer. 
"No  doubt  many  of  these  look  all  right 
in  the  feed  lot  and  appear  to  have  a 
good  finish,  but  not  having  matured  or 
ripened,  they  practically  go  to  pieces  on 
the  cars  and,  in  addition  to  loss  in  heavy 
shrinkage,  the  owners  have  to  accept  a 
low  price  on  the  market." 

Give  notice  op  shipment— If  the  plan 
of  giving  notice  a  day  or  so  before  the 
feeder  expects  to  ship  is  followed  up, 
it  works  both  to  the  advantage  of  the 
shipper  and  seller.  The  commission 
man  is  on  the  market  every  day.  He 
knows  just  what  the  market  wants,  and 
can  judge  much  more  clearly  of  the 
immediate  future  prospects,  usually, 
than  the  feeders  300  or  400  miles  awsy. 
By  seeking  his  friendly  counsel,  the 
feeder  can  often  avoid  losses  and  in- 
crease  his   profits. 

Classifying  stock  in  shipping— 
Where  a  feeder  has  more  than  one  car- 
load of  stock  to  send  to  market,  it  should 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


217 


be  classified  as  much  as  possible.  Ani- 
mals of  practically  the  same  weight 
should  be  put  together.  Even  the  color 
is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance. 
A  whole  car  of  black  hogs,  or  a  whole 
car  of  white  hogs,  creates  a  more  favor- 
able impression  than  a  mixed  lot. 
Where  the  animals  are  about  of  the 
same  size,  the  cars  can  be  loaded  more 
easily  and  the  stock  shipped  much  bet- 
ter. There  is  less  danger  from  the 
weak  and  smaller  animals  being  injured. 
Where  it  is  not  done  by  the  shipper,  it 
must  often  be  done  after  the  stock 
reaches  the  market,  which  takes  con- 
siderable time  and  often  results  in  loss 
to  the  shipper.  If  the  shipper  has  only 
one  carload  of  stock,  of  course  it  can- 
not be  graded  in  this  manner. 

Striking  a  market — It  is  the  aim  of 
all  stock  shippers,  of  course,  to  try  to 
strike  the  best  market.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  is  extremely  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  forecast  the  day  when  the 
best  prices  of  the  season  will  be  se- 
cured. Stock  is  being  shipped  every  day 
in  the  year,  and  if  there  were  any  one 
season  in  which  it  was  especially  high, 
many  feeders  would  aim  to  hit  that  mar- 
ket. The  results  of  this  would  be  a  glut 
and  low  prices. 

Coburn  cites  an  example  in  which  a 
heavy  fall  of  snow  occurred  on  a  Sun- 
day in  February.  The  following  Mon- 
day morning  on  the  Kansas  City  market 
but  61  cars  of  stock  were  on  sale.  The 
difficulty  of  reaching  the  station  was  so 
great  that  shippers  and  feeders  thought 
it  would  be  a  good  time  to  ship  into 
the  market  while  others  were  tied  up  at 
home,  and  so  get  the  benefits  of  the  high 
advance  in  price.  As  a  result  of  this 
reasoning,  there  was  by  far  the  largest 
receipts  for  a  winter  day  up  to  that 
time,  and  prices  went  to  smash.  "This 
is  mentioned  simply  to  show  what  little 
judgment  is  exercised  by  the  majority  of 
feeders  in  always  rushing  to  the  market 
with  all  of  a  particular  feeding  simply 
to  get  the  benefit  of  a  rise,  and  the  bene- 
fit of  a  break  is  more  often  the  result." 

It  is  entirely  impossible  for  all  to 
strike  the  best  market.  Stock  should  be 
shipped  when  it  is  ripe  for  market,  even 
if  prices  are  not  as  high  as  it  is  expect- 
ed they  may  be  a  month  or  two  in  the 
future.  If  this  system  is  regularly  fol- 
lowed, it  is  firmly  believed  that  the 
average  profits  will  be  much  greater 
than  where  stock  is  held  after  it  is  fin- 
ished in  order  to  strike  a  better  market, 


Securing  cars  and  shipping  horses, 
cattle,  etc. — Where  stock  is  shipped  by 
freight,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  notify 
the  railroad  company  two  or  three  days 
in  advance,  in  order  that  suitable  cars 
may  be  secured.  Even  in  the  largest 
market  one  day's  notice  at  least  is  ex- 
pected. There  are  many  different  kinds 
of  stock  cars.  The  plain  box  cars,  30x36 
feet  in  length,  are  used  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  Such  cars  are  about  8  feet 
wide  and  7  feet  high.  Horses  and  cattle 
shipped  in  these  cars  may  be  penned 
in  by  constructing  temporary  box  stalls. 

Ix  shippixg  but  oxe  horse  or  one  cow 
it  may  be  penned  in  at  one  end  of  the 
car,  loose  with  plenty  of  bedding  on  the 
floor.  A  bedding  of  sand  is  advisable 
for  horses,  to  prevent  their  slipping. 
With  cattle  an  abundance  of  straw  or 
hay  may  be  used. 

Whex  a  carload  of  horses  is  thus 
shipped,  they  should  stand  side  by  side 
with  the  heads  all  one  way  and  so  close 
that  they  will  not  lie  down.  Cattle  are 
shipped  in  the  same  way.  The  more 
common  stock  car,  and  the  more  suit- 
able in  warm  weather,  is  the  car  with 
slatted  sides  and  ends,  made  expressly 
for  stock.  These  cars  are  usually  fitted 
with  water  troughs  on  the  sides. 

Cars  for  sheep  axd  hogs  usually  con- 
tain two  decks,  the  second  floor  being 
at  a  height  of  Sy2  feet  from  the  first 
floor  and  generally  removable.  By  using 
these  double  decked  cars,  nearly  twice 
as  many  sheep  or  hogs  can  be  carried 
in  the  same  car  as  in  the  common  car. 

Improved  stock  cars — In  addition  to 
these  more  common  stock  cars,  there  are 
a  number  of  improved  forms  of  cars. 
"One  of  the  most  prominent  forms  for 
shipping  cattle  has  open  barred  sides, 
with  hay  racks  and  iron  water  troughs, 
which  rest  in  a  horizontal  position  to 
hold  water  or  feed,  or  which  may  be 
shifted  to  the  side  of  the  car  in  an 
inverted  position  for  cleaning." 

On  such  cars  as  these,  cattle  from 
points  distant  1,000  or  1,500  miles  from 
market  can  be  shipped  without  unload- 
ing and  arrive  in  market  in  much  better 
condition  than  when  shipped  in  the 
common  cars  from  which  they  have  to 
be  unloaded  once  or  twice  for  feeding 
and  thus  knocked  about  and  more  or 
less  injured  before  reaching  their  final 
destination. 

Uxloadixg  stock  ix  transit— It  great- 
ly injures  the  appearance  of  stock  to 
have  to  unload  it  once  or  twice  before 


218 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


reaching  market,  as  the  animals  are  con- 
siderably bruised  and  the  bruises  thus 
sustained  show  up  still  more  when  the 
hide  is  off.  It  will  be  a  fortunate  day 
for  stock  men  when  all  stock  can  be 
shipped  in  these  improved  cars  without 
unloading. 

Overloading  cars — Considerable  care 
is  necessary  not  to  overload  cars,  since 
stock  does  not  look  as  well  when  it 
reaches  market,  there  is  considerable 
extra  shrinkage  in  weight,  which  affects 
the  sale  fully  10  cents  a  hundred  pounds. 

Special  horse  cars — For  shipping 
high-grade  stock,  especially  horses,  a 
form  of  palace  car  has  been  devised 
which  is  thus  described  by  Plumb : 
"This  is  a  car  divided  into  stalls  which 
are  adjustable.  A  horse  is  placed  in  one 
end  of  the  car  with  head  facing  the 
side  and  a  wooden  partition  is  swung 
against  him  and  fastened  to  make  one 
side  of  a  stall.  A  second  horse  is  led 
up  along  side  the  first,  facing  the  same 
way,  and  another  partition  is  swung 
about  to  form  the  side  of  a  stall,  thus 
the  entire  side  of  the  car,  excepting  for 
a  space  in  the  center,  is  filled  with 
horses  in  independent  stalls,  each  being 
furnished  with  mangers  for  holding 
water  and  hay.  An  alley  extends  along 
in  front  of  the  horses,  and  there  are 
water  pipes  for  use  in  watering  at  cer- 
tain stages  on  the  journey.  The  car  also 
has  a  chest  for  storing  grain  and  over- 
head racks  for  hay  and  straw.  Such 
a  car  is  chartered  and  costs  so  much  per 
mile  in  addition  to  the  regular  carriage, 


this  being  charged  by  the  company 
owning  the  car." 

Size  and  capacity  of  cars — The  usual 
stock  car  has  an  inside  length  of  about 
34  feet,  and  has  a  capacity  of  18  to  20 
horses  or  cattle,  70  to  90  hogs  in  a  single 
floor,  or  100  to  150  in  a  double  decker, 
and  about  200  to  250  sheep  in  a  double 
deck  car.  With  the  smaller  western 
lambs  still  larger  numbers  can  be  car- 
ried. Thus  loaded,  sheep  and  hogs  have 
sufficient  space  in  which  to  lie  down, 
but  cattle  and  horses  are  expected  to 
stand  up  throughout  the  journey. 

Bills  of  lading_In  making  a  ship- 
ment of  stock,  either  by  express  or 
freight,  the  shipper  is  given  a  bill  of 
lading  which  shows  the  date  of  ship- 
ment, to  whom  the  shipment  is  made. 
The  rate  of  charge  is  also  stated  if  the 
shippers  so  desire.  The  shipper  may 
either  retain  this  bill  of  lading  in  his 
own  possession  if  he  goes  with  his  stock, 
or  it  may  be  sent  to  the  person  to  whom 
the  shipment  is  consigned.  This,  how- 
ever, is  unnecessary  when  sending  to 
commission  men,  who  are  well  known  in 
the  city  to  which  the  stock  is  sent. 

When  the  agent  or  commission  mer- 
chant receives  the  stock,  he  must  sign 
a  receipt  showing  that  he  has  obtained 
the  stock  in  good  condition.  If,  how- 
ever, the  stock  has  been  injured  through 
negligence  on  the  part  of  the  railroad, 
damages  can  usually  be  collected. 

Liability  of  railroads — In  making  a 
shipment  of  stock,  the  consignor  is  usu- 


RAILROAD    RATES    FOR    STOCK    FROM    WESTERN   POINTS   PER   HUNDRED  WEIGHT 

From  To  Kansas  City,  Mo.     To  Omaha,  Neb. 


1898 

Amarillo,    Tex $0.28 

Barstow,    Tex 47 

San  Antonio,  Tex 45x/2 

Woodward,   Okla 22 

McAlester,  Ind.  Ter...       .22 

Greeley,  Col 31 

Eldorado,  Kan *33.00 

Logan,    Kan *31.00 

Kearney,   Neb — 

Alliance,  Neb — 

Belle  Fourche,  S.  D..  .        — 

Eapid  City,  S.  D — 

Dickinson,  N.  D — 

Helena,  Mont — 

Miles   City,   Mont — 

Cheyenne,  Wyo — 

Laramie,    Wyo — 

Pocatello,  Ida — 

-   *car  rates. 


January 
1905 


1905 


January 

1898 


).34i/2 
.50% 

•5iy2 

.29i/2 

.31 

.33 

.14 

.15V2 


To  Chicago. 

January 
1905 

).44V4     $0.52% 


1898 


.563/4 


*$32.00 

53.00 

.36 

.35 


•62V2 


.31 
71.10 


•6iy2 


$o.i5y, 

.27 
.36 
.35 

.62i/2 

.33 
*71.10 
'130.10 


36i/2 

283/4 

37y> 

46 
48 
47 
48 
71 
48 
47 
47 
81% 


•3iy2 

•35i/2 

.37i/2 

.46 

.48 

.47 

.48 

.71 

.48 

.48 

.48 

.75 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


219 


ally  required  to  sign  a  release.  Theo- 
retically, this  releases  the  railway  or  ex- 
press company  from  all  liability  to 
damage  should  the  shipped  stock  be 
injured  en  route.  If,  however,  it  can  be 
shown  that  the  damage  occurred  through 
the  negligence  of  the  railway  or  express 
company,  damages  can  be  obtained  not- 
withstanding the  "release." 

Transportation  rates— Railroad  and 
transportation  rates  on  stock  vary 
greatly  in  different  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, and  also  with  the  distance  that  the 
stock  is  shipped,  whether  by  freight  or 
express,  size  of  the  car,  etc.  In  recent 
years  the  tendency  has  been  to  charge 


a  certain  rate  a  hundred  pounds — a 
change  which  has  decreased  the  ten- 
dency among  shippers  to  overload  their 
cars.  The  foregoing  table  shows  the 
rates  on  carload  lots  of  cattle  from 
leading  points  in  the  West  to  three  of 
the  more  prominent  stock  markets,  as 
given  in  the  report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Corporations  on  the  beef  trust  in- 
dustry. 

The  rates  on  carload  lots  also  differ 
markedly  in  different  states.  The  fol- 
lowing table,  prepared  by  Plumb,  shows 
the  freight  rates  in  Wisconsin,  Illinois 
and  Iowa,  in  shipping  cattle,  sheep  and 
swine  from  100  to  300  miles: 


FREIGHT  RATES  IN  DIFFERENT  STATES 

Length 

Class  of  Freight                           of  Haul  Wisconsin              Illinois                 Iowa 

Cattle,  per  100  pounds 100  $15.00                  $  9.50                 $11.32 

Do                    200  20.00                    12.10                   15.53 

Do                    300  25.00                    14.70                   20.26 

Sheep,  per  100  pounds  100  18.50                   13.00                  10.96 

Do                    200  25.00                   18.30                  22.00 

Do                    300  31.20                   20.00                  25.90 

Swine,  per  100  pounds   100  18.50                    13.00                   10.96 

Do                   200  25.00                   16.50                  15.80 

Do                    300  21.20                    18.00                 19.00 

Relatively  short  hauls,  it  will  be  confined  for  the  most  part  to  the  fore- 
noted,  cost  proportionately  much  more  noon.  As  soon  as  the  animals  reach  the 
than  longer  hauls.  The  cost  of  shipping  stock  yards  they  are  quickly  unloaded 
sheep  from  Oregon  to  Chicago  in  30  to  and  driven  to  the  selling  pens,  where 
36-foot  cars  varies  from  $234  to  $260  a  they  are  fed  and  watered, 
car.  When  stock  is  shipped  to  market,  Selling  stock—Shippers  to  these  mar- 
both  humanity  and  economy  demand  kets  are  practically  compelled  to  intrust 
that  the  animals  be  sent  forward  as  their  stock  to  a  eommission  agent  for 
quickly  as  possible  They  are,  therefore,  gale<  The  regular  commission  dealers 
ordinarily  shipped  in  special  stock  in  these  yardg  are  memberg  of  an  or  an_ 
trams  which  run  at  a  much  more  rapid  ization  of  Hve  stock  exchailge>  the  pur. 
rate  than  the  ordinary  freight  trains.  pose  of  whicn  is  to  fix  a  minimum  and 

Stock    yards_In    all    of    the    leading  uniform  charge  for  selling  and  buying 

cities,  large    central    stock    yards    have  stock   and   to    enforce    fair    and   honest 

been  established  to   which   all  the  live  methods   on   the   part   of   its   members, 

stock   brought   into   the   city   are   taken  The  actual  gale  of  gtock  occurg  at  the 

for  sale.     In  this  way  all  the  sellers  and  which  are  vigited  b     fc            frQm 

buyers    are    brought   together.      All   the  71      *  ,-,              ,         i  .                              ■, 

",  i  °  .  i  ,-,  all  of  the  great  packing  companies,  Jo- 
stock  yards  are  organized  on  the  s,ime  ,  ,  .  .-,  .  ,  i  i  •  uv 
general  plan.  A  company  usually  cated  m  the  stock  yards,  and  m  addition 
known  as  the  Union  Stock  Yards  com-  b^  Wers  for  sma11  local  concerns,  for 
pany  owns  and  controls  them.  eastern  concerns  or  special  order  buyers 
The  yards  are  divided  up  into  numer-  and  exPort  buyers.  The  export  buyers 
ous  sections.  There  are  main  drives  and  purchase  cattle  and  other  stock  for  ship- 
alleyways,  with  intervening  spaces  filled  ment  alive  to  Europe.  The  buyers  for 
with  stock  houses  and  pens.  It  is  the  the  European  market  are  more  numer- 
aim  of  shippers  and  the  railroad  also  to  ous  at  the  Chicago  market  than  else- 
so  time  the  loading  and  movement  of  where.  If  the  owner  of  the  stock  accom- 
trains  that  the  stock  shall  arrive  in  the  panies  his  animals  to  market,  he  must 
yards  early  in  the  morning,  in  time  for  conform  to  the  rules  made  by  the  ex- 
the   day's   market,  which   is    ordinarily  change  or  stock  yard  company  and  pay 


220 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


such  rate  for  yardage,  feed  or  commis- 
sion, as  has  been  established. 

Subdividing  shipments — Stock  is  usu- 
ally sold  in  bunches  varying  from  one 
to  several  hundred.  The  consignment 
of  each  shipper  is  usually  sold  separately, 
but  may  be  subdivided  by  the  commis- 
sion agent,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
adjusting  the  number  sold  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  individual  buyer  or  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  uniformity  in 
character  and  quality  and  thus  obtaining 
a  better  price  for  the  whole  lot.  A 
mixed  shipment  of  cattle,  for  instance, 
is  usually  divided  according  to  the  sex. 
Cows,  heifers,  bulls  and  stags  and  steers 
each  being  sold  in  a  separate  lot.  The 
subdivision  thus  made  may  be  sold  either 
to  one  buyer  or  to  many  buyers. 

Final  disposal  of  stock  sold — As 
soon  as  a  bunch  of  stock  is  sold  it  is 
driven  to  the  scales  and  weighed.  Ani- 
mals bought  by  packers  are  immediately 
driven  to  the  packing  houses  which  are 
usually  located  in  or  near  the  stock 
yards.  Cattle  are  generally  held  a  day 
or  more  to  rest  and  to  reduce  their  tem- 
perature to  a  normal  point  before  kill- 
ing. Hogs  and  sheep  are  usually  killed 
on  the  day  of  purchase. 

Bules  of  the  stock  yards — The  gen- 
eral regulations  in  stock  yards  are  prac- 
tically the  same  in  all  different  cities. 
When  stock  is  unloaded,  it  is  fed  and 
watered  before  being  offered  for  sale, 
and  this  expense  must  be  borne  by  the 
shipper,  as  well  as  the  charge  for  weigh- 
ing the  animals  when  they  are  sold. 
The  dead  and  injured  stock  arriving  at 
the  stock  yards  is  disposed  of  by  the 
stock  yard  company  for  various  pur- 
poses. The  fat  is  used  for  soap,  the 
lean  meat  and  bones  for  fertilizers,  etc. 
The  proceeds  from  these  sources  after 
expenses  are  paid,  are  turned  over  to  the 
shipper. 

Water  is  supplied  free  in  all  yards. 
The  person  in  charge  of  a  consignment 
of  stock  fills  out  a  blank  form  which 
he  presents  at  the  office  of  a  feed  super- 
intendent for  whatever  feed  he  desires. 

This  feed  is  promptly  delivered  to  the 
pens  anywhere  in  the  yards.  The  cost 
for  hay  in  the  different  yards  varies 
from  $1  to  $1.50  a  hundred  weight  and 
of  corn  and  oats  from  $1  to  $1.25  a 
bushel  each. 

Commission  charges — The  regulations 
adopted  by  the  Chicago  live  stock  ex- 
change relative   to  commission  charges, 


is  shown  in  the  following  regulations  in 
force   in   1907. 

Cattle — 50  cents  a  head.  Not  less 
than  $10  nor  more  than  $12  a  car. 

Calves — 25  cents  a  head.  Not  less 
than  $10  nor  more  than  $12  a  car. 
Double-deck  carloads  $18. 

Milch  cows — With  calves  by  their 
sides,  75  cents. 

Hogs — Single-deck  cars  containing  30 
head  or  more,  $8.  Double-deck  carloads 
of  hogs,  $12. 

Sheep — Single-deck  cars  containing  30 
head  or  more,  $8.  Double-deck  carloads 
of  sheep,  $12. 

Sheep  originating  in  double-deck  cars, 
but  for  any  reason  arriving  in  single- 
deck  cars,  where  double-deck  freight 
rates  are  applied,  may  be  sold  at  the 
double-deck  rate  of  commission,  viz., 
$12. 

Less  than  30  head  of  hogs  or  sheep 
in  a  single-deck  car,  with  no  other  stock 
n  the  car,  shall  be  charged  for  at  the 
rate  of  15  cents  a  head. 

Stock  driven  or  hauled  in :  Cattle  50 
cents,  calves  25  cents,  hogs  15  cents, 
sheep  15  cents  a  head. 

Mixed  stock  in  car  lots — Cattle — 50 
cents  a  head.  Not  to  exceed  $12  for  the 
cattle  contained  in  the  car. 

Calves — 25  cents  a  head.  Not  to  ex- 
ceed $12  for  the  calves  contained!  in 
the  car. 

Hogs — 15  cents  a  head.  Not  to  ex- 
ceed $8  for  the  hogs  contained  in  the 
car. 

Sheep — 15  cents  a  head.  Not  to  ex- 
ceed $8  for  the  sheep  contained  in  the 
car. 

The  commission  on  mixed  stock  shall 
be  governed  by  this  section,  provided 
the  charge  shall  not  be  less  than  $10  on 
a  single-deck,  or  $14  on  double-deck 
cars,  not  more  than  $15  on  a  single-deck, 
or  $18  on  double-deck  cars,  containing 
two  species  of  live  stock;  on  cars  con- 
taining three  species  of  live  stock — 
either  single  or  double  decks — the  min- 
imum charge  shall  be  $15,  maximum 
$18   a  carload. 

When  part  of  a  car  is  double-decked 
and  loaded  with  hogs  or  sheep  or  calves, 
unmixed,  the  commission  for  selling 
such  fractional  upper  deck  shall  be  at 
the  rates  herein  established  for  selling 
single  decks  of  mixed  stock  for  each  ani- 
mal on  the  upper  deck,  not  to  exceed 
$12  for  the  entire  car.  When  mixed 
the  same  rates  shall  apply,  not  to  ex- 
ceed $18  for  the  entire  car. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


221 


On  carloads  of  stock  having  more  than 
one  owner,  requiring  more  than  one  ac- 
count of  sales,  the  commission  shall  be 
50  cents  a  head  for  cattle  and  15  cents 
a  head  for  hogs  and  15  cents  a  head  for 
sheep,  without  regard  to  the  number  of 
head  in  said  car,  provided  that  the 
aggregate  commissions  charged  shall  not 
be  less  than  the  minimum  fixed  rate  a 
car  under  the  section  that  otherwise 
would  apply. 

In  determining  the  application  of  said 
rates  of  commission,  the  official  count 
and  classification  by  the  yardmaster 
shall  rule  in  all  cases,  except  when  cor- 
rected by  authority  of  the  Union  Stock 
Yard  and  Transit  company  to  conform 
to  the  actual  number  and  true  classi- 
fication. 

The  commission  for  purchasing  li\e 
stock  shall  not  be  less  than  the  follow- 
ing named  rates : 

Stocker  and  feeder  cattle  (includ- 
ing calves),  each,  but  not  ex- 
ceed $10  a  carload,  unless  the 
parties  in  connection  with  a  loan 
or  advancement,  agree  to  pay  a 
head,  without  regard  to  the  num- 
ber constituting  a  carload  lot.  .$0.50 
Stock  and  feeding  sheep  and  lambs, 

a  single-deck  carload-  • 6.00 

Stock  and  feeding  sheep  and  lambs 

a   double-deck   carload 10.00 

Charges,  dockage,  etc.— Lumpy-jaw 
cattle  and  diseased  meats  are  condemned 
at  Chicago.  Sales,  unless  otherwise  stat- 
ed, live  weight  by  the  100  pounds.  Own- 
ers of  stock  slaughtered  subject  to  state 
inspection  receive  returns  of  sales  ac- 
cording to  post-mortem  inspection.  Pub- 
lic inspectors  dock  pregnant  sows  40 
pounds,  stags,  altered  boars,  80  pounds. 
Yardage — Cattle  and  horses  25  cents, 
calves  15  cents,  hogs  8  cents,  sheep  5 
cents  a  head. 

Feed — Corn  75  cents  a  bushel,  timo- 
thy hay  $25  a  ton,  prairie  hay  $20. 

Yardage  changes — All  people  doing 
business  in  the  stock  yards  must  con- 
form to  the  above  regulations.  The 
care  of  the  stock  from  the  time  of  its 
arrival  to  its  disposal  is  subject  to  the 
company's  orders  and  care.  No  charge 
is  made  for  the  use  of  the  yards,  but  a 
charge  for  weighing,  usually  termed 
yardage,  is  collected  when  the  stock  is 
sold.  The  yardage  charges  in  Chicago 
are  noted  above.  In  Buffalo  and  Pitts- 
burg, the  yardage  charges  are  as  follows : 
Cattle  15  cents  a  head;  hogs  6  cents; 
sheep  4  cents;  calves  8  cents.     At  Oma- 


ha, the  charges  are  25  cents  for  cattle; 
8  cents  for  hogs;  5  cents  for  sheep,  and 
10  cents  for  calves. 

Payment  for  stock— If  a  carload  of 
stock  is  sent  to  market  to  be  sold  by  a 
commission  merchant,  the  shipper  re- 
ceives a  check  or  draft  for  his  consign- 
ment just  as  quickly  as  the  stock  is  sold. 
Along  with  it  he  receives  a  statement 
as  to  the  weight  of  the  stock,  the  classifi- 
cation which  was  made  of  it,  the  prices 
received  for  each  class,  the  yardage  and 
feed  charges  paid  and  the  amount  of  the 
commission  charges.  All  these  expenses 
are  subtracted  from  the  gross  receipts 
for  the  stock  and  the  balance  is  sent  to 
the  shipper.  There  is  usually  no  delay 
whatever  in  making  a  settlement. 

Shipping  cattle_In  shipping  cattle 
off  grass,  they  should  always  be  put  up 
in^  a  dry  lot  for  a  day  or  two  before 
shipment  is  made  and  fed  nothing  but 
corn,  oats  and  hay.  This  applies  more 
particularly  to  the  native  eastern  cattle 
which  are  used  to  these  feeds.  If  this 
is  not  done,  the  cattle  on  arrival  at 
market  have  a  grassy  look,  their  hair 
looks  shiny,  and  they  shrink  almost 
double  what  they  would  if  handled  as 
noted,  and  sell  from  10  to  15  cents  a 
hundred  less  than  if  put  in  a  dry  lot  and 
fed  on  dry  feeds  before  shipping.  If 
the  cattle  are  fed  corn  on  grass,  they 
may  be  taken  off  the  day  before  shipping 
and  fed  on  dry  food. 

In  driving  cattle  to  the  cars,  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  overheat  them. 
The  cars  should  be  well  bedded  down 
with  hay  or  sand.  Either  of  these  is 
considered  more  satisfactory  than  oat 
or  wheat  straw.  For  successful  ship- 
ping, it  is  essential  to  place  cattle  on 
the  cars  full  of  feed,  but  with  as  little 
moisture  in  them  as  possible.  A  steer 
full  of  water  at  the  beginning  of  the 
shipment  is  likely  to  show  up  badly  in 
the  stock  yards,  as  a  result  of  loose 
bowels.  When  properly  handled,  cattle 
should  arrive  at  the  stock  yai*ds  dry  be- 
hind and  ready  for  a  good  fill  of  water. 
Oversalting  and  watering  stock 
— Many  shippers  make  the  mistake  of 
oversalting  their  stock  at  time  of  ship- 
ment, or  by  feeding  them  oats,  with  the 
expectation  of  having  the  stock  arrive 
very  thirsty  in  market  and  drinking 
large  quantities  of  water  which  will  add 
to  their  weight  at  the  time  of  sale.  This 
is  a  great  mistake;  the  buyers  in  the 
stock  yards  have  had  long  experience, 
and  can  tell  at  a  glance  whether  stock 


222 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


has  been  overwatered  or  not.  When  cat- 
tle are  bought  by  buyers  to  be  shipped 
still  farther  on  the  cars,  it  is  of 
great  importance  that  they  be  in  con- 
dition to  stand  the  farther  shipment  at 
once.  If  cattle  drink  too  freely  they 
are  apt  to  flounder  and  break  down.  The 
packing  houses  can  use  these  cattle, 
but  it  stops  competition  as  far  as  out- 
side buyers  are  concerned,  and  the  re- 
sult is  a  considerably  lower  price  than 
they  would  normally  have  brought  had 
they  not  been  oversalted  and  thus  drunk 
too  freely. 

With  cattle  shipped  from  feeding 
pens,  there  will  ordinarily  be  no  especial 
preparation  for  their  shipment  neces- 
sary. They  should  be  fed  as  usual  on 
the  day  of  shipment.  If  the  cattle  are 
not  used  to  having  salt  every  day,  it 
should  not  be  given  to  them  on  the 
morning  they  are  taken  to  the  station. 
Water  may  be  withheld  from  the  stock 
on  the  day  of  shipment  in  cold  weather, 
but  should  not  be  withheld  in  warm 
weather. 

A  prominent  firm  of  commission 
dealers  on  the  Kansas  City  market, 
states  that:  "A  big  fill  is  not  by  any 
means  the  desired  end  in  the  marketing 
of  beef  cattle.  To  handle  them  intelli- 
gently in  the  feed  Tot  and  on  the  way 
to  the  shipping  point  and  to  load  them 
with  care,  means  much  more  for  the 
appearance  of  animals  on  the  market 
and  helps  to  make  a  sale.  Cattle  buyers 
are  paid  for  what  they  know  and  so 
their  bids  on  sore  and  down  cattle,  the 
result  of  bad  shipping  or  heavy  fill,  are 
in  accordance  with  appearance  of  con- 
signments in  the  pens.  What  a  shipper 
gains  in  one  direction  is  frequently  lost 
in  another." 

Loading  cattle — As  to  the  loading  of 
cattle,  Clay,  Robinson  &  Co.  state  that 
the  best  investment  a  shipper  ever  made 
was  in  putting  extra  good  bedding  in 


his  cars,  as  it  means  a  big  saving  from 
loss  of  possibly  dead  or  crippled  cattle, 
as  well  as  the  shrinkage.  The  car 
should  be  loaded  comfortably  full,  as 
steers  ride  better  than  when  loaded  loose- 
ly. If  fairly  compacted,  it  prevents 
throwing  by  the  starting  and  stopping 
of  the  cars.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
car  is  crowded  too  heavily,  it  is  not  easy 
for  a  steer  to  get  up  if  he  once  gets 
down,  and  often  a  crippled  or  a  dead 
animal  is  the  result.  There  will  also 
be  less  loss  from  this  source  if  the 
stock  is  classified  and  all  those  put  in 
one  car  approximating  the  same  weight. 
This,  of  course,  cannot  be  done  where 
only  one  car  is  sent,  except  in  a  limited 
way  by  partitions,  but  is  a  matter  of 
importance  where  several  cars  are 
shipped. 

Factors  affecting  selling  price  of  cat- 
tle for  beef — There  are  a  number  of  fac- 
tors affecting  price  of  cattle  in  the  mar- 
ket. These  are  the  supply,  the  class 
and  breed  of  cattle,  their  weight,  sex 
and  age,  amount  of  by-products  fur- 
nished, etc. 

The  supply  of  cattle  is  one  of  the 
most  important  factors  influencing 
price.  There  appears  to  be  a  marked 
seasonable  variation  in  the  cattle  supply 
of  the  markets.  Usually  the  supply  in 
the  second  half  of  the  year  is  consider- 
ably greater  than  during  the  first  half. 
For  five  of  the  principal  markets  it 
averages  30  per  cent  more.  This  is 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  move- 
ment of  grass-fed  cattle  to  market,  espe- 
cially from  the  ranches,  begins  in  the 
middle  of  the  summer,  and  continues 
until  winter.  The  average  prices  of 
native,  western,  and  Texan  cattle  for 
the  first  and  second  halves  of  the  years 
1902-3,  as  paid  by  leading  packers  in 
Chicago,  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : 


Price 
January-June 
July-December 


1902 

Native         Western 
..$6.07  — 

, .   5.90  $4.00 


Texan 

$fi.45 

4.38 


Native 

$4.71 

4.86 


1903 
Western         Texan 
—  $4.15 

$3.66  3.82 


The  native  breeds  mentioned  in  the 
above  table  are  usually  understood  to  in- 
clude those  cattle  reared  in  the  agricul- 
tural regions  of  the  middle  West.  They 
are  generally  fattened  on  corn  and  char- 
acterized as  cattle  of  superior  breed,  ac- 
companied by  larger  size  and  good  qual- 
ity of  meat. 


Western  cattle  are  those  bred  in  the 
grazing  states  of  the  West  and  North- 
west. They  are  practically  the  same 
stock  as  the  native  of  the  present  day 
but  do  not  class  so  high  on  the  average. 
They  differ  principally  in  their  different 
preparation  for  market. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


223 


Texas  cattle  are  those  from  the 
ranges  of  Texas.  The  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  all  cattle  from  below 
the  quarantine  line  in  the  Southwest. 
They  are  inferior  in  breed  to  either  na- 
tives or  westerns,  which  is  manifest  in 
their  much  lighter  structure  and  the 
beef  from  them  is  of  inferior  quality. 
When  western  cattle  are' brought  east 
and  fattened  in  the  corn  belt  they  may 
enter  the  markets  as  natives,  from  which 
they  are  practically  indistinguishable. 
Corn-fed  Texans  may  also  be  practically 
indistinguishable  from  natives,  es- 
pecially if  they  are  from  ranges,  which 
are  using  improved  stock.  The  table 
brings  out  clearly  that  the  highest  prices 
are  paid  during  the  first  half  of  the  year, 
and  for  native  stock. 

Prices  for  different  breeds  of  cattle 
— These  general  classes  of  cattle,  of 
course,  include  all  the  different  breeds, 
the  prices  for  which  vary  greatly,  ac- 
cording to  whether  they  are  of  the  dairy 
form  or  of  the  beef  type.  The  princi- 
pal beef  types  are  the  Angus,  Galloway, 
Herefords  and  Shorthorns.  These  cat- 
tle and  their  grades  bring  the  best  prices 
for  beef  of  any  cattle  offered  in  the 
market. 

The  choice  among  packers  varies  as 
to  their  preference  for  the  different 
breeds.  The  Cndahy  packing  company 
Df  Chicago  state  that  they  do  not  dis- 
criminate as  to  price  in  favor  of  the 
different  breeds,  but  in  paying  a  fancy 
price  would  rather  have  Shorthorns  than 
the  other  breeds.  This  difference  in 
their  estimation  would  only  amount  to 
5  cents  a  hundred  pounds. 

Swift  and  Co.  prefer  Angus,  Short- 
horn and  Galloway  cattle  three  years  of 
age,  when  thoroughly  fattened  on  grain 
to  Herefords  of  the  same  age.  Two- 
year-old  Hereford  cattle,  when  fat,  are 
considered  equal  to  the  other  breeds 
mentioned,  but  after  the  second  year  the 
Herefords  become  unevenly  fat.  Ham- 
mond makes  practically  the  same  state- 
ment in  regard  to  Herefords. 

Schwarzschild  states  that  in  buying 
cattle  for  the  United  States,  and  espe- 
cially for   the   export   trade,   preference 

900-  1050- 

Class   of   cattle        1050  lbs  1200  lbs 

Native    $4.75  $4.90 

Western     3.85  4.23 

Average    $4.40  $4.57 


is  given  to  Angus  steers,  since  when 
well  fattened  on  corn,  these  steers  dress 
out  from  1  to  2  pounds  a  hun- 
dred pounds  live  weight  more  than 
either  Shorthorns,  Galloways,  Herefords 
or  Holsteins.  'Although  the  Angus 
may  appear  very  fat,  they  will  show 
more  lean  meat  and  be  less  wasteful 
for  the  retail  butcher  than  animals  of 
any  of  the  other  breeds  above  men- 
tioned. The  meat  itself  will  show  a 
better  and  richer  grain  and  is  very  juicy. 
The  Shorthorns  come  next  and,  for  the 
same  time  and  same  percentage  of  feed 
used,  will  show  considerable  fat  on  the 
outside,  but  less  lean  meat.  This  fat 
will  be  in  lumps  on  the  outside,  but  is 
very  unprofitable  for  the  retailer.  Gallo- 
ways and  Herefords  come  next  in  qual- 
ity as  well  as  grain.  The  Holsteins 
are  very  undesirable;  being  coarse,  they 
do  not  show  much  grain  in  the  beef 
and  are  especially  unprofitable  for  the 
retailer.  Of  the  five  breeds  of  cattle 
mentioned,  the  Angus  is  superior  to 
the  extent  of  10  to  15  cents  a  hundred 
pounds   live   weight." 

Hammond  states  that  the  Herefords, 
Galloways,  Shorthorns  and  Angus,  eith- 
er as  thoroughbreds  or  as  three-quarter- 
bred  yearlings,  when  equally  fat  are 
equally  valuable  for  beef.  The  same  is 
true  for  two-year-olds,  but  a  change 
begins  to  take  place  at  three  years, 
when  the  Shorthorns  grow  more  bone 
and  become  coarser,  and  when  four 
years  old  are  apt  to  be  too  heavy  and 
coarse  to  bring  the  top  price  of  the 
market.  Herefords  become  lumpy  by 
putting  the  fat  on  in  bunches. 

The  weight  of  stock  when  marketed 
stands  next  to  breed  as  a  factor  affecting 
the  price  received.  Cattle  are  bought 
and  sold  by  the  hundredweight  and 
the  price  varies  in  accordance  with 
whether  the  animal  is  heavy  or  light, 
since  the  quality  of  beef  is  usually  supe- 
rior with  the  heavier  grades.  This  dif- 
ference in  price  is  brought  out  in  the 
following  table,  which  shows  the  average 
price  in  Chicago  of  beef  cattle  of  dif- 
ferent weight  on  selected  dates: 


1200- 

1350- 

1500 

350  lbs 

$5.27 

4.50 

1500  lbs 
$5.53 
4.48 

plus  lbs 

$5.17 

4.37 

$4.89 


$5.01 


$4.77 


224 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  data  in  this  table  bring  out  clear- 
ly that  the  price  per  hundredweight,  of 
the  same  kind  of  stock,  increases  steadily 
with  each  increase  in  weight,  until  the 
last  class  is  reached.  The  best  price  is 
seen  to  be  paid  for  cattle  weighing  be- 
tween 1,200  and  1,500  pounds. 

For  export  purposes,  beef-bred  types 
weighing  between  1,300  and  1,400  pounds 
and  from  two  and  one-half  to  four  years 
old  are  more  desirable.  These  relative 
prices  and  weights  hold  whether  the  cat- 
tle are  native,  western  or  Texan. 

Sex  and  age  have  an  important  bear- 
ing on  the  prices  paid  for  beef  cattle, 
since  the  quality  of  beef  produced  from 
the  different  sources  varies  considerably. 
The  standard  beef  cattle  is  the  steer. 
The  following  are  the  average  prices 
paid  for  steers,  bulls,  stags,  cows  and 
heifers  on  selected  dates,  during  the 
years  1898-1903,  on  the  Chicago  mar- 
kets. Native  steers  $5.16,  bulls  $3.55, 
stags  $4.42,  native  cows  $3.68,  western 
steers  $4.39,  western  cows  and  heifers 
$3.89. 

The  data  show  clearly  the  relatively 
smaller  price  for  cows  and  heifers,  bulls 
and  stags  than  for  steers. 

Horns  on  cattle  sometimes  affect 
prices.  Other  factors  being  the  same, 
hornless  cattle  are  preferred  by  buyers 
because  there  are  less  bruises  on  them. 
The  price  paid,  however,  for  hornless 
cattle  is  often  no  more  than  for  horned 
cattle,  but  under  some  circumstances, 
may  be  as  much  as  5  to  10  cents  a  hun- 
dred pounds  more.  If  the  cattle  are  not 
bruised,  horned  cattle  are  considered  of 
equal  quality  and  prices  paid  for  them 
are  the  same  as  for  hornless. 

The  character  of  the  hide  influences 
the  price  of  beef  cattle,  as  this  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  by-products  in  the 
slaughtering  business.  There  are  many 
different  grades  of  hides.  The  average 
annual  price  a  hundred  pounds  in  Chi- 
cago for  these  in  1904  was  as  follows: 

Heavy  native  steers,  $11.77;  butt 
branded  steers,  $10.93;  heavy  Texas 
steers,  $12.67 ;  light  Texas  steers,  $11.71 ; 
heavy  Colorado  steers,  $10.84;  heavy  na- 
tive cows,  $10.63;  light  native  cows, 
$10.47;  branded  cows,  $10.27;  native 
bulls,  $9.12;  branded  bulls,  $8.13.  These 
data  show  that  the  most  valuable  hide 
is  obtained  from  the  heavy  Texas  steer. 
The  poorest  grade  is  from  the  branded 
bull,  which  is  50  per  cent  less  valuable 
than  from  the  heavy  Texas  steer.  The 
average  weight  of  hides  runs  from  60  to 


64  pounds  an  animal,  and  the  propor- 
tion of  hide  to  live  weight  from  5  to 
5.8  per  cent. 

The  fatness  of  the  animal  and  the 
quantity  of  butter  fat  from  which  oleo 
oil  and  stearin  are  obtained,  influences 
the  price  to  a  considerable  extent.  After 
hides,  it  stands  as  the  second  most  im- 
portant by-product  in  slaughtered  cattle. 
It  was  formerly  used  for  tallow,  but  is 
now  used  almost  wholly  in  making  oleo 
products,  such  as  butterine,  etc. 

Recent  legislation  has,  however,  con- 
siderably decreased  the  demand  for  but- 
terine; as  a  consequence,  the  price  of 
oleo  has  lessened,  making  the  price  of 
the  by-product  smaller  than  it  was 
before. 

The  weight  of  fat  from  heavy  native 
steers  is  about  130  pounds,  while  on  me- 
dium native  steers,  it  runs  about  65 
pounds,  or  only  half  as  much,  and  grad- 
ually decreases  with  western  stock, 
heifers,  cows,  and  bulls,  and  in  the  lat- 
ter case  amounting  to  but  25  pounds. 

Price  in  different  markets — The 
price  of  cattle  varies  considerably  in 
the  different  markets,  even  for  the  same 
grade  of  stock.  Thus  native  steers  of 
a  given  grade  usually  sell  for  a  higher 
price  in  Chicago  than  in  Kansas  City. 
This  is  because  freight  expenses  from 
the  West  to  Chicago  are  greater  than 
to  Kansas  City;  and  Chicago  is  nearer 
the  center  of  final  consumption,  which 
enables  the  dealer  to  pay  a  higher  price 
at  that  market  than  in  Kansas  City. 
There  is  also  considerable  difference  in 
the  quality  of  cattle  received  in  the  dif- 
ferent markets;  thus  cattle  received  at 
Chicago  markets  dress  out  1  to  2  per 
cent  higher  in  the  same  class  than  cattle 
in  the  Kansas,  Omaha,  St.  Louis  or  St. 
Joseph  markets.  The  western  markets 
also  depend  to  a  much  greater  degree 
on  grass-fed  stock,  while  Chicago  uti- 
lizes a  greater  number  of  natives. 

Market  quotations — The  prices  of  dif- 
ferent grades  and  classes  of  cattle  can 
be  readily  learned  each  day  for  the 
different  markets  by  consulting  any  of 
the  more  innoortant  stock  or  market 
papers.  The  following,  taken  from  The 
Daily  Drovers'  Journal  of  Chicago, 
shows  the  method  of  classifying  cattle, 
usually  followed  by  most  stock  papers 
that  give  full  quotations. 

Beef  cattle : 

Inferior  and  rough  beef  steers. $4. 10  to  $4.40 
Common      to      fair      corn-fed 
steers    4-45  to     4.65 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


225 


Pair  to  medium  corn-fed  steers  4.70  to  5.40 
Good  to  choice  corn-fed  steers.    5.50   to     6-00 

Choice  to  prime  beeves   6.10  to     6.90 

Export  steers,  1150  to  1250  lbs   5.00   to  5.35 
Export  steers,  1250  to  1250  lbs  5.40   to  5.70 
Poor    to   fancy   corn-fed    year- 
lings         4.40   to  6.25 

Corn-fed    "Western    steers 5.10   to  6.65 

Northern-fed  Texas  steers....    4.50   to  5.60 

Distillery  steers    4.75   to  5.75 

Butcher  stock: 

Beef  cows,  common  to  fair... $2. 75   to  $3.15 

Heifers,  inferior  to  choice 2.40   to  4.30 

Stags,  poor  to  choice 2.60   to  4.65 

Bulls,  inferior  to  fair  light...    2.15   to  3.00 
Common  to  selected  bolognas.    3.20   to  3.55 
Bulls,    fair   to   selected    butch- 
ers         3.60   to  4.50 

Bulls,    fair   to   choice   export.  .    3.50  to  4.40 

Stockers  and  feeders : 

Stockers,  inferior  to  good.  ...  $2.60  to  $3.40 
Stockers,    selected    500    to    700 

lbs     3.45  to  3.75 

Feeders,  good  to  choice  mixed.    4.10  to  4.40 

Feeders,  good  to  fancy  selected  4.45  to  4.85 
Stock    heifers,    poor    to    good 

mixed     2.60  to  3.00 

Feeding  heifers,  700  to  850  lbs  3.10  to  3.85 
Stock      calves,      according      to 

weight     3.50  to  4.50 

Calves  : 

Inferior  to  fair  heavy  calves.  .$2.50   to  $3.50 

Good    to   choice   heavy   calves.    3.75   to  4.50 

Common    to    choice    veals 4.50   to  6.75 

Choice  to  prime  calves 7.00   to  7.25 

Milkers  and  springers  : 

Medium   to  choice  milkers.  .  $22.00   to  $50.00 

Common  to  choice  springers  25.00  to  40.00 


The  various  grades  are  noted  under 
the  general  classes  for  beef  cattle,  butch- 
ers' stock,  canners  and  cutters,  calves, 
stockers  and  feeders  and  milkers  and 
springers.  In  general  the  terms  used 
are  self-explanatory.  The  terms,  spring- 
ers, under  milkers  and  springers,  refer 
to  cows  within  two  or  three  months  of 
calving.  For  a  more  definite  explanation 
of  the  different  classes  of  beef,  see  the 
chapter  on  that  subject. 

Marketing  hogs_Many  of  the  general 
features  already  touched  upon  in  the 
marketing  of  cattle  apply  to  swine. 
There  are,  however,  some  specific  ship- 
ping directions  that  apply  especially  to 
these  animals. 

Killing  and  marketing  on  the  farm — 
Swine  are  sometimes  killed  on  the  farm 
and  sent  dressed  to  market.  If  farmers 
could  visit  the  large  markets  and  see 
the  generally  inferior  and  unattractive 
appearance  of  the  animals  as  finally  of- 
fered to  the  public  for  sale,  he  would  at 
once  note  the  great  disadvantage  he  is 
at  in  sending  his  hogs  to  the  larger 
markets    in    this    form.      Dressed   hogs 


should  be  sent  only  to  the  local  mar- 
kets. In  these  markets  the  farmer  is 
able  to  deliver  them  fresh  and  cleanly 
in  appearance  and  thus  secure  their  full 
value. 

A  splendid  trade  can  often  be  worked 
up  in  the  sale  of  home  cured  hams, 
bacon  and  sausages.  If  sufficient  trade 
of  this  character  can  be  worked  up, 
prices  above  the  normal  can  be  secured 
and  the  returns  by  this  method  of  han- 
dling will  be  nearly  twice  as  great  as 
where  hogs  are  sold  alive. 

Shipping  hogs  alive — By  far  the 
greater  quantity  of  hogs  will  be  mar- 
keted alive  in  the  larger  packing  centers. 
Hogs  for  shipment  should  be  in  their 
normal  condition  when  driven  on  board 
the  cars.  Especial  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  overheat  them  by  fast  driving 
or  excessive  worrying.  Before  ship- 
ment, the  cars  should  be  well  cleaned 
out  and  the  floor  thickly  bedded  in  the 
winter  months  with  good,  clean  straw  or 
hay,  and  in  summer  with  sand,  slack 
coal  or  cinders.  Neither  hay  nor  straw 
should  be  used  for  bedding  in  warm 
weather,  as  these  are  heating,  and  every 
effort  must  be  made  to  keep  the  hogs  as 
cool  as  possible   during  shipment. 

In  shipping  white  hogs,  use  onfy 
clean  sand  in  summer,  as  cinders  or 
coal  injures  their  appearance  and  sell- 
ing price.  The  sand  or  cinders  should 
be  well  wet  down  just  before  loading; 
unless  these  materials  are  available  use 
no  bedding  at  all  in  warm  weather.  The 
object  of  the  sand  is  to  prevent  slipping 
and  loss  by  crippling  and  piling  up. 

Wetting  down  hogs  in  shipping — In 
hot  weather  it  is  generally  considered 
advisable  to  wet  down  hogs  during  ship- 
ment. The  railroad  employees  will  do 
this  if  requested  to.  If  hogs  have  be- 
come overheated,  great  care  must  be 
observed  in  throwing  the  cold  water  on 
them.  If  water  can  be  put  on  their 
bellies,  or  where  they  can  wallow  in  it, 
there  is  much  less  danger.  The  general 
opinion  seems  to  be  that  the  hogs  should 
be  wet  down  as  often  as  they  need  it 
and  that  shipment  without  loss  can  thus 
be  made,  when  without  wetting  down, 
there  would  be  many  dead  animals.  If 
the  hogs  are  not  overheated,  water  can 
be  run  on  them  from  a  hose. 

Uniform  weight  and  color — Hogs  of 
as  nearly  uniform  weight  as  possible 
should  be  made  to  occupy  the  same  car 
or  deck.  Hogs  of  a  uniform  color  also 
tend  to   produce    a  favorable   effect   on 


226 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  buyer  and  better  prices  than  mixed 
lots.  There  is  no  discrimination  by  the 
buyers  as  regards  white  and  black  hogs, 
but  both  of  these  are  given  the  prefer- 
ence over  red  hogs,  though  the  differ- 
ence is  very  slight,  and  often  is  nothing. 

Medium  sized  hogs  preferred — The 
markets  demand  and  pay  the  best  price 
for  moderately  fat  hogs,  six  to  12  months 
old,  weighing  from  180  to  320  pounds. 
The  Berkshire  and  Poland-China  breeds 
seem  to  meet  best  the  demands  of  the 
packers,  though  breed  is  not  a'  point 
of  importance  so  long  as  the  form  and 
weight  of  the  hogs  is  satisfactory.  Very 
fat  hogs,  300  to  500  pounds,  bring  top 
prices  when  lard  is  selling  high,  other- 
wise lower  weight  hogs  are  given  the 
preference. 

There  is  no  special  demand  for  bacon 
breeds  of  hogs.  Bacon  is  produced  in 
large  quantities  but  it  is  obtained  from 
the  smaller  types  of  lard  hogs,  princi- 
pally the  Berkshire. 

The  prices  paid  for  the  different 
classes  of  hogs  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing quotations  taken  from  the  Chicago 
Daily  Drovers'  Journal  in  1907: 

Hogs: 

Common  to  fair  mixed  packing.$6. 90  to  $7.00 

Good  mixed,   210   to  240  lbs...    7.00   to  7.02 

Fair  to  choice  medium  weights  7.00  to  7.05 

Fair  to  fancy  selected  butchers  7.02  to  7.10 
Bulk     of     packing     hogs,     270 

to  300  lbs 7.00  to  7.05 

Shipping    grades    7.02   to  7.10 

Rough  heavy  packing,  odd  lots   6.85   to  6-90 

Poor   to    good    heavy   packing.    6.95   to  7.02 

Fair  to  fancy  heavy  shipping.  7.02  to  7.10 
Common       to       choice       light 

bacon     6.85   to  7.00 

Fancy  selected  light  shipping.    7.00  to  7.05 

Mixed  pigs,   110  lbs  and  under  5.80   to  6.25 

Stags,    according   to   weight...    5.75   to  6.70 

Boars,  according  to  weight...    2.00   to  4.00 

Government    throw-outs    2.00  to  5.00 

All  stock  papers  regularly  quote  the 
market  price  of  the  different  grades  of 
hogs  in  the  chief  markets.  The  terms 
used  in  the  quotations  are  largely  self- 
explanatory.  All  these  terms  are  de- 
fined in  the  chapter  on  Swine. 

Dockage  in  prices  for  hogs — Sows  far 
enough  advanced  in  pig  to  be  noticeable 
are  docked  in  price.  Usually  the  meat 
is  considered  wholesome  up  to  60  or  70 
days  after  sows  are  with  pig,  nevertheless 
the  meat  is  not  so  good  and  there  is  a 
heavy  shrinkage.  When  sows  are  far 
enough  along  to  be  docked  they  should 
be  kept  off  the  market.  Sows  too  far 
along  are  condemned  by  the  inspectors 
and  sold  in  a  separate  class,  for  what 
they  will  bring.     It  is  usually  a  money- 


losing  scheme  to  breed  sows  with  a  view 
to  fattening  them  for  market.  The 
dockage  for  pregnant  sows  usually 
amounts  to  20  to  40  pounds  in  weight, 
or  the  price  may  be  75  cents  to  $1  less 
a  hundredweight.  Spayed  sows  are  pre- 
ferred to  open  sows  of  the  same  class 
as  the  bellies  of  the  latter  show  more  or 
less  seed  in  dressing,  which  is  not  as 
marketable  as  seedless  bellies.  Stags  are 
docked  even  heavier  than  sows,  usually 
$1  to  $1.50  per  hundredweight. 

Marketing  sheep—Mutton  breeds  are 
generally  marketed  as  lambs  or  yearlings. 
Where  both  wool  and  mutton  is  sought, 
they  may  be  marketed  at  a  later  stage, 
and,  of  course,  the  older  sheep  are  al- 
ways sent  to  market  when  they  have 
passed  their  usefulness  as  breeders. 
When  sheep  are  grown  primarily  for 
wool  they  are  marketed  as  mature  sheep. 
In  the  east  a  grower  will  usually  have 
both  lambs  and  a  part  of  his  old  sheep  to 
sell  each  year.  The  careful  sheepman 
culls  over  his  flock  annually  and  sells 
all  old  sheep  and  non-breeders. 

Classify  in  shipping — In  shipping  to 
market,  sheep  should  be  graded,  the 
lambs  being  put  in  separate  cars  or  com- 
partments from  the  older  sheep.  The 
highest  price  for  lambs  is  usually  ob- 
tained during  the  months  of  February 
to  July.  Buyers  are  always  glad  to  see  a 
good  many  black  or  dark  colored  noses 
in  the  flock,  as  it  indicates  mutton  blood. 
The  lots  that  top  the  market  usually  are 
in  prime  condition,  and  weigh  between 
90  to  110  pounds  each.  No  special 
preparation  is  required  in  shipping. 

Preparation  and  loading  of  sheep — 
It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  sell  lambs 
under  one  year  of  age  than  to  feed  them 
to  a  later  stage,  unless  an  abundance  of 
cheap  feed  is  available.  Sheep  for  ship- 
ment should  be  fed  as  usual  and  loaded 
with  as  little  excitement  as  possible. 
Car  floors  should  be  well  covered  with 
good,  clean  hay. 

Shearing  before  shipping — When 
heavily  wooled,  fat  sheep  are  sent  to 
market,  it  is  generally  more  profitable  to 
shear  them  and  sell  the  wool  separately 
than  to  sell  sheep  and  wool  together. 
Pelt  buyers  make  a  slight  difference  in 
price,  as  between  pelts  with  light  and 
heavy  fleeces,  but  not  stiff  cient  to  justi- 
fy the  sale  of  heavy-wooled  sheep  un- 
shorn. The  usual  difference  in  price 
during  the  spring  months,  between 
wooled  and  shorn  sheep,  averaged  be- 
tween 75  cents  and  $1  a  100  pounds. 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


227 


Christmas  or  winter  lambs  marketed 
at  a  live  weight  of  50  to  60  pounds,  dur- 
ing the  winter  months  are  usually 
dressed  before  sending  to  market.  Lambs 
that  will  dress  out  25  to  30  pounds  at  two 
months  of  age  and  sent  to  the  New  York 
market  sell  all  the  way  from  $3  to  $12 
each.  Such  lambs  should  present  a  well- 
developed  leg  of  mutton  with  plenty  of 
lean  meat,  tender  and  juicy  and  a  good 
white  caul  to  spread  over  the  carcass 
when  on  exhibition.  A  dressed  lamb 
weighing  25  pounds,  of  this  character,  is 
superior  to  one  weighing  twice  this 
amount  which  is  lean  and  bony. 

These  lambs  for  the  most  part  are 
dressed  by  simply  removing  the  intes- 
tines. Backsets  may  or  may  not  be  used, 
depending  upon  the  market.  The  lambs 
are  killed  and  dressed  to  save  express 
charges.  Before  shipping,  the  carcasses 
are  usually  sewn  up  in  cheese-cloth  or 
some  clean-looking  material. 

The  following  quotations  show  the  us- 
ual classification  of  sheep  in  the  Chicago 
market.  The  prices  are  for  a  day  in 
March,  1907. 

Sheep  and  yearlings: 

Native  wethers,  good  to  fancy.$5-60  to  $6.25 
Wethers,    fed    westerns,    plain 

to   prime    5.25   to     6.00 

Yearlings,  plain  to  fancy.....  5.65  to  6.60 
Feeding      ewes,       inferior      to 

choice     3.25  to     4.00 

Feeding     yearlings,      poor     to 

choice     5.25   to     5.60 

Feeding      wethers,      poor      to 

choice 4.65  to     5.20 

Mutton  ewes,  good  to  fancy  5.25  to  5.75 
Ewes,    fed    western,    plain    to 

choice     4.50  to     5-30 

Cull  ewes,  poor  to  fair   2.50  to     4.00 

Bucks     and     stags,     poor     to 

choice   2.50  to     4.75 

Lambs  : 

Good    to    prime    natives $7.25  to  $7-50 

Inferior  to  fair  natives 5.25  to     7.15 

Fed  westerns,  plain  to  prime.  .  7.00  to  7.50 
Feeding  lambs,  poor  to  choice  6.25  to     7.25 

Shipping  stock  abroad — The  United 
States  ships  large  numbers  of  horses, 
cattle  and  sheep  abroad.  In  1905  34,822 
horses  valued  at  $3,175,259  were  exported 
besides  5,826  mules.  The  same  year 
567,806  head  of  cattle  valued  at  $40,598,- 
048  and  268,365  sheep  valued  at  $1,687,- 
321  were  exported.  The  regulation 
governing  the  shipping  of  live  animals 
is  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. Not  an  animal  can  be  shipped 
out  of  the  country,  nor  a  boat  carry  stock 
that  has  not  first  been  inspected  and 
passed  by  officers  of  the  Bureau  of  Ani- 


mal Industry  of  that  Department.  The 
foreign  trade  in  animals  and  meat  prod- 
ucts is  of  immense  value  to  the  Ameri- 
can farmer  and  vigilant  effort  is  made 
by  the  government  officials  to  see  that 
only  sound,  healthy  animals  are  exported 
and  that  the  ocean  transportation  of 
them  shall  be  in  as  humane  a  manner  as 
possible. 

Government  inspection — All  animals 
designed  for  export  must  be  examined 
by  a  government  veterinarian.  Inspec- 
tion will  be  made  at  any  of  the  follow- 
ing stock  yards:  Chicago,  Kansas  City, 
Omaha,  St.  Joseph,  Pittsburg;  and  the 
following  ports  of  export :  Portland,  Me., 
Boston,  New  York  City,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  Norfolk,  Newport  News,  Port 
Royal,  New  Orleans  and  Galveston. 

After  stock  has  been  inspected  in  the 
stock  yards  it  is  tagged  and  loaded  in 
clean,  disinfected  cars.  At  the  point  of 
export  clean,  disinfected  yards  and  sta- 
bles are  provided.  The  boats  on  which 
they  are  to  be  shipped  must  have  been 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected  un- 
der the  supervision  of  a  government 
officer. 

Space  required  on  shipboard — Cat- 
tle must  have  6  feet  vertical  space  on  all 
decks.  Dehorned  cattle,  however,  may  be 
given  but  5V2  feet.  Cattle  carried  on 
the  upper  spar  deck  must  be  allowed  a 
space  of  2y2  feet  in  width  by  8  feet  in 
depth  per  head.  Four  cattle  are  allowed 
in  each  pen  and  at  the  ends  of  the  rows, 
five.  Cattle  in  single  stalls  must  have 
3  feet  in  width.  Vessels  are  allowed, 
with  certain  restrictions,  to  carry  three 
deck  loads  of  cattle. 

Sheep  on  shipboard  must  be  allowed 
a  space  4  feet  long  and  14  inches  wide, 
while  for  lambs  or  sheep  weighing  less 
than  100  pounds  4  feet  by  12  or  13  inches 
suffice — two  rows  of  sheep  standing  in 
the  8  feet  width  of  pens. 

Sheep  pens  must  not  exceed  20  feet 
by  8  feet  where  two  tiers  are  carried 
and  each  tier  must  have  a  clear  vertical 
space  of  not  less  than  3  feet.  In  the 
summer,  sheep  cannot  be  kept  on  tiers 
under  deck,  but  during  the  winter  sea- 
son two  tiers  may  be  placed  in  each 
wing  and  only  one  tier  amidship. 

Horses  must  be  allowed  6  feet  3  inches 
clear  vertical  space,  a  width  of  2Y2  feet, 
and  a  depth  of  8  feet.  Additional  space 
may  be  required  by  the  inspector  for 
very  large  horses.  Separate  stalls  must 
be  provided  for  all  horses.  A  space  8  by 
10  feet  square  must  be  reserved  on  each 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


steamer  carrying  22  or  more  horses,  for 
use  of  horses  which  hecome  sick.  When 
horses  are  placed  in  the  same  compart- 
ment with  cattle,  they  must  be  separated 
by  fore-and-aft  alleyways  and  tempo- 
rary athwartship  bulkheads. 

No  animals  are  allowed  on  the  poop- 
deck  or  within  20  feet  of  the  breakwater 
on  the  spar  deck  between  the  1st  of  Oc- 
tober and  the  1st  of  April.  If  cattle 
or  sheep  are  carried  on  the  bridge  deck, 
proper  runways  must  be  provided  for 
loading  and  unloading. 

Specific  directions  are  given  by  the 
department  as  to  the  character  of  the 
stanchions,  the  dimensions  for  head 
boards,  foot  boards,  division  boards, 
flooring,  the  fitting  of  the  different  pens, 
character  of  foot  locks,  cattle  fittings, 
stanchions,  ventilation,  light,  etc.  Each 
under-deck  compartment  of  50  feet*  in 
length  must  have  at  least  four  bell- 
mouth  ventilators  of  not  less  than  18 
inches  in  diameter. 

Every  vessel  not  provided  with  pipes 
for  watering  animals  must  carry  casks 
and  hogsheads  of  not  less  than  400  gal- 
Ions  total  capacity  for  each  100  head  of 
cattle  and  horses.  An  additional  amount 
in  equal  proportions  shall  be  carried  for 
sheep.  These  casks  must  be  filled  with 
fresh  water  before  sailing.  Each  vessel 
must  carry  water  condensers  with  suffi- 
cient capacity  to  provide  8  gallons  of 
fresh  water  every  24  hours  for  each  head 
of  cattle,  in  addition  to  the  amount  re- 
quired for  other  animals  on  board  and 
for  other  purposes. 

Foreman  and  attendants — It  is  re- 
quired that  an  experienced  foreman  be 
in  charge  of  the  animals  and  not  less 
than  two-thirds  of  the  attendants  must 
be  experienced  men  who  have  made  pre- 
vious trips.  The  attendants  must  meet 
with  the  approval  of  the  inspector  of 
the  port,  must  be  ablebodied  and  speak 
English  sufficiently  to  make  themselves 
understood. 

There  must  be  an  attendant  to  each  35 
head  of  cattle  upon  steamers  having 
waterpipes  extending  the  entire  lengths 
of  both  sides  of  the  compartment  and 
when  steamers  are  not  thus  fitted  up, 
there  must  be  one  attendant  to  every  25 
head  of  cattle  shipped.  In  the  case  of 
sheep,  there  must  be  one  man  in  care  of 
each  150  head  during  the  winter  season, 
October  to  April,  and  one  to  200  sheep 
during  the  summer.  For  horses,  one 
man  to  every  22  head.  Vessels  are  not 
permitted  to  take  on  board  any  cattle  or 


sheep  unless  such  animals  have  been 
allowed  at  least  12  hours'  actual  rest  at 
the  port  of  embarkation  before  the  vessel 
sails,  nor  until  the  loading  of  ine  other 
cargo  has  been  completed. 

Inspection  and  tagging — It  is  required 
that  all  animals  remain  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  in  the  stable  or  yards 
during  daylight  for  the  inspection  and 
tagging.  Horse's  that  have  been  shipped 
500  miles  cannot  be  taken  on  board  un- 
less they  have  been  allowed  at  least  18 
hours'  actual  rest  in  the  stable.  When 
shipped  less  than  500  miles,  they  are 
requested  to  remain  in  the  yards  or 
stables  not  less  than  six  hours.  In  any 
case,  they  must  not  be  taken  upon  the 
steamer  until  the  loading  of  the  other 
cargo  has  been  completed. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  inspector  or 
his  deputies  to  supervise  the  loading  of 
the  animals  and  see  that  they  are  prop- 
erly stowed  and  tied,  that  a  sufficient 
amount  of  good  wholesome  food  is  prop- 
erly stowed  and  that  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  departments'  regulations 
have  been  complied  with. 

Animals  suffering  from  broken  limbs, 
or  other  serious  injuries  during  the  voy- 
age are  slaughtered  under  the  direction 
of  the  captain  of  the  vessel. 

Stock  on  shipboard  does  not  require 
a  great  deal  of  attention  outside  of  feed- 
ing, watering  and  bedding.  There  is 
but  little  distress  from  seasickness  and 
this  soon  disappears.  Horses  are  the 
most  difficult  to  handle  satisfactorily,  as 
they  catch  cold  more  easily  and  fre- 
quently have  fever.  It  is  advisable  that 
only  experienced  attendants  be  in  charge 
of  horses. 

The  stalls  are  not  cleaned  until  the 
end  of  the  journey,  when  the  whole  ves- 
sel is  cleaned  and  thoroughly  disin- 
fected. 

The  charge  for  shipping  cattle  varies 
from  $6  to  $20  a  head.  A  good  steer, 
which  frequently  brings  $60  in  Chicago, 
will  bring  $90  to  $100  in  England.  The 
transportation  cost  for  horses  varies 
from  $20  to  $25.  Transportation  charges 
for  pure  bred  stock  from  Europe  to 
the  United  States  are  somewhat  higher 
than  the  figures  here  given. 

Loss  in  shrinkage — Plumb  states  that 
the  loss  from  shrinkage  between  Chicago 
and  English  ports  is  generally  estimated 
at  65  pounds  a  head  for  cattle.  Twenty- 
five  years  ago,  it  is  estimated  that  from 
5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  real  value  of  cat- 
tle was  lost  by  shrinkage  in  weight,  by 


STOCK  RAISING  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY 


229 


death  and  by  injury  in  transit.  The  loss 
from  hogs  was  about  12  per  cent.  Since 
1880,  as  a  result  of  British  and  Ameri- 
can supervision  of  the  shipping  trade, 
the  loss  of  cattle  by  death  in  transit  at 
sea  has  been  very  greatly  reduced, 
amounting  to  less  than  1  per  cent. 

Daily  attention  given  stock  on  ship- 
board— On  a  vessel  which  carried  850 
head  of  cattle,  66  head  of  horses,  and 
320  head  of  sheep  as  a  part  of  her  cargo, 
the  cattle  were  watered  twice  daily,  6 
A.  M.  and  4  P.  M.„  and  not  given 
over  a  half  bucketful  each.  After  each 
watering  they  were  fed  hay.  At  the  be- 
ginning  of    the   voyage   they   were   fed 


corn  on  the  cob  at  11  A.  M.,  but  later 
fed  grain  twice  a  day,  in  the  morning 
and  evening. 

Horses  were  watered  four  times  a  day, 
as  they  are  likely  to  get  feverish.  They 
were  fed  hay  in  the  morning  and  bran 
mash  at  noon,  and  after  the  third  or 
fourth  day  given  oats  or  corn  at  noon 
and  hay  in  the  afternoon. 

Sheep  were  given  all  the  water  they 
wanted  and  fed  twice  daily. 

For  the  first  few  days  at  sea  the  stock 
look  discouraged,  but  soon  get  so  they 
eat  regularly.  The  journey  seems  to  be 
especially  hard  on  sheep,  as  compared 
with  other  stock,  yet  but  few  die. 


PART   V 


Animal  Products 


Fig.    157 FINAL    STAGE  IN    SKINNING   THE  VEAL 

(This  excellent  photo  and  Figs.  158,  159,  174,  175,  176,  177,  178,  180,  181,  182,  183,  186,  187,  188,  are  by- 
courtesy  of  Prof.  Andrew  Boss,  Univ.  of  Minn.) 


•J3-J 


FARMER'S 

CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


SLAUGHTERING    AND    CURING    OF 
MEATS 

In  this  section  we  shall  consider  first 
the  practices  of  the  large  packing  houses 
and  later  the  methods  which  may  be 
adopted  on  the  farm.  Among  the  sights 
of  interest  in  a  large  packing  center 
like  Chicago,  the  abattoirs  must  be  in- 
cluded. The  present  account  of  slaugh- 
tering and  curing  meats  in  these  estab- 
lishments is  based  on  personal  observa- 
tions and  on  the  excellent  descriptions 
by  Wilder  and  Mohler. 

Condition  of  cattle  before  slaughter 
— Before  animals  are  slaughtered  they 
must  be  brought  to  a  fit  condition  for 
slaughter.  They  must  not  be  feverish, 
excited,  or  exhausted.  Animals  which 
are  diseased  or  which  are  killed  during 
violent  exertion  or  immediately  after 
being  driven  or  transported  in  cars  for 
long  distances,  do  not  bleed  as  freely 
as  they  should.  The  result  is  that  such 
meat  is  too  red  and  does  not  keep  prop- 
erly. Consequently,  cattle  should  be  al- 
lowed to  rest  over  night  and  should  be 
driven  to  the  slaughtering  floor  with  as 
little  excitement  as  possible.  Any  un- 
necessary abuse  and  beating  or  poking 
merely  causes  red  and  unsightly  spots 
on  the  carcass  and  makes  bleeding  less 
perfect. 

Conditions  affecting  bleeding — Heiss- 
ler  found  that  age  was  without  any 
special  influence  on  the  amount  of 
blood  obtained  in  slaughtering.  Male 
animals  yield  somewhat  more  blood  than 
females.  An  excessively  fat  condition, 
especially  in  swine,  brings  about  a  strik- 
ing diminution  in  the  amount  of  blood. 
In  horses,  the  blood  amounts  to  4  to  9 
per  cent  of  the  body  weight,  in  cows  4 
to  5.75  per  cent,  in  calves  4  to  6.7  per 
cent,  in  sheep  4  to  7.5  per  cent,  in  hogs 
1.5  to  5.75  per  cent.  In  rabbits  and 
other  small  animals,  bleeding  is  perfect, 
even  if  the  throat  is  cut  without  pre- 
viously stunning  or  otherwise  rendering 


the  animals  unconscious.  In  such  cases, 
the  blood  flows  out  quite  completely, 
since  the  brain  is  intact  and  the  blood 
pressure  is  not  lowered  at  the  outset. 
In  large  animals,  however,  this  is  not 
the  case,  but  bleeding  is  just  as  com- 
plete after  stunning  as  when  the  animal 
is  slaughtered,  according  to  the  Jewish. 
method,  without  previous  stunning. 
Moreover,  no  differences  have  been  found 
in  the  keeping  quality  of  the  meat, 
whether  bled  by  the  Jewish  method  or 
after  previous  stunning. 

Formerly  animals  were  pithed  or 
speared  before  bleeding.  This  consisted 
in  severing  the  spinal  cord  at  the  base 
of  the  skull.  The  method  suffers  from 
the  great  disadvantage  that  the  animals 
remain  conscious  until  the  blood  is  re- 
moved, and  bleeding  is  also  quite  im- 
perfect. The  best  and  most  humane 
method  of  slaughter  is,  therefore,  that 
in  which  the  animal  is  stunned  and  then 
bled.  Humanitarian  sentiments  are 
thereby  satisfied,  since  the  animal  is  in- 
stantly rendered  unconscious,  bleeds 
freely  since  he  medulla  oblongata,  the 
regulating  center  of  the  heart's  action, 
is  uninjured. 

Slaughtering  of  cattle—Cattle  may 
be  prodded  forward  in  the  chute  by 
means  of  a  pole  with  a  rounded  knob 
on  the  end,  without  bruising  the  meat. 
In  the  stunning  chute  they  are  knocked 
or  stunned  with  a  long  handled  four- 
pound  hammer,  which  delivers  a  blow 
on  the  center  of  the  forehead.  A  slid- 
ing door  in  the  chute  allows  the  ani- 
mal to  be  rolled  out  for  hoisting,  after 
which  it  is  stuck  and  headed.  Both 
arteries  and  veins  are  severed,  so  as  to 
allow  free  bleeding.  In  removing  the 
tongue  as  much  fat  and  meat  as  possible 
is  left  in  connection  with  this  organ. 
The  skin  is  cleanly  removed  from 
around  the  horns  and  care  is  taken  to 
leave  a  full  shaped  neck  in  heading. 


234 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  handling  carcasses  on  the  floor, 
use  is  made  of  a  pritch,  which  is  simply 
a  stick  with  a  sawtoothed  ferrule  on  the 
end  in  contact  with  the  hide,  and  a  spike 
on  the  other  end  to  prevent  it  from  slip- 
ping on  the  floor.  In  cutting  off  the 
feet,  the  skin  is  removed  close  to  the 
hoof,  but  is  not  opened  up  any  further 
back  than  is  necessary,  since  otherwise 
the  shank  becomes  bloody  and  discolored. 
At  the  same  time,  the  gullet  is  raised, 
but  not   too   high,   taking  care  not  to 


middle  line  and  the  caul  is  removed  in 
a  clean  condition  and  placed  in  a  box. 
If  the  intestines  are  cut  by  accident, 
they  are  at  once  skewered  together.  A 
single  or  double  hoisting  apparatus  is 
used  to  raise  the  beef  from  the  floor. 
When  the  carcass  is  partly  hoisted,  the 
hide  is  smoothly  skinned  from  the  hind 
legs.     This  is  known  as  fell  cutting. 

A  spring  spreader  is  now  commonly 
used  in  abattoirs.  This  allows  the  car- 
cass to  spread  gradually  as  the  splitting 


Fig.   158 — DRESSING  VEAL.      REMOVING   THE   HEAD 


cut  the  windpipe  or  weasand.  Then 
the  skin  is  opened  along  the  whole  length 
of  the  animal  in  a  straight  cut.  The 
gambrel  joint  should  be  uncovered  only 
enough  to  expose  the  joint. 

About  one-half  the  work  of  slaugh- 
tering is  done  while  the  cattle  are  on 
the  floor  and  the  other  half  after  hoist- 
ing. It  is,  therefore,  possible  to  operate 
a  double  slaughter  floor.  On  16  double 
beds,  150  cattle  are  slaughtered  per  hour. 
The  breast  is  sawed  carefully  along  the 


proceeds  and  prevents  splitting  the  tail 
and  loin  vertebrae  irregularly.  The  car- 
cass is  spread  to  a  maximum  when 
the  chuck  is  split.  The  skin  must  be 
removed  from  the  rump  and  back  with 
care  and  precision,  so  as  not  to  injure 
the  hide  or  the  appearance  of  the  meat. 
The  intestines  are  removed  carefully, 
so  as  to  save  the  fat  in  a  cleanly  condi- 
tion. The  liver  is  taken  out  without 
tearing  and  placed  on  a  truck.  The 
choppers  used  in  splitting  the  back  are 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


235 


ground  thin  in  all  cases,  except  for  cows 
and  hard  boned  western  steers.  As  soon 
as  the  beef  carcass  is  hung  in  two  halves, 
it  is  washed  and  scrubbed  with  fountain 
brushes.  Blood  clots  in  bruises  may  be 
removed  by  scrubbing  with  hot  water 
and  slight  trimming.  The  process  of 
washing  is  begun  at  the  hind  legs,  grad- 
ually working  downward. 

Slaughtering  sheep— In  slaughtering 
sheep,  the  details  are  much  the  same, 
except  that  they  are  handled  much  more 


is  continuous  from  then  on  until  they 
are  dressed,  the  sheep  never  touching 
the  floor  again." 

Great  care  is  taken  in  dressing  mut- 
ton to  do  a  clean  job  in  removing  the 
legs.  Otherwise,  the  meat  may  become 
stained.  If  the  wool  comes  in  contact 
with  the  meat,  the  latter  acquires  a  taint- 
ed flavor.  In  removing  the  pelt,  the  fell 
must  not  be  broken  or  the  meat  will 
show  age  more  quickly  and  will  look  un- 
sightly.    The  methods  of  dressing  mut- 


DI.'KSSING     VEAL.        SKINNING    THE    SHANKS 


rapidly  by  reason  of  their  light  weight. 
In  the  modern  abattoir,  division  of  labor 
is  very  effective  in  the  case  of  sheep. 
These  animals  are  slaughtered  by  a 
"string  gang,"  each  man  doing  a  small 
part  of  the  work  and  acquiring  great 
skill  and  dexterity  as  a  result  of  per- 
forming the  same  operation  repeatedly. 
A  string  gang  can  slaughter  2,000  sheep 
per  day  on  a  floor  space  of  32x80  feet. 
"The  sheep  are  hoisted  with  a  double 
shackle,   two  at  a  time,   and   the  work 


ton  vary  in  different  cities.  The  car- 
cass may  be  dressed  round  without  back- 
sets and  without  the  caul;  in  other  lo- 
calities one  or  two  back-sets  are  used 
and  also  the  caul;  in  still  others  inside 
sets  may  be  used  or  the  ribs  broken. 
Water  is  used  freely  in  dressing  mutton 
if  it  is  to  be  run  into  the  cooler  imme- 
diately. Otherwise,  the  washing  cloths 
are  wrung  out  in  hot  water  before  using. 
It  is  always  desirable  to  have  the  sheep 
as  clean  as  possible  before  slaughtering. 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Slaughtering  swine — As  pointed  out 
by  Wilder,  a  few  years  ago  the  packing 
houses  killed  hogs  only  in  winter  and 
most  of  the  product  was  cured.  At 
present,  the  killing  season  is  much  ex- 
tended and  by  means  of  cold  storage, 
fresh  pork  may  be  shipped  to  all  points 
in  good  condition.  When  hogs  were 
chilled  with  ice,  from  5  to  15  per  cent 
of  the  hams  and  shoulders  soured;  now 
this  misfortune  happens  in  only  about 
1  per  cent  of  these  products.  At  pres- 
ent about  70  per  cent  of  the  pork  slaugh- 
tered in  the  packing  houses  is  cured. 
Swine  are  more  easily  injured  than  any 


an  opening  3  or  4  inches  is  made,  sev- 
ering the  veins  and  arteries.  If  the 
thrust  is  made  into  the  shoulder,  some 
of  the  meat  thereby  becomes  blood- 
stained. 

Scalding  and  scraping  swine — Scald- 
ing is  the  next  process.  If  the  hogs  are 
scalded  too  soon  after  sticking,  the  skin 
may  take  on  a  red  or  purplish  color, 
such  as  is  seen  in  cases  of  hog  cholera. 
Hogs  are  left  in  the  scalding  vat  until 
the  hair  loosens.  This  takes  place  more 
quickly  in  some  hogs  than  in  others.  As 
soon  as  the  bristles  are  pulled,  the  hogs 
are  put  through  the  scraping  machine, 


Fig  160 — A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  FEEDER,  SHOWIN  G  PLENTY  OF  DEPTH 


other  animal  killed  at  the  packing  house. 
It  is,  therefore,  customary  to  provide 
special  receiving  pens  in  which  hogs  are 
allowed  to  rest  thoroughly  before  slaugh- 
ter. They  are  driven  to  the  killing  floor 
with  care  to  avoid  their  piling  up  and 
becoming  bruised.  Wilder  recommends 
a  paddle-shaped  stick  covered  with  can- 
vass for  driving  hogs. 

A  cooling  pen  is  provided  adjoining 
the  killing  room.  Hogs  are  hoisted  for 
slaughter  by  means  of  a  revolving  wheel, 
the  Hurford  wheel  being  most  generally 
used.  Each  hog  is  shackled  by  the  hind 
leg  nearest  the  wheel.  After  being 
hoisted,  they  are  run  on  a  rail,  where 
they  are  stuck   and  bled.     In  sticking, 


after  which  the  remaining  hair  is 
scraped  off  by  hand.  In  removing  the 
intestines,  the  leaf  lard  is  carefully 
pulled.  The  hams  are  neatly  faced  to 
give  them  a  good  appearance  and  the 
back  is  split  in  a  straight  line  to  give  a 
smooth  pork  loin. 

Cuts  of  beef — The  system  of  cuts  used 
in  preparing  beef  for  the  wholesale  and 
retail  trade  varies  considerably  in  dif- 
ferent cities.  In  Chicago,  each  side  is 
cut  for  the  wholesale  dealer  into  seven 
pieces,  four  bordering  on  the  back  and 
three  on  the  belly.  The  first  row  of 
pieces  are  chuck,  rib,  loin  and  round, 
named  in  order  from  the  neck  back- 
wards.    The   other  row   of  pieces  con- 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


237 


sists  of  shank,  plate  and  flank.  The 
retail  dealers  subdivide  these  pieces  so 
as  to  get  from  the  first  row  the  neck, 
chuck,  prime  rib,  porterhouse,  sirloin, 
rump  and  round,  the  round  being  below 
the  rump;  and  from  the  second  series 
the  shin,  plate,  flank  and  shank.  In 
European  cities  the  subdivision  is  more 
extensive.  Thus  in  London,  the  upper 
series  of  pieces  runs  cheek,  clod  and 
sticking,  chuck,  fore  rib,  mid  rib,  loin, 
topside,  aitchbone  and  silverside;  while 
the  lower  series  include  brisket,  shoul- 
der, shank,  forequarter  flank,  thin  flank, 
leg,  street  and  shank.  In  the  continen- 
tal cities  the  classification  of  beef  cuts 


FORE   QUARTERS. 

Holstein 

Ribs    9.01 

Chuck    26.70 

Brisket    5.61 

Plate    3.23 

Navel    2.55 

Shank  meat 68 

Shank   beef    3.40 

HIND   QUARTERS. 

Holstein 

Loin     17.17 

Round   20.91 

Rump    5.10 


Angus 
9.76 
26.56 
5.77 
3.88 
3.00 
5.00 
2.05 


Angus 
17.89 
17.89 

5.00 


.  '  '    • 

1         .-,-***#& 

_^^* 

*9|^gttjg|£gg^ik 

■  o.*9Bgi 

PL*  J^n 

^^^^mmm^^mm^ 

•  •$.*.  **jj 

\      <:■-"'  y^"'-    ...  -         .•;  * 

^BsKM^SfBaSB^ 

|  mm  g 

Fig.   161 A   POOR  TYPE  OF   FEEDER,  LACKING   IN   DEPTH 


is  still  more  complicated  but   need  not 
be  described  here. 

Percentage  of  dressed  beef  and  cuts — 
The  percentage  of  dressed  beef  obtained 
from  slaughtered  cattle  varies  some- 
what according  to  breed,  feed  and  other 
factors,  ranging  ordinarily  from  59  to 
65  per  cent.  Good  beef  breeds,  properly 
fattened,  should  yield  about  60  per  cent 
of  dressed  beef.  The  value  of  a  carcass, 
however,  depends  more  on  the  relative 
percentage  of  high  priced  cuts  than  on 
the  total  amount  of  beef.  In  a  recent 
test  at  the  Iowa  experiment  station, 
when  a  Holstein  steer  was  compared 
with  an  Angus,  the  following  percent- 
ages of  different  parts  were  obtained : 


Flank  steak 68  .62 

Flank  beef   1.53  2.125 

Cod    fat    1.30  1.625 

Suet     2.04  2.825 

In  this  test  the  retail  value  of  the 
Holstein  carcass  was  $59.68  and  that  of 
the  Angus  $94.51.  The  dairy  type  car- 
ried -26  per  cent  of  valuable  cuts  and 
the  beef  type  27  per  cent.  A  compar- 
ison of  the  absolute  weights  of  different 
parts  from  these  steers  showed  the  fol- 
lowing figures : 


Head    

Tongue    

Tongue  trimmings 


Holstein 
23.5  lbs 
3.5 
2.5 


Angus 
25.5  lbs 
2.0 
1.5 


238 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Fig.    162 — SHOWING    THE    BACK    OP    A 
WELL-FITTED    STEER 

Holstein  Angus 

Feet   15.0  19.0 

Caul  fat   11.5  23.0 

Pauneh    and    con- 
tents       125.0  115.5 

Paunch   fat    10.0  11.0 

Tripe    1G.0  16.0 

Intestines  and 

contents     63.5  54.0 

Intestine  fat    15.0  19.0 

Heart     and     lung 

fat    3.0  6.0 

Heart    1.5  2.5 

Lungs    and    wind- 
pipe      8.5  6.5 

Liver    11.0  10.0 

Live  weight   1,090.0  1,324.0 

Beef    602.0  812.0 

Tallow    39.5  59.0 

Hide    61.0  80.0 

1  The  total  fat  in  beef  cattle  varies 
from  5.5  per  cent  to  6.5  per  cent,  and 
the  hides  from  7  per  cent  to  7.5  per  cent. 
In  Texas  steers  the  average  weight  of 
the  skull  in  pounds  is  4.19,  jaws  2.2, 
knuckles  2.73,  dark  hoofs  1.9,  piths  1.24, 
round  shins  1,  flat  shins  0.73,  tallow  8.93, 
horns  0.97,  neat's-foot  oil  0.93,  tankage 
3.64.     The  average  value  of  the  offal  is 


about  $9  per  head.  According  to  "Wilder 
the  average  percentage  of  different  cuts 
by  the  Chicago  method  is  chucks  28, 
rounds  23,  navels  8,  flanks  2,  flank  steaks 
0.5,  kidney  0.25,  ribs  10,  loins  15,  No. 
1  suet  3,  No.  2  suet  0.5,  necks  0.75, 
shanks  4,  brisket  5.  In  meat  cut  kosher 
style,  the  flanks  and  chucks  are  heavier. 
Cuts  of  pork — In  the  packing  house 
hogs  are  cooled  to  a  temperature  of  34 
to  36°  F.,  before  being  cut  up.  The 
hams  are  removed  first  and  then  the 
shoulders,  after  which  the  loins  and 
sides  are  separated  into  their  usual  cuts. 
The  cuts  commonly  recognized  on  the 
Chicago  market  are  head,  shoulder, 
shoulder  trimmings,  back,  bacon,  short 
ribs,  side,  tenderloin,  extra  short  clear, 
pork  loin,  ham,  ham  trimmings  and  feet. 
In  England,  the  cuts  of  a  bacon  hog  are 
as  follows :  In  the  back  series  of  cuts 
the  end  of  collar,  prime  collar,  thick 
back,  back  ribs,  loin  and  corner  of  gam- 
mon; in  the  belly  series,  fore  hock,  top 
of  thick  streaky,  prime  thick  streaky, 
thin  streaky,  flank  and  gammon  hock. 
The  type  known  as  mixed  packing  hogs 


Fig.    163 CHAMPION    PAT    STEER,   CHI- 
CAGO  INTERNATIONAL.    1903 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


239 


furnish  the  extra  short  clears,  ex- 
tra short  ribs,  pork  loins,  fat  backs  and 
fat  bellies.  Hogs  dress  from  65  to  80 
per  cent.  For  hogs  dressing  about  70 
per  cent,  the  following  percentages  of 
cuts  are  average  yields,  according  to  the 
different  methods  of  cutting.  "A  hog 
cut  into  extra  short  clears  will  yield  26 
per  cent  extra  short  clears,  9  per  cent 
loin,  12.5  per  cent  ham,  9  per  cent  shoul- 
der, 13  per  cent  lard."  Correspondingly 
different  results  are  obtained  if  hogs  are 
cut  into  extra  short  ribs;  pork  loins, 
belly  and  short,  fat  backs;  regular  short 
ribs;  rough  ribs;  short  clears;  mess 
pork,  or  Cumberland  cuts.     Hard,  short 


Cuts  of  mutton_In  sheep  and  lambs 
the  dressed  weight  usually  ranges  from 
53  to  62  per  cent,  being  smaller  in 
lambs  than  in  older  sheep.  The  cuts 
of  mutton  commonly  recognized  are 
neck,  shoulder,  shank,  rib,  breast,  loin 
and  leg.  The  leg,  loin  and  rib  are  the 
high  priced  cuts  and  determine  the  value 
of  the  carcass.  The  neck  piece  is  some- 
times divided  into  neck  and  scrag  end, 
both  together  being  called  a  chine.  Like- 
wise, the  loin  may  be  separated  into 
best  end  and  chump  end,  and  a  flank 
piece  may  be  cut  from  the  lower  side  of 
the  loin.     Chops  are  cut  from  the  loin. 


Fig.   164 OUTLINES   OF   PRIME   STEER   FITTED  FOR  THE  BLOCK 


ribs  are  the  same  as  standard  short  ribs 
with  the  bone  left  in. 

Short  clears  are  the  same  as  short 
ribs,  with  the  spare  ribs  removed.  Clear 
back  is  the  same  as  short  clear  with 
the  belly  removed.  According  to  the 
method  of  cutting,  we  also  obtain  Amer- 
ican short  cut  ham,  English  long  cut 
ham,  skinned  ham,  Boston  shoulder, 
Xew  York  shoulder,  dry  salt  shoulder, 
square  shoulder  and  California  ham, 
which  is  also  shoulder.  The  clear  belly  be- 
comes the  rib  belly  if  the  spare  ribs  are 
left  in,  and  the  clear  back  becomes  the 
rib  back  with  the  spare  rib.  Mess  pork  is 
cut  from  the  sides  of  fat,  heavy  hogs  in 
strips  6  inches  wide  and  packed  in  pickle 
at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  per  barrel. 


leg,  neck  or  breast.  Cutlets  are  cut  from 
the  thick  end  of  the  loin.  The  saddle 
includes  both  of  the  loins  and  the 
haunch  consists  of  the  leg  and  adjoin- 
ing part  of  the  loin. 

Kinds  of  veal — Veal  does  not  keep 
as  well  as  other  meats  and  is  not  adapted 
for  smoking  and  curing.  It  is,  there- 
fore, slaughtered  for  immediate  con- 
sumption or  for  sausage  making.  Calves 
less  than  four  weeks  are  not  fit  to  eat 
and  are  liable  to  condemnation.  The 
meat  of  immature  calves  is  flabby  and 
watery.  The  fat  around  the  kidneys  is 
yellow  or  gray  and  tough,  while  in  older 
calves  it  is  white  and  of  softer  consist- 
ency.    The  long  bones  also  show  a  red 


240 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Fig.    165 LAMBS    FITTED    FOR    THE    BLOCK 


marrow  in  place  of  the  yellow,  fat  mar- 
row of  older  calves.  The  meat  of  imma- 
ture calves,  or  even  that  of  fetuses,  is 
not  harmful.  The  idea  that  it  causes 
diarrhea  is  without  foundation.  In  Ger- 
many and  England  such  meat  is  much 
sought  after  by  certain  individuals.  Or- 
dinarily, however,  a  natural  repugnance 
is  felt  toward  eating  the  meat  of  im- 
mature calves  or  fetuses. 

Slaughtering  calves — Veal  calves  are 
stunned  and  the  throat  cut  by  a  length- 
wise stroke.  The  carcass  is  then  hoisted 
and  the  skin  stroked  to  prevent  the  ac- 
cumulation of  blood  under  it.  The  car- 
cass is  slit  open  from  the  middle  of  the 
lower  jaw  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Most 
of  the  skinning  can  be  done  by  the  use 
of  the  fist  and  without  an  instrument. 
The  quicker  the  skin  is  removed,  the 
easier  the  process.  Some  markets  re- 
quire that  the  veal  carcass  be  delivered 


wrapped  in  the  skin  which  is  left  ad- 
hering to  the  meat,  except  along  the 
belly.  Certain  butchers  do  not  skin  the 
head,  but  scald  it  and  scrape  off  the  hair. 
Cuts  of  veal — The  usual  series  of  cuts 
of  veal  include  head,  neck,  withers,  back, 
loin,  leg,  breast,  shoulder,  flank  and 
feet.  Chops  are  cut  from  the  loin  or 
ribs.  The  knuckle  or  lower  part  of  the 
leg  is  used  chiefly  for  soups  and  stews. 
Veal  fillet  is  the  leg  piece  with  the  bone 
taken  out.  The  haslet  includes  the 
heart,  lungs  and  liver.  The  firm,  white 
part  of  the  fillet  is  sometimes  called 
"udder."  The  head  and  feet  when  care- 
fully cleaned  after  scraping  off  the  hair 
ai*e  readily  salable.  The  brains  and 
tongue  are  also  valuable  parts.  Two 
glands  in  the  calf  are  sold  under  the 
name  sweetbreads,  viz :  thymus  and  pan- 
creas. The  pancreas,  as  explained  in  the 
section  on  anatomy,  is  a  digestive  gland 


L 

*:*#-|N 

i  '<J0l 

Fig.    16(5 — READY    FOR    THE    BUTCHER 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


241 


situated  near  the  stomach.  It  is  func- 
tional throughout  life,  but  in  older  ani- 
mals becomes  tough  and  less  desirable 
for  food.  The  thymus,  located  in  the 
neck,  is  largest  and  best  while  milk  is 
an  important  part  of  the  ration.  Later 
it  degenerates  and  becomes  valueless  or 
nearly  disappears.  Both  sweetbreads  in 
the  veal  calf  are  sold  together  and  weigh 
about  one-half  pound. 


Fig.   167 CHICAGO  WHOLESALE  BEEF   CUTS 

(From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  Bur.  Anim.  Ind.) 


MEAT   PREPARATIONS  AND  BY- 
PRODUCTS 

In  the  case  of  cattle,  the  hides  come 
first  in  importance.  As  shown  by  Wilder, 
methods  in  packing  houses  have  greatly 
improved,  so  that  the  hides  are  not  cut 
or  scored,  except  in  the  rarest  cases,  not 
more  than  ten  out  of  1,000  hides  being 
rated  as  second  class.  The  slightest 
scratch  injures  the  grain  of  the  hide  for 
leather  purposes  and  lowers  the  price 
correspondingly.  Consequently,  careful 
attention  is  given  to  this  point.  On 
account  of  the  greater  skill  shown  in 
removing  hides  in  packing  houses, 
these  hides  sell  for  about  1  cent  a 
pound  more  than  country  hides, 
which  are  nearly  always  injured 
by  careless  skinning.  Care  is  ex- 
ercised also  not  to  injure  the  hides 
by  prodding  the  cattle  and  not  to 
get  blood  in  the  hides.  Buyers 
prefer   bright,   clean   skins. 

Hides  should  not  carry  an  ex- 
cess of  moisture.  Wilder  found 
that  hides  cured  in  a  room  with- 
out much  air  circulation  and  with 
a  temperature  not  above  60°  F., 
even  in  the  hottest  weather,  lost 
only  14.7  per  cent  by  shrinkage  in  one 
year,  while  in  warmer  rooms,  with  free 
ventilation,  they  lost  16.7  per  cent.  Sev- 
eral market  grades  of  hides  have  been 
established.  Native  hides  are  from  na- 
tive steers  without  brands.  Texas  hides 
are  from  southern  cattle,  thick  and 
heavy,  and  with  or  without  brands.  Butt 
brand  hides  are  from  native  or  western 
steers  branded  on  the  butt.  Colorados 
are  thin  western  hides  branded  on  the 


side.  The  ox  warble  fly  produces  grubs 
in  the  skin  and  lowers  the  price  of  in- 
fested hides  1  cent  a  pound.  The  salt 
used  on  hides  is  made  of  three  parts  rock 
salt  and  one  part  fine  salt.  The  salt  is 
kept  clean  and  is  used  at  the  rate  of 
about  32  pounds  per  hide.  The  hides 
are  stacked  in  piles,  so  that  the  outer 
edges  are  highest.  The  tail  brush  and 
ragged  edges  are  trimmed  off  and  the 
butt  of  the  ears  is  split.  Hides  are 
left  in  the  pack  from  25  to  30  days, 
after  which  they  are  considered 
cured  and  ready  for  shipment. 

SLeep  pelts—Sheep  pelts,  espe- 
cially in  hot  weather,  are  spread  out 
in  a  cool  room  as  soon  as  removed 
and  allowed  to  cool  for  12  hours  be- 
fore being  salted.  Otherwise  pelts 
with  a  heavy  fleece  will  spoil  by 
heating  and  decomposition.  If  the 
wool  slips,  the  leather  of  the  skin  is 
worthless.  After  cooling,  the  pelts  are 
salted  with  fine  salt  and  stacked  in 
piles  about  2V2  feet  high,  flesh  side  up. 
At  the  end  of  a  week,  the  piles  are 
shifted  and  after  two  weeks  the  pelts  are 
ready  for  shipment. 

Beef  tallow  and  oleo  oil ln  render- 
ing tallow  it  is  made  unfit  for  use  as  a 
food  material  by  subjection  to  a  temper- 
ature of  about  280°  F.,  or  40  pounds  of 
steam  pressure.  This  gives  us  the  prod- 
uct "rendered  tallow."  Melted  oleo,  on 
the  other  hand,  used  in  the  manufacture 


CHICAGO    RETAIL    BEEF   CUTS 
Dept.  Agric.  Bur.  Anim.  Ind.) 


of  oleomargarine,  is  the  product  of  beef 
fat  first  disintegrated  by  machinery  and 
then  rendered  at  a  temperature  of  150 
to  155°  F.  All  fat  which  is  soiled  in 
slaughtering  is  used  for  tallow,  while 
all  clean  fat  or  oleo  fat  is  used  for  oleo 
oil.  Oleo  fat  is  first  washed,  then  hashed, 
chilled  and  rendered.  About  90  per  cent 
of  the  oleo  oil  made  in  this  country  is 
shipped  to  Holland.     Packers  find  that 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  best  grade  of  oleo  fat  comes  from  the 
caul,  brisket,  paunch,  liver  and  heart. 
Oleo  oil  is  pressed  through  cloths  and 
the  product  which  remains  in  the  cloths 
is  known  as  stearin.  This  product  is 
chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  com- 
pound lard.     It  should  be  at  once  cooled 


Fig.    169 — WHOLESALE    CUTS    OF    BEEF 

and  packed.  If  intended  for  long  keep- 
ing, it  is  held  at  a  temperature  of  40  to 
45°  F. 

Mutton  tallow — Muttom  fat  may  be 
rendered  to  produce  mutton  oleo  oil,  for 
which  there  is  often  considerable  de- 
mand, or  may  be  used  for  mutton  tallow, 
which  sells  for  more  than  beef  tallow. 
Oleo  stearin  made  from  mutton  fat  and 
used  in  lard  is  more  likely  to  make  the 
lard  rancid  than  is  beef  oleo  stearin. 

Fats  of  various  animals — Horse  fat  is 
of  a  light  golden  or  brownish  yellow 
color,  and  soft  on  account  of  a  high  con- 
tent of  olein.  It  begins  to  melt  at  86° 
F.  Rendered  horse  tallow  is  white  and 
melts  at  90°  F.  Beef  tallow  from  young 
cattle  is  white  and  melts  at  105  to  122° 
F.  The  fat  of  young  cattle  fattened  on 
grass  or  that  of  old  cows  may  be  yellow. 
Mutton  fat  is  almost  odorless,  pure 
white  in  color,  and  melts  at  88  to  125° 
F.  Goat  fat  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
sheep.  The  fat  tissue  of  hogs  is  white, 
yellow  in  corn-fed  animals,  or  gray  in 
fish-fed  hogs.  The  consistency  of  the 
fat  varies  greatly  according  to  the  breed 
of  hogs  and  according  to  the  feed  used 
and  the  part  of  the  body  from  which  the 
fat  is  taken. 

Lard — According  to  Wilder,  lard  con- 
stitutes 13  to  15  per  cent  of  the  live 
weight  of  the  hog.  The  recognized  grades 
of  lard  are  kettle  rendered  lard,  prime 
steam  lard,  refined  lard,  and  compound 
lard.  "Nearly  all  samples  of  pure,  re- 
fined lard  contain  more  or  less  tallow 
in  their '  make-up."  The  leaf  fat  in- 
cludes the  large  mass  of  kidney  fat 
and  the  choice  fat  trimmings  from  the 
meat.  This  fat  first  cooled,  then  hashed 
and  rendered  at  a  temperature  of  105 
to  125°  F.}  yields  leaf  lard.    At  present, 


however,  this  is  a  rare  product  on  the 
market,  it  being  used  almost  entirely  in 
the  manufacture  of  butterine. 

Methods  of  making  lard — Formerly 
lard  was  bleached  in  the  refinery  by  the 
use  of  caustic  soda,  but  at  present  full- 
er's earth  is  used  for  this  purpose.  Full- 
er's earth  is  added  to  the  extent  of  0.75 
to  1.5  per  cent  and  bleaching  takes  place 
at  a  temperature  of  180°  F.,  for  eight  to 
12  minutes,  after  which  the  lard  is  rap- 
idly pumped  through  a  filter  press.  The 
lard  is  blown  out  by  air  pressure,  leaving 
the  fuller's  earth  behind.  For  bleaching 
tallow  3  per  cent  of  fuller's  earth  is 
used,  and  for  oleo  stearin  0.5  to  1.5  per 
cent  is  used.  After  bleaching,  the  lard  is 
cooled  and  packed.  Compound  lard  is 
made  of  cottonseed  oil  and  oleo  stearin, 
or  both.  The  usual  formula  calls  for 
80  per  cent  cottonseed  oil  and  20  per 
cent  oleo  stearin.  In  cold  weather,  from 
7  to  10  per  cent  of  tallow  may  be  used 
to  replace  part  of  the  stearin  and  cotton- 
seed oil.  For  use  in  this  substitute  for 
lard,  cottonseed  oil  is  previously  deodor- 
ized and  bleached  with  fuller's  earth. 

At  present,  according  to  Wilder,  not 
more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  lard  turned 
out  by  packing  houses  is  pure,  kettle 
rendered  lard.  The  high  grade  of  lard 
is  made  of  GO  per  cent  back  fat  and  40 
per  cent  leaf  fat.  The  packing  houses 
obtain  kettle  rendered  lard  by  subjecting 
it  to  a  temperature  of  255  to  260°  F., 
under  steam  pressure  for  a  period  of 
one  and  one-half  hours.  Grease  is  the 
term  used  for  those  parts  of  the  lard 
and  tallow  which  become  contaminated 
in  any  way  during  the  process  of  man- 


Fig.  170 CUTS  OF  BEEF  ON  SMITH- 
FIELD    MARKET,    LONDON,   ENGLAND 

ufacture.  From  the  grease  tallow  oil 
and  lard  oil  are  obtained  or  material  for 
use  in  making  soap. 

Homemade  lard — The  best  way  at 
present  to  get  pure  lard,  free  from  cot- 
tonseed oil  and  tallow,  is  to  render  it  at 
home  from  leaf  fat.  In  order  to  prevent 
lard  from  having  a  bad  odor,  the  leaf 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


fat  should  be  thoroughly  cooled  before 
rendering  and  the  rendering  process 
must  be  conducted  slowly,  at  a  moderate 
temperature,  and  with  some  stirring.  If 
any  of  the  fat  burns,  the  lard  will  acquire 
an  unpleasant  flavor.  At  home,  lard 
should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place  in 
closed  odorless  receptacles.  It  is  best 
to  render  the  leaf  and  back  fat  sepa- 
rately from  the  intestinal  and  other  fat, 
since  the  former  makes  a  superior  qual- 
ity of  lard.  Salt  may  be  added  during 
the  rendering  process  to  the  extent  of 
one  part  by  weight  to  250  parts  of  the 
fat. 

Butterine — Butterine    is     a    packer's 


As  already  stated,  nearly  all  the  oleo 
oil  made  in  this  country  is  shipped  to 
Europe,  and  butterine  makers  are  not 
allowed  to  color  their  product  except  by 
payment  of  a  tax  of  10  cents  per  pound. 
The  consumption  of  butterine  is  con- 
stantly increasing.  Obviously,  this  is 
no  place  to  discuss  the  butterine  ques- 
tion, but  low  grade  butterine  is  very  ob- 
jectionable, on  account  of  its  composi- 
tion, quite  aside  from  any  unfair  com- 
petition with  the  dairy  farmer. 

Pickling  materials  and  solutions — In 
the  slaughter  of  food  animals,  large 
quantities  of  trimmings  are  obtained, 
which  may  be  sold  fresh  or  used  for  sau- 


POINTS    IX    EXTERIOR    OF    COW 


1  Forehead.  2  Cheek.  3  Muzzle.  4  Neck.  5  Neck  vein.  R  Throat.  7  Shoulder  point.  8  Brisket  or  Breast. 
9  Arm.  10  Shank.  11  Chest.  12  Milk  Veins.  13  Udder.  14  Thigh.  15  Round  Bone.  16  Rump.  17  Bladdoi 
18  Womb.  19  Hip.  20  Kidneys.  21  First  Stomach.  22  Second  Stomach.  23  Third  Stomach.  24  Fourth  Stomach. 
25  Lungs.    26  Heart.    27  Back  or  Spine.    28  Intestines.    29  Felvic  Arch.    30  Hock. 


product  and  may  be  briefly  considered  in 
this  connection.     The  formula  for  high- 
grade    butterine    calls    for: 
525  pounds  oleo  oil, 
475  pounds  neutral  lard, 

50  gallons  30  per  cent  cream, 
300  pounds  creamery  butter,   salt 
and   color. 
In  medium  grade  butterine,  the  butter 
is   left    out,    and   the   formula   for   low 
grade  butterine  calls  for: 

350  pounds  second  grade  oleo  oil 
250  pounds  cottonseed  oil, 
450  pounds  neutral  lard, 
60  gallons  3V2    per    cent    milk, 
salt  and  color. 


sage,  canning  or  other  cured  food  prod- 
ucts. As  a  pickling  solution  for  cheek 
meat  from  all  kinds  of  stock,  hearts  and 
other  meats  for  sausage  and  canning, 
Wilder  suggests  a  formula  calling  for 
79  pounds  of  saltpeter  for  each  1,100 
gallons  of  70  per  cent  salt  solution.  This 
may  be  used  for  pig  snouts,  pork  and 
mutton  cheeks,  ox  lips  and  beef  hearts. 
Douglas  recommends  71/2  gallons  water, 
1  pound  cane  sugar,  Yo  pound  saltpeter, 
3  ounces  coriander  seed,  a  pinch  of  dried 
bay  leaves  and  three  sticks  of  garlic. 
The  mixture  is  to  be  boiled  for  five 
minutes  and  all  meat  to  be  rubbed  with 


244 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


dry  salt  before  putting  in  pickle.  Pork 
may  be  pickled  by  using  for  eacb  80 
pounds  of  meat  1  pint  of  salt,  4  pounds 
of  sugar,  1  quart  of  molasses  and  3 
ounces  of  saltpeter.  Tbe  meat  is  well 
rubbed  with  salt  and  left  in  the  pickling 
cask  for  15  days,  draining  off  the  fluid 
from  time  to  time.  When  meat  is  sim- 
ply laid  in  brine,  it  requires  some  time 
for  the  salt  to  penetrate.  The  process 
may  be  greatly  hastened  by  introducing 
the  brine  directly  into  the  meat  by 
means  of  syringes  and  pumps. 

Effect  of  pickling — Attempts  have 
also  been  made  to  introduce  brine 
through  the  blood  vessels  and  by  the  aid 
of  an  electric  current.  Salt  preserves 
meat  by  reason  of  its  drying  effect  in 
extracting  water  and  by  checking  the 
growth  of  bacteria.  In  order  to  have 
the  latter  effect,  it  must  be  used  in  solu- 
tions of  20  to  23  per  cent  or  more.  Salt 
decolorizes  meat  and  saltpeter  is  added 
to  the  brine  to  prevent  this.  Sugar  also 
acts  as  a  preservative.  The  proportion 
of  these  substances  commonly  recom- 
mended is  one  part  saltpeter,  three  or 
four  parts  sugar  and  32  parts  salt.  Meat 
loses  considerably  in  nutritive  value  by 
salting  or  pickling,  much  more  by  pick- 
ling. Within  a  month  2  per  cent  of  the 
protein  and  50  per  cent  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  are  extracted.  Salt  and  sugar  are, 
of  course,  harmless  and  the  amount  of 
saltpeter  commonly  used  is  too  small  to 
injure  the  consumer.  Moreover,  the  salt- 
peter gradually  disappears  by  transfor- 
mation into  nitrous  acid  and  ammonia. 

Curing  various  meat  products — 
Windpipe  meat  is  packed  in  a  mixture 
containing  one  part  saltpeter  to  20  parts 
salt  and  held  at  a  temperature  of  37  to 
40°  F.  Tongues  of  beef  are  hung  from 
both  ends  to  keep  them  from  stretching. 
After  cooling,  they  are  put  in  strong, 
simple  brine  for  24  hours,  and  in  the 
salt-saltpeter-sugar  pickle  for  30  days. 
They  may  then  be  smoked.  Small 
tongues  are  commonly  canned  after  pick- 
ling. Livers  do  not  keep  well.  The  gall 
bladder  should  be  carefully  removed 
and  the  liver  thoroughly  dried.  If  the 
liver  is  to  be  kept  long,  it  may  be  frozen 
and  kept  near  a  zero  temperature. 
Sweetbreads  improve  in  flavor  and  tex- 
ture by  being  kept  in  cold  water  over 


night.  If  not  eaten  at  once,  they  may 
be  kept  in  cracked  ice.  The  packers  util- 
ize beef  hearts  chiefly  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  sausage  in  a  fresh  or  cured  con- 
dition. Beef  tails  are  handled  with  care 
to  prevent  their  becoming  stained  and 
are  kept  at  a  freezing  temperature  till 
used.  Inside,  outside  and  knuckle  rounds 
of  beef  are  used  to  cure  into  beef  hams. 
The  curing  solution  for  beef  hams 
contains  30  pounds  of  sugar,  IOV2 
pounds  saltpeter,  and  2^  pounds  borax* 
per  150  gallons  of  80  per  cent  brine. 
The  process  of  curing  requires  75  to  80 
days.  Various  beef  trimmings  such  as 
plate  cuts,  rumps,  briskets,  etc.,  may  be 
cured  in  good  condition  by  placing  in 
a  pickle  containing  1  pound  of  saltpeter 
to  each  15  gallons  of  the  strongest  brine. 
Molds  may  be  prevented  from  develop- 
ing on  fresh  meats  by  dipping  the  meat 
into  a  solution  containing  per  gallon  of 
water  2  pounds  of  a  mixture  containing 
7  pounds  of  salt,  251/2  pounds  sulphate 
of  soda,  55  pounds  of  borax  and  I2V2 
pounds  boracic  acid.  Tripe,  is  made 
from  the  walls  of  the  first  and  second 
stomachs.  The  contents  are  removed 
and  the  stomach  thoroughly  washed, 
after  which  it  is  scalded  in  water  at  a 
temperature  of  140  to  160°  F.  The  lin- 
ing loosens  within  a  few  minutes  and 
may  be  easily  skinned  off.  This  is  bet- 
ter than  to  allow  the  stomach  to  lie 
for  24  hours  or  to  use  lime,  as  is  the 
practice  of  some  housewives.  After 
scraping  and  cleaning,  the  tripe  is  ready 
for  pickling  in  full  strength  vinegar. 
Tripe  may  be  bleached  to  whiteness  by 
boiling  a  few  minutes  in  5  gallons  of 
water  to  which  2  ounces  alum  has  been 
added.  It  may  then  be  rubbed  with  salt 
to  preserve  it.  Tripe  is  a  nutritious 
product,  and  is  well  worth  saving  when- 
ever a  beef  animal  is  slaughtered  on  the 
farm. 

Lamb  tongues — Mutton  tongues  are 
washed,  chilled  for  24  hours,  and  then 
pickled  in  brine  with  saltpeter  added  to 
the  extent  of  1  ounce  for  16  pounds  of 
tongue.  The  skin  may  be  removed  from 
lamb  or  sheep  tongues  by  scalding.  A 
good  pickled  tongue  is  then  obtained  by 
boiling  thoroughly  and  preserving  in 
vinegar. 

Curing  bacon— In  Sweden,  Denmark 
and    Canada   the    auto-cure    method    is 


•Under  the  new  meat  inspection  law  the  use  of  borax  is  forbidden  in  inspected  abattoirs  except  in  meat  for 
export  to  countries  which  do  not  object  to  its  use.  Reference  to  borax  in  the  following  paragraphs  is  to  be  under- 
stood accordingly. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


245 


sometimes  used  for  curing  bacon.  Ac- 
cording to  this  method  the  hog  sides  are 
placed  in  a  metallic  cylinder  and  the 
air  exhausted  until  all  air  is  removed 
from  the  meat  and  the  pores  are  opened. 
Brine  is  then  pumped  in  under  120 
pounds'  pressure  and  held  at  this  pres- 
sure for  four  or  five  hours.  The  bacon 
is  ready  for  shipment  on  the  third 
day.  In  general,  however,  a  slow  process 
of  curing  is  practiced.  Fresh  bacon  sides 
after  cooling  down  to  about  38°  F.  are 
filled  with  pickle  by  means  of  a  pump 
and  syringe  under  a  pressure  of  about 
40  pounds.  The  syringe  is  introduced 
at  15  to  17  points  in  each  bacon  side. 
The  pickle  used  for  this  purpose  con- 
tains 55  pounds  salt,  5  pounds  saltpeter, 
5  pounds  antiseptic  (usually  borax),  and 
5  pounds  sugar  in  20  gallons  of  water. 
As  soon  as  the  sides  are  pumped  they 


feeding  yields  too  soft  bacon.  The 
proper  consistency  is  obtained  by  feed- 
ing some  barley,  peas  or  other  nitrog- 
enous feed  stuff.  (For  a  discussion  of 
this  subject,  see  the  chapter  on  Swine.) 
The  following  procedure  recommended 
by  Fulton  is  well  adapted  for  bacon  cur- 
ing at  home.  For  small  hogs  (130  pounds 
or  under),  1  bushel  fine  salt,  2  pounds 
brown  sugar  and  1  pound  saltpeter  are 
enough  for  800  pounds  of  meat.  The 
sugar  improves  the  flavor  and  the  salt- 
peter makes  the  bacon  firmer.  After  a 
few  days  a  little  more  of  the  salt  mix- 
ture may  be  applied,  rubbing  it  in  if 
absorption  is  going  slowly.  All  cut  ends 
of  bone  must  be  thoroughly  salted,  for 
decomposition  is  most  likely  to  occur  in 
such  places.  This  method  may  be  used 
where  hams,  shoulders  and  bacon  sides 
are  packed  together  in  the  same  barrel, 


Prime  p/ii?t or  WOf 
COLLAR  BRCK 


Leanest 
prrtof 
LOIN 


STRERKr  THICK  STREAKY 
Slanting  ocdeep-.under joint  of leg  bom. 

Fig.    172 — POINTS    WHERE    PICKLE    PUMI 

are  packed  rind-side  down,  sprinkled 
with  saltpeter  and  antiseptic  and  the 
whole  covered  with  a  layer  of  salt.^ 

The  curing  process  requires  nine  to 
12  days,  according  to  the  weight  and 
thickness  of  the  sides  of  bacon.  After 
bacon  is  cured  it  may  be  smoked.  For 
this  purpose  cured  bacon  is  allowed  to 
drain  for  about  10  days,  then  cleaned, 
dusted  with  pea  meal  and  smoked  with 
the  fumes  of  oak  sawdust  for  three  days, 
at  a  temperature  of  85°  F.  The  above 
is  essentially  the  English  method,  but 
similar  methods  are  in  use  in  Denmark 
and  the  United  States.  In  Denmark, 
the  common  pickle  used  for  curing  ba- 
con contains  1  pound  each  of  saltpeter, 
sugar  and  antiseptic  per  10  pounds  of 
salt  in  40  gallons  of  water. 

Home-cured  bacon — The  best  bacon  is 
obtain  from  a  Tamworth  or  other 
long,    flat-sided    hog.      Exclusive     corn 


/Slanting  downwards 
<£(So  os  to  tblte joint 
•5 Ion  tin  q   \  of  ham\bone 

GAMMON  HOCK' 
SHOULD    BE   INSERTED    IN    A    SIDE    OF    BACON 

the  hams  being  packed  at  the  top  of  the 
barrel  to  prevent  them  from  becoming 
too  salty.  "Resalting  should  take  place 
within  10  days  to  two  weeks,  according 
to  the  weather.  Jowls,  heads,  livers, 
chines  and  spareribs  require  less  salt. 

After  four  to  six  weeks  the  meat  may 
be  unpacked,  washed  and  smoked,  or  the 
salt  may  be  left  on  the  meat  during  the 
process  of  smoking.  In  the  South  the 
hams,  shoulders  and  sides  are  thoroughly 
rubbed  with  salt  and  saltpeter,  the  latter 
being  rubbed  on  the  cut  ends  of  bones. 
The  pieces  of  meat  are  packed  with  salt 
between  them  and  thoroughly  rubbed 
with  salt  at  weekly  intervals  until  thor- 
ough penetration  is  secured,  after  which 
the  meat  is  smoked  and  left  in  the 
smokehouse,  protected  in  canvas.  Be- 
fore hanging  in  the  smokehouse,  the 
meat  may  be  sprinkled  with  black  pep- 
per or  a  mixture  of  black  and  red  pepper. 


246 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Materials  for  producing  smoke — For 
producing  smoke,  oak  or  hickory  sawdust 
or  chips,  or  green  oak  or  hickory  wood, 
is  perhaps  best.  In  many  farm  smoke- 
houses corn  cobs  are  used  and  occasion- 
ally wheat  straw.  Ostertag  recommends 
juniper  branches,  beech  chips  with  jun- 
iper berries,  tanbark  with  mahogany 
chips,  and  other  hard  wood  material. 
Fir,  pine,  mulberry,  persimmon,  etc,  are 
objectionable  on  account  of  imparting  a 
bad  flavor  to  the  meat.  The  fire  should 
be  kept  moist,  so  as  to  produce  plenty  of 
smoke  and  not  too  much  flame  and  heat. 
If  the  fires  are  kept  going  15  hours  a 
day,  the  process  may  be  finished  in  a 
week,  but  smoking  may  be  kept  up  a 
few  hours  a  week  for  two  months  or 
more.  In  freezing  weather  the  process 
must  be  shortened,  for  alternate  thaw- 
ing and  freezing  hasten  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  meat. 

Smoking  methods — In  abattoirs  two 
methods  of  smoking  are  recognized — 
slow  and  rapid.  By  the  first  method 
meat  is  smoked  for  several  days  at 
a  temperature  of  about  77°  F.,  while  in 
the  second  method  the  duration  is  only 
a  few  hours  and  the  temperature  212° 
F.  On  the  farm,  the  smokehouse  may 
be  built  of  any  convenient  material,  but 
it  is  desirable  to  fireproof  the  inside. 
The  floor  may  be  dirt.  If  an  old  kettle 
is  used  to  hold  the  fire,  it  may  be  placed 
on  a  sliding  plank,  which  enables  the  at- 
tendant to  replenish  the  fire  without 
going  into  the  smokehouse.  A  barrel 
placed  over  a  small  pit  may  serve  for 
smoking  small  quantities  of  meat.  The 
fire  may  be  maintained  in  the  pit  under 
the  barrel,  the  pit  opening  to  the  outside 
under  the  edge  of  the  barrel.  If  de- 
sired, the  barrel  may  be  placed  6  or  8 
feet  from  a  small  stone  fireplace  con- 
necting with  the  bottom  of  the  barrel 
by  means  of  a  stovepipe  in  a  trench. 
The  advantage  in  the  second  method  is 
that  the  meat  does  not  become  over- 
heated. 

As  a  brine  for  curing,  Boss  recom- 
mends for  100  pounds  of  meat,  8  pounds 
salt,  2  pounds  brown  sugar  and  2  ounces 
saltpeter  in  4  gallons  of  water.  In  sum- 
mer, the  brine  should  be  boiled  and 
cooled  before  using.  In  this  pickle  ba- 
con cures  in  four  to  six  weeks,  ham  in 
six  to  eight  weeks.  Again,  according 
to  Boss,  it  is  desirable  to  wash  all  salt 
from  the  surface  of  the  meat  before 
smoking.  Unquestionably  it  will  pay 
the    farmer    to    construct    a    permanent 


smokehouse,  say  6x8  feet,  of  brick  or 
frame,  with  a  pipe  for  conducting  the 
smoke  from  a  fire  pot  outside  the  house. 
Ventilation  must  be  provided  for  near 
the  top  of  the  smokehouse.  If  the  fire 
is  kept  up  continuously  night  and  day, 
smoking  may  be  complete  within  two 
days,  or  a  fire  may  be  run  every  other 
day  for  two  weeks.  Properly  smoked 
meat  should  have  a  light  amber  color. 
As  already  stated  it  is  important  that 
meat  should  not  be  allowed  to  freeze 
during  the  process  of  smoking,  for  smoke 
cannot  penetrate  frozen  meat,  and  freez- 
ing and  thawing  favor  decomposition  of 
the  meat. 

Ham  and  bacon  curing — In  packing 
houses,  curing  is  done  under  careful 
control.  Hams  are  chilled  about  48 
hours  and  then  injected  at  five  points 
with  a  mixture  containing  80  pounds 
sugar,  15  pounds  saltpeter,  5  pounds  bo- 
racic  acid  and  5  pounds  glycerin  in 
just  enough  salt  solution  to  dissolve 
these  materials.  "Wilder  recommends  that 
hams  be  piled  up  and  dry  salted  over 
night  before  pickling.  Most  packing 
house  hams  are  pumped,  but  the  best 
grades  are  pickled  without  the  use  of  a 
pump.  Hams  have  a  better  flavor  when 
syrup  is  used  in  the  place  of  sugar. 
California  hams  or  shoulders  are  in- 
jected profusely  with  a  pickle  containing 
about  the  usual  proportion  of  salt,  salt- 
peter, sugar  and  borax.  Boiled  hams 
are  cooked  by  steam  at  a  temperature  of 
160  to  165°  F.,  for  four  or  five  hours. 
The  hams  are  cured  before  boiling  and 
are  smoked  lightly  afterwards. 

The  packers  have  found  that  sugar 
improves  the  flavor  of  bacon,  but  gives 
it  a  dark  color.  "Where  a  light  color  is 
desired,  less  sugar  is  used.  Good,  light 
colored  bacon  is  obtained  by  curing  20 
days  in  a  dry  mixture  of  75  pounds  salt, 
25  pounds  sugar  and  6  pounds  saltpeter. 
If  meats  are  smoked  before  they  are 
thoroughly  cured,  they  develop  gas  and 
become  "puffy."  The  almost  white,  dry- 
salt  sides  are  obtained  by  tising  no  sugar 
and  more  saltpeter  than  in  the  common 
formula. 

Sausages,  heart  and  heads — In  sau- 
sage making,  we  have  a  means  of  ren- 
dering palatable  a  great  variety  of  meat 
trimmings  which  are  not  attractive  in 
their  original  form.  Some  preservative 
is  required  if  the  sausage  is  not  intended 
for  immediate  consumption.  The  pre- 
servative recommended  by  Wilder  for  all 
kinds    of    cooked    sausage    contains    72 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


247 


pounds  borax,  10  pounds  boracic  acid 
and  18  pounds  salt,  and  4  to  6  ounces 
of  this  mixture  is  used  for  each  100 
pounds  of  meat.  For  pork  sausage,  the 
necessary  salt  and  1XA  ounces  of  sul- 
phite of  soda  are  used  for  100  pounds  of 
meat.  For  packing  fresh  hearts,  head 
and  cheek  meat,  giblets,  etc,  a  dry  mix- 
ture of  15  pounds  salt,  2  pounds  sugar, 
4  pounds  borax,  1  pound  boracic  acid, 
iy2  pounds  saltpeter  is  used  for  each 
400  pounds  of  meat.  The  following 
products  are  used  by  packers  only  in  a 
cured  condition  for  sausage,  viz,  snouts 
hearts,  cheeks,  skins,  heads,  hocks,  ears 
and  tails  of  pork;  hearts,  cheeks  and 
lips  of  beef ;  and  sheep  hearts. 

Sausage  fillers — Sausage  "fillers" 
are  used  by  packers  to  increase  the 
weight  by  absorbing  water  and  thus  to 
prevent  shrinkage.  Com  flour,  rice  flour, 
and  starch  are  most  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. Corn  flour  is  considered  best,  since 
it  absorbs  water  rapidy  and  does  not 
ferment  readily.  In  this  respect  'starch 
is  undesirable.  The  use  of  fillers  in  sau- 
sage has  been  discussed  in  an  exhaustive 
manner  by  Ostertag,  and  they  are  to  be 
considered  as  an  adulteration  since  they 
greatly  reduce  the  nutritive  value  of  the 
sausage.  Ordinary  meat,  finely  minced, 
has  a  strong  combining  power  for  water ; 
100  pounds  of  such  meat  will  absorb  70 
pounds  of  water  into  its  substance  with- 
out showing  it  to  the  naked  eye.  The 
addition  of  eggs  and  dry  albumen  con- 
siderably increases  the  absorptive  power 
of  meat.  These  facts  are  well  known  to 
all  sausage  makers  and  they  are  thereby 
able  to  prepare  a  sausage  which  is  half 
water  without  the  aid  of  adulteration 
with  corn  flour.  Flour  will  absorb  about 
ten  times  its  weight  of  water  to  form  a 
paste.  When  the  meat  basis  of  sausage 
has  lost  its  color  and  become  too  pale 
by  reason  of  the  excessive  addition  of 
flour  and  water,  the  whole  mass  is  col- 
ored with  fuchsin,  carmin,  safranin, 
cosin,  red  vegetable  dyes  and  azo-dyes. 
These  dyes  stain  the  meat,  and  fat,  and 
r.re  not  permitted  in  inspected  abattoirs. 

Smoking  sausage — It  seems  hardly 
necessary  to  point  out  the  bearing  of 
these  facts  on  the  desirability  of  slaugh- 
ter and  curing  of  meat  at  home.  The 
farmer,  however,  may  learn  many  useful 
things  from  a  study  of  packing  house 
methods,  for  the  experts  employed  by 
these  concerns  have  worked  out  pretty 
carefully  the  necessary  conditions  and 
requirements  in  the  curing  of  meat. 
Modern    smokehouses   for   sausages    are 


made  of  brick  with  devices  for  regulat- 
ing the  heat.  The  house  is  heated  before 
the  sausage  meat  is  placed  in  it.  Be- 
fore smoking  Wilder  recommends  color- 
ing the  sausage  meat  with  a  mixture  of 
3  1-3  ounces  "W.  Maroon,"  2  pounds 
sugar,  8  ounces  saltpeter  and  2  ounces 
boracic  acid  in  45  gallons  water.  The 
sausage  casings  are  colored  with  carbon 
dyes.  In  order  to  prevent  the  evapora- 
tion of  water  artificially  combined  with 
the  sausage,  the  whole  is  varnished  with 
a  paint  containing  6  pounds  white  shel- 
lac, 1  pound  boracic  acid  and  2  pounds 
ammonia  in  14  pounds  of  water. 

Formulas  for  sausages — In  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs  formulas  are  given 
for  various  sausages  as  recommended  by 
Wilder  in  "The  Modern  Packing 
House,"  the  most  recent  and  complete 
source  of  information  on  packing  house 
practices. 

Pork  sausage: 

75  pounds  pork  trimmings, 

19  "         potatoes, 
6       "         beef  suet, 

13       "         water, 
2  1-3  "         salt, 
4  ounces  sage, 
11       "         white  pepper, 

3  "         sugar. 

1  pound  3  ounces  coloring  matter. 
This  is  sold  either  loose  in  bulk  or  in 
casings. 

BOLOGXA      SAUSAGE,     BEST     GRADE: 

GO  pounds  pork  trimmings, 

30       "         beef  trimmings, 

10       "         pork  fat, 

Bologna  is  not  supposed  to  contain 
low  grade  trimmings  and  other  mate- 
rials, but  various  combinations  of  such 
products  can  be  made  in  preparing 
cheaper  sausage  for  example : 

30  pounds  cooked  tripe, 

30       "         dry  salt  or  pickled  pork, 
trimmings, 

20  "         pork  head  meat, 
20       "         pork  hearts, 

15  "  fat  pork  trimmings, 

70  "  fresh  beef  cheek  meat, 

10  "  boiled   potatoes, 

10  "  corn  flour, 

40  "  water, 

1  "  black  pepper, 

2  "  salt, 

4  "  color  water, 

2  ounces  saltpeter, 

3  "         coriander    seed, 
1       "         allspice, 

1       "         cloves, 


J4 


cinnamon. 


248 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Garlic  sausage: 

30  pounds  pork  knuckle  meat, 
60       "         lean  pork  trimmings, 
50       "         back  fat  trimmings, 
22       "         pork  neck  fat, 

8Y2  "         corn  flour, 
55       "        water, 

5       "         salt, 

1  "         white  pepper, 
3  ounces  mace, 

2y2  "         saltpeter, 
12       "         sugar, 

2  "         grated  onions, 

3  "         garlic, 

8  "         color    water. 

Frankfurts: 

57  pounds  pork  trimmings, 

65       "         beef  cheek  meat, 

15       "         cooked  tripe, 

25       "         pork  kidneys, 

20       "         pickled  pork  trimmings, 

9  "         corn  flour, 
45       "         water, 

l1/^  "         white  pepper, 

3  "        salt, 

2  "         color  water, 

4  ounces  saltpeter, 

3  "         allspice, 
3       "         mace, 

3       "         coriander  seeds, 
IY2  "        cloves. 
Blood  sausage: 
205  pounds  shoulder  fat, 
54       "         pig  skin, 
47       "        beef  blood, 

5  "         onions, 

7  "        salt, 

1  "         white  pepper, 

3  "         corn  flour, 

8  ounces  marjoram, 

4  "         cloves. 
Tongue  sausage: 

50  pounds  hog  or  sheep  tongue, 

130       "  shoulder  fat, 

34       "  pig  skin, 

30       "  blood, 

8       "  salt, 

1*4  "  white  pepper, 

2  "  onions, 

10  ounces  marjoram, 
4       "         cloves. 
Liver  sausage: 

20  pounds  cooked  lean  pork  trimmings, 
20       "         cooked  pork  cheek  meat, 
20       "         cooked  pork  skin, 
10       "         cooked  pork  livers, 
50       "         cooked  tripe, 

6  "        cooked  shoulder  fat, 
3.      "         salt, 

3  "        onions, 


9  ounces  white  pepper, 

2       "         marjoram, 

2       "         cloves, 

1%  "         allspice. 
Boneless  pig's  feet: 

25  pounds  fresh  pig  feet, 

30       "         fresh  pig  skin, 

15       "         fresh  pig  snouts, 

20       "         fresh  pork  trimmings, 

15       "         fresh  beef  trimmings, 

50       "         white  pepper, 

50  "         water  from  cooked  meat, 
4       "         salt, 

4  ounces  cloves. 
Head  cheese: 

44  pounds  cooked  pig  skin, 
55       "         cooked  pig  snouts, 
33       "         cooked  pig  ears, 
55       "         cooked  beef  hearts, 

51  "         cooked  neck  fat, 

20       "         water   from   cooking   meat, 

1  "         white  pepper, 
10       "         onions, 

4  ounces  allspice, 

2  "         cloves, 

3  "         marjoram, 

3  "         caraway    seeds. 
Minced  ham  : 

50  pounds  beef  trimmings, 
20       "         pork  cheek  meat, 
80       "         pork  trimmings, 

7  "        corn  flour, 
30       "         water, 

5  "         salt, 

8  ounces  sugar, 

Zy%  "         white  pepper, 
41/2  "         dry  color  preservative, 
3V2  "         saltpeter. 
New  Jersey  ham  : 

60  pounds  ham  trimmings, 

80       "         lean  back  trimmings, 

10       "         lean  beef  chucks, 

4  "         salt, 

Zx/-z  "         cracker  meal, 

6  ounces  preservative, 
12       "         sugar, 

%       "         red  pepper. 

Bologna,  Frankfurts  and  pork  sau- 
sage may  also  be  prepared  for  keeping 
in  oil  by  leaving  out  the  water  in  their 
composition.  The  following  table  shows 
the  temperature  and  time  periods  for 
cooking  and  smoking  these  sausages: 


Sausages 

Cooking 

Smoking 

Time 

Temp. 

Time    |  Temp. 

Bologna 
Garlic 

30  min. 

160°  F. 

3  hours 

145°  F. 

20    " 

160°  F. 

1  1-2  " 

130°  F. 

Frankforts 

7    " 

160°  F. 

3 

130°  F. 

Blood 

2  hours 

200°  F, 

12        " 

70°  F. 

Tongue 

2    " 

200°  F. 

12 

70°  F. 

Liver 

30  min 

160°  F. 

1  1-2  " 

110°  F. 

Minced  Ham 

i  hours       150°  F. 

3        "         135°  F. 

ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


249 


In  addition  to  these  cooked  and 
smoked  sausages  there  are  several  others 
grouped  by  packers  under  the  head  of 
summer  or  dry  sausages.  These  sau- 
sages are  dried  and  smoked  without 
cooking.  In  the  manufacture  of  dry 
sausage  a  preservative  (usually  "Dia- 
mond A")  containing  a  coloring  mat- 
ter was  formerly  used.  Plenty  of  space 
for  refrigerating  and  drying  is  neces- 
sary. Cervelat  sausage  meat  is  minced 
and  dried  for  three  days  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  38  to  40°  F.,  after  which  it  is 
put  in  casings  and  hung  to  dry  for 
another  two  or  three  days  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  48  to  50°.  It  is  then  put  into 
the  smokehouse  at  48°  and  gradually 
brought  up  to  70°  F.,  where  it  is  held 
24  to  48  hours.  There  are  many  formu- 
las for  cervelat  sausage.  One  recom- 
mended by  Wilder  contains: 

40  pounds  beef  chunks,  lean  and  free 
from  sinews, 

90       "         pork  trimmings, 

20       "         shaved  shoulder  fat, 

5  "         12   ounces    salt, 

2  ounces  whole  white  pepper, 

6  "        preservative. 
Farmer  sausage: 

50  pounds  shank  meat, 

10       "         beef  cheek  meat, 

30       "         pork  trimmings, 

30       "         chuck   meat, 

10       "         pickled  pork  trimmings, 

20       "         shoulder  fat, 

5  "         12  ounces  salt, 

2  ounces  whole  white  pepper, 

6  "         preservative. 

Farmer  sausage  is  smoked  for  six  to 
eight  hours  at  a   temperature  of  65  to 
70°  F. 
Swedish  medwurst  : 

30  pounds  pickled  beef  trimmings, 

30       "         fresh  beef  trimmings, 

90       "         pork  trimmings, 

1  "         corn  flour 
51/2  "         salt, 

2  ounces  coriander, 
3-1/2  "         white    pepper, 
6       "         preservative. 

Braunschweiger  sausage  : 

50  pounds  back  fat  trimmings, 
45       "         ham  trimmings, 
25       "         shoulder  trimmings, 
20       "         beef  chucks, 
10       "         shoulder  fat, 

5  "         salt, 

2%  ounces  ground  white  pepper, 
1       "         whole  white  pepper. 

6  "         preservative. 


Hungarian  salami  sausage: 
90  pounds  pork  trimmings, 
35       "        beef  chucks, 
25       "         shoulder  fat, 
5       "         salt, 
IV2  ounces  white  pepper, 
1       "         garlic, 
51/2  "         preservative. 
There  are  various  other  modifications 
of    salami    sausage    such    as    Milanese, 
German  and  Thuringer. 

MORTADELLA     SAUSAGE : 

135  pounds  fresh  lean  trimmings, 
15       "         lean  beef  chucks, 
10       "        shoulder  fat, 
5      "        salt, 
V/2  ounces  saltpeter, 
2^2  "         white  pepper. 
Lyon    sausage : 
120  pounds  lean  pork  trimmings, 
20       "        beef  chucks, 
10       "        shoulder  fat, 

5  "        salt, 

2^2  ounces  white  pepper, 
1       "        whole  pepper, 

6  "        preservative. 

Gothair  sausage: 

20     pounds  lean  beef  chucks, 
110       "         lean  pork  trimmings, 
20       "         pork  shoulder  fat, 

5  "         salt, 

3^2  ounces  white  pepper, 

6  "         preservative. 

Lehigh  valley  summer  sausage: 
Chucks,  ground  twice  very  finely  and 
seasoned  with  a  mixture  of 

8  ounces  salt, 

IV2  "         saltpeter, 

5  "         mace, 

1  "         cloves, 

2  "         allspice, 

4       "         black  pepper, 

6  "         coriander, 
1       "         sugar, 

and  4  ounces  preservative  per  each  100 
pounds  made  of  lean  bull  meat. 

It  is  smoked  10  to  14  days  at  a  temper- 
ature of  50  to  60°  F. 

Casings  for  sausages — Sausage  cas- 
ings are  made  from  the  small  and  large 
intestine,  rectum,  windpipe  and  blad- 
de-  of  cattle  and  other  animals.  Intes- 
tines are  washed,  scraped  to  remove  the 
fat,  salted  and  packed  in  cold  storage  till 
ready  for  use.  "Bound  casings"  come 
from  the  small  intestines,  "middles" 
from  the  large  intestines,  "bungs"  from 
the  rectum.  Bladders  and  windpipes 
are  scraped,  inflated  and  hung  up  to  dry. 


250 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Beef  extract  and  other  minor  prod- 
ucts— Among  the  minor  products  ob- 
tained from  slaughtered  animals,  men- 
tion should  be  made  of  beef  extract, 
pigs'  feet  and  pigs'  tongues,  fertilizers; 
blood  albumen,  meat  meal,  bone  prod* 
ucts,  hoof  products,  etc.  Beef  extract 
is  obtained  from  the  water  in  which 
meats  are  cooked  and  handled.  Such 
water  contains  meat  juices  and  various 
salts.  The  liquor  obtained  in  corning 
beef  is  used  for  this  purpose  as  well  as 
other  similar  fluids.  According  to 
Wilder  beef  heart  water  yields  2.4  per 
cent  of  beef  extract,  corn  beef  water 
1.65  per  cent,  roast  beef  cook  water  1.55 
per  cent.  From  these  figures  it  i3  ap- 
parent that  much  of  the  nutriment  in 
beef  is  dissolved  in  boiling  and  lost  if 
the  soup  is  not  used.  At  home  the 
fluids  which  were  just  mentioned  as 
the  source  of  beef  extract  may  be  util- 
ized in  the  manufacture  of  sausage. 

The  hind  feet  of  pigs  are  largely  used 
in  making  glue,  while  the  fore  feet  are 
used  in  making  a  palatable  food  prod- 
uct. The  feet  are  scalded  and  cleaned 
by  scraping,  and  the  hoofs  are  removed. 
They  are  then  placed  in  a  strong  brine 
containing  also  1  ounce  saltpeter  per 
each  16  pounds  feet.  The  feet  remain 
in  pickle  six  to  eight  days.  Pigs' 
tongues  are  canned  as  lunch  tongue, 
used  as  sausage,  or  packed  in  a  vinegar 
pickle  after  curing  in  salt  and  salt- 
peter. Pig  snouts  are  scalded  and 
cleaned  like  pigs'  feet,  then  cured  and 
preserved  in  a  vinegar  pickle. 

Hair — Hog  hair  is  usually  sun-dried. 
After  drying  the  hair  is  raked  over  un- 
til it  is  free  from  scurf  and  other  im- 
purities. Sun  curing  requires  two  to 
three  months.  The  hair  is  then  baled 
and  shipped  for  use  in  mattresses.  Most 
hog  hair  comes  from  Russia  and  China, 
since  the  hogs  in  these  countries  have 
much  more  hair  than  the  modern  Berk- 
shire, Duroc-Jersey,  and  other  fine 
breeds  in  this  country. 

Blood,  concentrated  tankage,  residue 
from  pressing  food  products,  and  bone 
meal  are  used  as  the  basis  of  fertilizers. 
Tankage  is  dried  and  sold  ground  or 
unground.  Blood  is  kept  as  free  as  pos- 
sible of  foreign  material,  cooked  bj 
steam,  and  pressed  into  cakes  to  remove 
the  water.  The  cakes  may  be  ground  if 
desired. 

Albumen  from  blood — Albumen  made 
from  blood  is  used  as  a  mordant  in  ging- 
ham cloth  mills.    To  obtain  the  albumen 


the  blood  is  caught  in  pans  directly 
from  the  animal  and  allowed  to  coagu- 
late, after  which  the  clot  is  cut  into 
cubes  and  piled  on  a  fine  wire  screen  to 
allow  the  serum  to  drain  off.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  room  is  kept  at  45  to  50° 
F.  The  serum  is  red  at  first  but  as 
soon  as  it  becomes  light  in  color  it  is 
saved  as  long  as  the  dripping  continues. 
The  clot  is  then  used  for  fertilizer.  The 
serum  is  allowed  to  stand  for  12  hours 
and  is  then  decanted  from  the  sediment, 
after  which  it  is  spread  in  layers  about 
y8  inch  deep,  and  dried  till  it  forms  thin 
sheets,  which  are  further  dried  at  a  tem- 
perature of  100  to  120°  F. 

Bones — Bones  cooked  in  open  vats  at 
a  temperature  of  190  to  200°  F.  give  up 
their  grease  but  not  their  glue,  and  are 
then  sold  as  "hard  bones."  Small  bones 
of  irregular  shape  are  cooked  again  at 
a  higher  heat  to  extract  the  glue.  In 
fact,  bones  yield  charcoal,  empyreu- 
matic  oil,  tallow,  black  pigment,  bone 
dust,  ammonium  sulphate,  vitrified 
bones  for  buttons,  combs,  etc.  The  prac- 
tice of  dehorning  and  raising  polled  cat- 
tle has  reduced  the  supply  of  horns  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  price  of  horns 
per  ton  has  increased  from  $20  to  $300. 
As  stated  by  Wilder,  the  horns  after  be- 
ing sawed  off  are  kept  for  10  to  15  min- 
utes in  water  at  140  to  150°  F.,  after 
which  the  pith  may  be  knocked  out  by 
beating  and  used  in  making  glue.  The 
horns  are  then  kept  in  a  room  with 
abundant  circulation  of  air  but  not  so 
dry  as  lo  check  them.  Horns  are  used 
for  making  combs  and  numerous  other 
useful   and   ornamental   articles. 

After  washing  anl  removing  the 
brains  the  skulls  are  cooked  for  eight  or 
nine  hours  at  190  to  200°  F.  to  extract 
the  fat.  The  bones  are  then  cleaned 
and  dried  for  "hard  bones"  mentioned 
above.  The  legs  are  washed  and  the 
sinews  removed  for  use  in  making 
glue.  The  bones  are  cooked  five  hours 
at  180  to  190°  F.,  and  after  standing 
one  hour  the  neat's-foot  oil  is  skimmed 
off  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  bones 
are  then  washed  and  dried.  After  the 
hoofs  have  been  removed  by  scalding 
the  feet  are  cooked  for  nine  hours  at 
200  to  210°  F.  to  extract  the  neat's- 
foot  oil. 

Tankage — Tankage  is  one  of  the  im- 
portant by-products  of  the  modern  pack- 
ing house.  (For  the  nutritive  value  of 
tankage  products,  see  under  .Principles 
of    Feeding.)      Tanks    or    digesters    are 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


251 


iron  cylinders  constructed  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  Papin's  digester  and  resembling 
a  gelatine  steamer,  and  are  operated  un- 
der 30  to  40  pounds  steam  pressure.  The 
material  is  left  in  the  digester  for  two 
to  10  hours.  The  fat  and  gelatine  water 
are  then  drawn  off  and  the  fat  clarified 
for  use  in  machine  oil  and  soap.  The 
residue  is  pressed  to  remove  the  remain- 
ing grease  and  is  then  dried  and  pul- 
verized to  form  animal  meal  used  as 
feed  for  hogs,  poultry  and  other  ani- 
mals, or  for  fertilizer.  The  digester 
water  from  the  cooked  meat  and  bones 
is  evaporated  to  form  concentrated  tank- 
age. Not  only  all  waste  parts  of 
healthy  animals,  but  also  all  parts  and 
whole  carcasses  condemned  on  account 
of  disease  may  be  treated  in  the  tank  so 
as  to  yield  useful  products.  Many  of 
the  less  important  animal  by-products 
are  not  even  mentioned  in  the  above  ac- 
count. Enough  has  been  said,  however, 
to  indicate  that  there  is  no  waste  in  the 
packing  house.  Everything  is  utilized 
for  some  purpose. 

KILLING  AND  CURING  MEATS  ON 
THE  FARM 

Incidentally,  the  farmer  in  studying 
the  methods  used  in  packing  houses  in 
curing  and  preserving  meats  and  meat 
products,  decides  to  slaughter,  store  and 
cure  meat  for  household  use  at  home. 
Cold  storage  poultry  is  held  for  weeks 
and  months  with  the  juices  and  bacteria 
from  the  feces  in  the  intestines  grad- 
ually penetrating  through  the  meat. 
All  compound  lard  is  adulterated  with 
tallow,  and  a  large  percentage  of  the 
total  "lard"  output  contains  80  per  cent 
cottonseed  oil  besides  other  cheap  fats. 
Formerly  bacon,  ham,  and  dry  salt  pork 
were  treated  with  borax,  boracic  acid  or 
both.  All  low  grade  butterine  contains 
cottonseed  oil.  The  sausages  made  in 
packing  houses  contain  a  large  amount 
of  cheap  cuts,  water,  corn  flour,  starch, 
pig  skin,  ox  lips,  pig  ears,  pig  tails,  pig 
hocks,  and  other  cheap  parts  which,  in 
the  interest  of  the  consumer,  should  be 
offered  at  a  lower  price. 

In  Wiley's  recent  extensive  experi- 
ments, it  has  been  shown  that  borax  is 
harmful  to  a  considerable  percentage  of 
people  and  dangerous  to  some.  On 
thousands  of  farms  it  is  annually  dem- 
onstrated that  ham,  bacon,  beef,  and 
sausage  can  be  cured  in  good  condition 
and  with  excellent  flavor  without  the  use 
of  borax.     If  the  farmer  desires  water, 


flour  and  pig  skin  in  his  sausage  he  can 
put  them  in  at  home  without  paying 
meat  prices  for  them.  Even  the  cold 
storage  beef,  pork  and  mutton  which 
comes  from  the  packing  house  in  such 
perfect  condition  suffers  great  deteriora- 
tion in  appearance  and  quality  before  it 
reaches  the  farmer.  The  farmer  who 
desires  clean,  wholesome  meat  products 
the  year  around  therefore  builds  a  small 
ice  house,  with  cooling  room,  a  smoke- 
house, and  arranges  to  cure  home-grown 


Fig.    173 TOOLS   FOR   SLAUGHTERING 


meats  for  household  use.  It  seems  de- 
sirable therefore  to  add  a  few  sugges- 
tions as  to  how  this  may  be  accom- 
plished. 

Only  animals  in  perfect  health  should 
be  selected  for  slaughter.  The  meat  of 
sick  animals  does  not  keep  well  and  may 
possess  harmful  properties.  Age,  con- 
dition and  breed  are  factors  in  influenc- 
ing the  quality  of  meat  in  ways  which 
are  familiar  to  all  farmers.  Before 
slaughter  animals  should  be  rested  and 
fasted  24  to  36  hours.  Any  excitement 
just  before  slaughtering  prevents  free 
bleeding.  For  use  on  the  farm,  Boss  rec- 
commends  a  set  of  instruments  includ- 
ing a  7-inch  curved  skinning  knife,  an 
8-inch  straight  sticking  knife,  a  14-inch 
steel,  a  28-inch  meat  saw,  a  candlestick 
scraper,  and  an  ax. 

Killing  beef  on  the  farm — The  beef 
animal  is  firmly  secured  and  stunned 
or  shot,  preferably  stunned.  Sticking 
should  take  place  just  in  front  of  the 
breast  bone,  the  knife  passing  toward 
the  top  of  the  shoulder  to  a  depth  of  5 
or  6  inches.  The  vein  and  artery  are 
severed  on  both  sides  by  a  cut  above 
and  below  the  windpipe.  The  head  is 
skinned  by  first  running  a  cut  from  the 
poll  to  the  nose,  and  from  the  nose  to 


252 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  throat  incision.  The  head  is  then  dis- 
jointed and  removed.  The  carcass  is 
rolled  on  the  back  and  held  in  place  with 
a  pritch,  after  which  the  skin  is  cut  down 
the  inside  of  each  foreleg  to  the  middle 
line,  and  along  the  belly  to  the  tail.  The 
skin  on  the  hind  legs  is  split  in  the  same 
way  and  the  legs  are  removed  at  the  knee 
and  hock.  Then  the  hide  is  loosened 
down  the  sides  of  the  animal,  leaving 
the  skin  muscles  on  the  carcass. 

The  skin  is  separated  as  far  down  as 
possible  before  hoisting  the  carcass  and 
the  belly  is  opened  to  allow  the  small  in- 
testines to  protrude.  The  brisket  and 
pelvis  are  split  or  sawed  open,  the  wind- 


In  cutting  up  meat,  Boss  recommends 
an  8-inch  cleaver  in  addition  to  the  in- 
struments mentioned  above.  Meat  should 
not  be  cut  until  the  muscles  have  firmly 
set.  Each  half  of  a  beef  is  cut  into 
hind  and  fore  quarter.  The  kidney,  suet 
and  flank  cuts  are  removed,  then  the 
loin  is  separated  from  the  rump,  and 
the  latter  from  the  round.  From  the 
fore  quarter  the  plate  and  shank  are 
first  removed,  then  the  cross  ribs  just 
below  the  shoulder  joint.  The  prime  rib 
cut  includes  th^  last  seven  ribs,  and  the 
chuck  ribs  the  other  five.  The  neck  and 
shoulder  are  then  separated  by  a  trans- 
verse cut.     These  cuts  are  recommended 


Fig.    174 — STEER   HELD   IN    POSITION    FOB    STLXNING 


pipe  loosened  as  well  as  the  diaphragm. 
With  the  carcass  partly  hoisted  the  skin 
is  removed  from  the  hind  quarters  and 
the  intestines  are  loosened  and  allowed 
to  fall  on  the  paunch.  The  intestines 
are  separated  from  the  liver,  the  paunch 
torn  loose,  and  the  whole  intestinal 
mass  rolled  out  on  the  ground.  Then  the 
liver,  diaphragm,  lungs  and  heart  are  re- 
moved, and  the  shoulders  and  neck 
skinned.  The  carcass  is  then  cleaned 
with  a  moist  cloth  and  split  in  half,  after 
which  it  is  left  to  cool  before  cutting  up. 
The  meat  must  be  cooled  without  freez- 
ing at  the  surface,  34  to  40°  F.  being  the 
best  temperature.  For  slaughtering  in 
summer,  a  cooling  room  is  necessary. 


by  Boss  and  constitute  a  very  convenient 
method  of  cutting  beef  at  home.  Sirloin 
steaks  are  cut  from  the  posterior  part  of 
the  loin,  and  porterhouse  steaks  come 
from  next  in  front  of  the  sirloin. 

Killing  sheep  on  the  farm — Sheep  are 
stuck  by  thrusting  a  knife  through  the 
neck,  cutting  edge  toward  the  back  bone, 
just  behind  the  jaw.  The  skin  on  the 
front  legs  is  split  up  above  the  knees. 
A  cut  is  also  run  from  brisket  to  nose 
and  along  the  inside  of  each  hind  leg. 
The  buttock  is  skinned  and  also  the 
flank  and  cod.  Then  the  hind  legs  are 
tied  together  above  the  pastern  joints 
and  the  carcass  hung.  Now  split  the 
skin  along  the  belly  and  remove  the  skin 
with  the  fist,  beginning  at  the  brisket. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


253 


Fig.   175 — SKINNING   THE   BEEF 


Cut  around  the  rectum  and  allow  it 
to  drop  down  inside  without  splitting 
the  pelvis,  then  open  the  belly  from  cod 
to  breastbone.  The  intestines  are  now 
removed,  leaving  the  liver,  splitting  the 
breast  if  for  home  use,  but  leaving  it 
whole  if  for  market.  The  bladder  is  re- 
moved from  the  pelvis,  and  the  liver, 
lungs,  diaphragm  and  heart  taken  out, 
after  which  the  carcass  is  cleaned  with 
a  cloth  wrung  out  in  hot  water.  The 
mutton  carcass  is  halved  and  the  breast 
and  flank  removed.     The  leg  is  cut  off 


just  at  the  top  of  the  round,  and  the 
shank  removed  below.  The  shoulder  is 
separated  between  the  third  and  fourth 
ribs  and  the  neck  at  the  shoulder  vein. 
Killing  hogs—Hogs  should  be  excited 
and  bruised  as  little  as  possible  in  catch- 
ing for  slaughter.  The  hog  is  stuck  by 
thrusting  the  knife  to  a  depth  of  8 
inches  just  in  front  of  the  breast  bone, 
the  point  carried  directly  toward  the 
root  of  the  tail  and  not  to  the  right  or 
left.  A  quick  turn  of  the  double-edged 
knife  severs  the  blood  vessels.    A  barrel 


Fig.   17G BEEF  READY  TO  HANG 


254 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


set  on  a  slant  and  leaning  against  a 
strong  platform  will  serve  as  a  scalding 
vat.  Boiling  water  put  in  a  cold  barrel 
will  have  about  the  right  temperature, 
which  is  185  to  195°  F.  A  little  lye,  lime 
or  wood  ashes  added  to  the  water  aids  in 
cleaning  the  scurf  from  the  body.  If  a 
hog  is  scalded  while  still  kicking  the 
skin  will  be  reddened.  The  hog  is  con- 
stantly moved  about  in  the  hot  water 
and  as  soon  as  the  hair  is  loose  is  pulled 
out  on  the  platform  and  scraped,  the 
long  bristles  being  pulled  by  hand.  The 
whole  carcass  is  then  rinsed  and  shaved. 
The  cords  are  raised  in  the  hock  joint 
and  the  gambrel  inserted  by  means  of 
which  the  hog  is  hoisted.  The  belly  is 
then  split  from  near  the  rectum  to  the 
chin.    The  rectum  is  then  separated  and 


two-thirds  for  bacon.  Then  the  shoulder 
is  trimmed,  the  lean  trimmings  going 
into  sausage  and  the  fat  trimmings  into 
lard. 

Killing  calves — For  home  use  veal  is 
dressed  like  beef.  The  calf  should  be  at 
least  six  weeks  old.  In  cutting  up,  the 
flank  and  breast  are  removed  as  in  mut- 
ton and  other  cuts  are  made  as  described 
in  packing  house  methods. 

Preserving  meat  on  the  farm As  in- 
dicated above,  fresh  meat  is  more  pala- 
table and  more  nutritious  than  after  cur- 
ing. Even  with  the  most  perfect  ar- 
rangements, however,  meat  cannot  long 
remain  fresh  except  when  frozen,  and 
that  is  impracticable  on  the  farm  except 
in  winter.    If  the  air  be  kept  reasonably 


Fig.  177 — HOISTING  BEEF  CARCASS  BY  HORSE   AND   BLOCK   AND  TACKLE 


the  whole  intestine  and  stomach  re- 
moved. The  liver  is  stripped  out  and 
the  pluck  removed.  The  whole  carcass, 
inside  and  out,  is  washed  with  cold  water 
and  dried.  Pork  is  cut  up  as  soon  as 
cool.  The  head  is  removed  just  behind 
the  ears.  "Next  remove  the  shoulders 
between  the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs  and  cut 
off  the  hams  about  2  inches  in  front  of 
the  pelvic  bones.  Split  the  hams  and 
trim  to  a  smooth  rounded  piece.  The 
feet  may  be  removed  at  the  hock,  but 
sawing  them  2  inches  above  the  hock 
is  recommended,  as  the  hams  will  then 
pack  closer  in  a  barrel."  The  middle  is 
then  split  and  the  leaf  fat  removed  with 
the  kidney.  For  fresh  pork,  the  middle 
cut  is  separated  into  three  lengthwise 
strips;  for  curing,  into  an  upper  one- 
third  for  salt  pork  and  lard  and  a  lower 


dry  in  the  cooling  room,  meat  may  be 
held  just  above  a  freezing  temperature 
for  10  to  14  days.  In  the  northern 
states,  meat  may  be  frozen  in  winter  and 
kept  indefinitely  in  that  state,  pieces  be- 
ing sawed  off  as  required  for  use.  When 
frozen  it  may  be  packed  in  snow  to  sepa- 
rate the  pieces  from  one  another  and 
thus  kept  all  winter.  As  stated  by  Boss, 
meat  may  also  be  partly  cooked  or  fried, 
packed  in  stone  jars  and  coated  with 
hot  lard.  Such  meat  keeps  well  in  a 
cooling  room. 

Some  form  of  curing,  however,  is  as 
necessary  on  the  farm  as  in  the  packing 
house.  Meat  should  be  cooled  for  24  to 
36  hours,  but  not  frozen,  before  putting 
into  pickle.  Large  stone  jars  are  the 
best  vessels  for  curing  meats  but  a  hard- 
wood molasses  barrel  is  good.    The  stone 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


255 


jar  can  be  scalded  and  cleaned  more 
easily.  The  preservatives  in  general  use 
on  the  farm  are  salt,  saltpeter,  and 
sugar  or  molasses,  and  nothing  else  is 
needed  for  the  most  perfect  curing  and 
the  finest  flavor. 

Proprietary  preservatives  are  likely 
to  be  harmful  and  there  is  good  evi- 
dence that  borax,  boracic  acid,  sulphur- 
ous acid,  salicylic  acid,  sodium  sulphate, 
formalin,  etc,  as  well  as  anilin  dyes,  are 
harmful  to  a  certain  proportion  of  peo- 
ple. In  hot  weather  common  baking 
soda  may  be  used  in  small  quantities  to 
sweeten  the  brine.  If  saltpeter  is  used 
in  greater  quantities  than  4  to  6  ounces 
per  100  pounds  of  meat  it  is  injurious  to 
health.    The  effect  of  salt,  saltpeter  and 


Fig.    178 — REMOVING    ENTRAILS    OF    BEEF 

sugar  on  meat  has  been  explained  above. 
As  suggested  by  Boss,  brine  curing  has 
certain  advantages  over  dry  salting  on 
tbe  farm.  It  is  simpler,  for  dry-salt 
meat  has  to  be  rubbed  with  salt  repeat- 
edly. Moreover,  it  is  more  difficult  to 
protect  dry-salt  meat  against  insects  and 
other  pests.  In  the  following  paragraphs 
suggestions  are  made  regarding  certain 
cured  meats,  based  largely  on  the  recom- 
mendations of  Fulton  and  Boss. 

Corned  beef — The  plate,  brisket, 
rump  and  cross  ribs  of  beef  are  suitable 
pieces  for  corning  after  cutting  into 
pieces  5  or  6  inches  square.  Take  8 
pounds  of  salt  for  each  100  pounds  of 
meat.    Put  a  layer  of  salt  in  the  bottom 


of  the  barrel,  then  sprinkle  salt  on  each 
piece  of  meat  and  a  layer  of  salt  be- 
tween each  two  layers  of  meat,  and  a 
thick  layer  on  top  of  the  whole  pack. 
After  standing  12  hours,  add  for  each  100 


Fig.   179 — tools   for  cutting  meat 

pounds  of  meat  a  solution  of  4  pounds 
of  sugar,  2  ounces  saleratus,  and  4 
ounces  saltpeter  in  a  gallon  of  water. 
Enough  more  water  is  added  to  cover  all 
the  meat  and  the  meat  is  covered  and 
weighted  down.  The  corning  process  re- 
quires 30  to  40  days,  but  the  meat  may  be 
safely  kept  all  winter  and  into  the  next 
summer,  by  watching  the  brine  and 
changing  it  from  time  to  time.  If  beef 
is  corned  in  summer  the  brine  should  be 
boiled  before  using. 

Dried  beef — For  dried  beef  the  inside 
of  the  round  is  commonly  used,  cut 
lengthwise  of  the  fiber.  For  each  100 
pounds  of  meat  a  mixture  of  5  pounds 
salt,  3  pounds  sugar  and  2  ounces  salt- 
peter is  allowed.  The  meat  is  carefully 
rubbed  on  all  sides  with  one-third  of  this 
and  tightly  packed  in  a  jar  or  cask. 
After  three  days  the  meat  is  removed 
and  rubbed  with  another  third  of  the  salt 
mixture  and  again  after  another  three 


Fig.  180 — position  for  cutting 
sheep's  throat 

days,  after  which  it  is  allowed  to  stand 
in  pickle  three  days  more.  It  is  then 
removed,  smoked  and  hung  in  a  dry 
place.     In  the  arid  West,  meat  may  be 


256 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


dried  in  the  open  air,  even  in  summer, 
and  without  the  use  of  any  kind  of  pre- 
servative. After  a  time  it  becomes 
"jerked"    beef    or    jerked    venison,     or 


1 — skinning  off  the 
sheep's   shanks 

jarque,  as  it  is  called  in  Argentine.  The 
curing  of  hams,  bacon  and  salt  pork  has 
rlready  been  described.  Westphalian 
hams  are  produced  by  feeding  cooked  po- 
tatoes, wheat  bran  and  plenty  of  green 
feed,  but  only  a  little  corn.  The  hams 
are  rubbed  with  saltpeter  and  then  salt. 
They  are  then  kept  in  brine  for  three 
to  five  weeks,  after  which  they  are  re- 
moved and  air-dried  for  two  to  three 
weeks,  and  finally  exposed  to  smoke  and 
fresh  air  for  about  three  weeks  in  alter- 
nate periods  of  two  or  three  days.  Saw- 
dust, shavings  and  juniper  berries  are 
used  to  make  smoke. 

Pork  sausage — On  the  farm,  pork 
sausage  is  made  of  perfectly  fresh  pork, 
using  about  3  pounds  of  lean  to  1  pound 
of  fat.  Shoulder,  neck  and  trimmings 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  For  each 
4  pounds  of  meat  a  seasoning  may  be 
prepared  by  mixing  1  ounce  salt,  i2 
ounce  black  pepper  and  !/2  ounce  sage 
leaves.  Such  meat  is  sliced  in  bulk  or 
stuffed  in  casings.  If  packed  in  jars 
and  covered  with  lard,  it  will  keep  some 
time.  A  good  mixed  sausage  may  be 
made  by  chopping  together  2  pounds 
lean  pork,  1  pound  fat  pork,  and  1  pound 
lean  beef.  Pork  sausage,  if  put  in  cas- 
ings, may  be  smoked  for  long  keeping. 

Head  cheese  may  be  made  by  boiling 
the  meat  loose  from  the  bones  of  the 
head  after  removing  the  brain,  snout, 
eyes,  skin  and  ears.  The  meat  is  then 
chopped  and  cooked  again  in  the  liquor 
of  the   first   cooking,   after  which   it   is 


weighted  to  press  it  into  a  solid  mass. 
Sometimes  other  trimmings  and  heart 
and  liver  are  added  to  the  head  meat. 

Scrapple  is  usually  made  like  head 
cheese,  except  that  at  the  second  cook- 
ing corn  meal  is  stirred  in  until  the 
whole  is  of  the  consistency  of  mush,  after 
which  it  is  cooked  slowly  for  one  hour. 
After  setting  in  a  mold  it  is  sliced  and 
fried  for  use.  One  formula  calls  for 
25  pounds  corn  meal  and  7  pounds  buck- 
wheat Hour  for  each  80  pounds  of  meat, 
seasoned  with  2  pounds  of  salt,  10 
ounces  white  pepper  and  8  ounces  sweet 
marjoram. 

Pickled  pigs'  feet  may  be  prepared 
by  soaking  in  cold  water  12  hours,  clean- 
ing, boiling  four  or  five  hours,  salting 
and  packing  in  a  stone  jar  in  hot,  spiced 
vinegar. 


Fig.   182 SKINNING  SHEEP   AVITH  THE  FIST 

Brain  sausage  may  be  made  from  two 
calves'  brains,  1  pound  lean  and  1  pound 
fat  pork,  all  chopped  finely  and  seasoned 
with  five  grated  onions.  1  ounce  salt  and 
1/2  ounce  pepper.     The  material  is  then 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


257 


cased  and  boiled  for  five  minutes.  Nu- 
merous other  formulas  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  meat  products  at  home  may  be 
found  in  recipe  books. 


Fig.     1S3 — REMOVING    ENTRAILS    OF    SHEEP 

TANNING  HIDES 

The  manufacture  of  leather  is  a  sub- 
ject which  may  be  briefly  considered  in 
this  connection.  Heavy  cow  hides  are 
used  in  making  sole,  belt  and  harness 
leather  and  for  similar  purposes;  calf 
skins  for  the  upper  leather  of  boots  and 
shoes,  book  binding,  etc;  sheep  skins  for 
book  binding,  bellows,  whips,  aprons, 
light  shoes,  seat  covers,  morocco,  etc ; 
goat  skins  for  gloves,  morocco,  grain 
leather,  etc;  horse  hides  as  substitutes 
for  cow  hides;  pig  skins  for  saddle 
leather,  etc;  traveling  bags,  etc;  dog 
skins  for  gloves  and  various  purposes. 

Sheep  skins  may  be  quite  easily  cured 
by  the  tawing  process.  The  skins  are 
soaked  in  cold  water  for  two  or  three 
days,  then  placed  in  a  bath  of  milk  of 
lime  for  one-third  day,  after  which  the 
wool  readily  slips  from  the  skin.  The 
skins  are  then  soaked  again  and  beaten, 


after  which  the  tawing  paste  is  rubbed 
or  tramped  in.  This  paste  consists  of 
three  parts  salt,  11  parts  alum  and  29 
parts  wheat  flour  in  boiling  water. 
Calves'  brains  may  also  be  rubbed  into 
the  leather  to  render  it  flexible  and  of 
soft  texture.  Rawhide  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  articles  about  the  ■  home. 
It  may  be  prepared  from  cow,  horse  or 
dog  skin  by  removing  the  hair  in  milk 
of  lime  or  ashes,  stretching  the  skin  on 
the  ground  for  scraping  off  the  flesh  and 
epidermis,  and  rubbing  repeatedly  with 
fish  oil,  tallow  or  other  animal  oil. 

Hides  for  rugs—Hides  may  be  tanned 
with  the  hair  on  by  placing  them  for 
one-half  to  two  hours  in  a  solution  of 
3  pounds  carbonate  of  soda,  3  ounces 
nitrate  of  potash,  3  ounces  common  salt, 
3  ounces  prussiate  of  potash,  3  ounce? 
sugar  of  lead  and  3  ounces  of  copperas 
in  9  gallons  of  water.  The  hide  is  re- 
moved carefully,  rinsed  in  cold  water, 
and  the  flesh  side  softened  by  repeated 


Fig.   184 — MUTTON   DRESSED  WITH 

BACK-SET     AND     CAUL 
(Photo  by  courtesy  Ohio  Experiment  Station) 

treatment  with  a  mixture  of  1  gallon 
soft  soap,  1  quart  fish  oil,  1  ounce  borax, 
4  ounces  salt,  4  ounces  alcohol  and  2 


258 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


quarts  hot  water.  Dog  skins  treated  in 
this  way  make  serviceable  robes,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  find  a  more  beautiful  rug 
than  the  tanned  hide  (with  hair)  of  a 
Galloway. 

NECK  SMOULDER 
RACK 


185 METHOD     OF     CUTTING 

MUTTON    CARCASS 

REFRIGERATION     OF     MEAT     AND 
OTHER  ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 

Refrigeration  and  the  artificial  pro- 
duction of  ice  have  long  been  known, 
but  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that 
they  have  been  used  commercially  with 
success.  This  is  due  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  process  and  the  invention 
of  various  mechanical  devices.  Com- 
merce in  refrigerated  food  has  grown 
enormously  during  the  last  25  years. 
Thus  in  England,  the  importation  of  re- 


cultural  products,  as  well  as  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  chocolate,  beer,  wine,  whis- 
key, dynamite,  sugar,  photographic  sup- 
plies, chemicals,  rubber,  glue,  tea  and  for 
other  industrial  uses,  including  the  pre- 
vention of  insect  injuries  to  carpets, 
furs,  tapestries,  etc. 

Sources  of  cold—With  regard  to  the 
sources  of  cold,  we  have  several  means 
at  our  disposal,  ranging  from  the  direct 
or  indirect  application  of  natural  or  ar- 
tificial ice  to  the  use  of  complicated  cold 
air  and  cold  vapor  machines.  As  stated 
by  Ostertag,  the  latter  alone  satisfy  all 
the  requirements  of  sanitation  and  the 
technique  of  preservation,  and  should, 
therefore,  be  used  to  replace  other  meth- 
ods of  preservation.  For  household  pur- 
poses, retail  dealers  and  small  slaughter 
houses,  the  cost  of  refrigerating  ma- 
chines would  be  out  of  proportion  to 
the  advantages  obtained.  In  such  cases 
refrigeration  by  means  of  ice  is  indi- 
cated. 

Use  of  ice—The  simplest  method  of 
applying  cold  to  the  preservation  of  ani- 
mal products  consists  in  placing  the  food 


■king  the   hog 


frigerated  mutton  amounted  to  400  car- 
casses in  1880  and  rose  to  nearly  7,000,- 
000  in  1899,  since  which  time  it  has  re- 
mained tolerably  uniform.  Refrigera- 
tion is  used  in  the  preservation  of  meat, 
poultry,  eggs,  milk,  fruit  and  other  agri- 


products  in  direct  contact  with  the  ice. 
This  method  suffers  from  several  disad- 
vantages. The  materials  to  be  preserved 
are  cooled  on  one  side  rather  than  uni- 
formly, and  they  are  moistened  by  the 
melting  ice  instead  of  being  kept  dry. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


259 


They  may,  therefore,  become  moldy  and 
lose  their  flavor.  Moreover,  if  natural 
ice  is  used,  there  is  danger  of  contami- 
nation from  disease  germs  and  other  bac- 


Fig.    187 — SCALDING    THE    HOG 

teria,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that 
bacteria  do  not  lose  their  virulence  by 
freezing. 

Investigations  by  the  German  Impe- 
rial Health  Office  and  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Health  have  shown  con- 
clusively that  ice,  even  when  of  the  best 
appearance,  often  contains  numerous 
disease  germs  still  virulent  and  quite 
capable  of  development.  The  require- 
ments of  hygiene  are  better  served  when 
a  device  is  used  by  which  the  ice  does 
not  come  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
food  products  to  be  preserved,  but  is 
separated  from  them  by  a  division  wall. 
In  the  ordinary  household,  both  methods 
are  in  daily  use,  but  the  second  method 
is  far  preferable.  Food  products  are 
thereby  cooled  indirectly  by  cold  air  and 
are  protected  against  the  moisture  and 
possible  contamination  from  natural 
melting  ice.  In  such  devices  the  ice  is 
placed  between  double  walls  in  the  side 
of  the  cooling  room,  in  the  middle,  or 
on  the  ceiling. 

Numerous  small  refrigerating  plants 
of  this  sort  are  in  operation.  Typically, 
they  consist  of  three  rooms — ice  room, 
cooling  room  and  antechamber.  The 
second  and  third  connect  by  means  of  a 
door,  while  the  first  and  second  are  sep- 


arated by  a  division  wall.  The  ice  room 
should  be  higher  than  the  refrigerating 
room  and  cold  air  passes  into  the  latter 
through  slits  which  may  be  opened  or 
closed  as  desired.  The  cold  air  descends 
to  the  floor,  removing  the  heat  from  the 
hanging  meat  or  other  products,  after 
which  it  rises  and  passes  through  a  ven- 
tilator in  the  ceiling.  When  properly 
constructed,  such  plants  may  be  quite 
satisfactory  and  the  meat  as  well  as  the 
inner  walls  may  remain  dry.  The  busi- 
ness should  be  so  arranged  that  the  cool- 
ing room  need  not  be  opened  more  than 
twice  daily. 

In  such  plants  meat  may  be  kept  suc- 
cessfully for  several  weeks,  and  they  pos- 
sess the  advantage  of  simplicity  and 
cheapness.  The  Brainard  system  was 
devised  to  secure  dry  air  in  the  cooling 
room.  According  to  this  system  the  ice 
is  stacked  on  a  corrugated  metal  sheet 
over  the  cooling  room.  The  metal  sheet 
furnishes  a  large  surface  on  which  the 


Fig     188 SPLITTING    DOWN     THE     HOG 

moisture  may  be  condensed  and  con- 
ducted away  in  grooves.  As  shown  by 
Ostertag,  however,  cold  storage  houses 
which  use  natural  ice  cannot  compare  in 


260 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


effectiveness  with  artificial  cold  storage 
plants.  The  original  cost  is  less,  but 
this  saving  may  be  only  an  apparent 
economy  which  is  more  than  offset  by 
the  uncertainty  of  the  preservation  of 
the  meat. 

Ice  on  the  farm — For  refrigerating 
purposes  on  the  farm  natural  ice  is 
found  to  be  quite  satisfactory.  Wher- 
ever ice  can  be  conveniently  harvested, 
the  farmer  will  find  it  highly  desirable 
to  build  a  simple  ice  house  and  store  it 
with  ice  every  winter.  If  the  ice  is  not 
sanitary,  he  can  prevent  it  froin  coming 
in  contact   with  his   food  products.     A 


Fig.    189 — HEAD,    SHOULDERS,    MIDDLE 
AND    HAMS    OF    PORK 

small  cooling  room  connected  with  the 
ice  house  will  serve  to  preserve  an  occa- 
sional quarter  of  beef,  side  of  mutton, 
veal  or  pork,  sausage,  head  cheese, 
minced  meat,  butter  and  other  food  ma- 
terials. The  ice  if  clean,  may  also  be 
used  in  marketing  poultry  in  barrels  and 
for  other  purposes. 

Befrigerator  cars — Refrigerator  cars 
are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  preser- 
vation of  animal  products  during  trans- 
portation. Ice  is  employed  almost  ex- 
clusively as  the  source  of  cold  for  refrig- 
erator cars.  In  cars  the  disadvantages 
of  ice  are  not  so  important  as  in  sta- 
tionary cold  storage  plants,  for  ventila- 
tion can  readily  be  secured  with  the  car 
axles.  The  present  account  of  refriger- 
ator cars  is  based  largely  on  the  exten- 
sive treatises  of  Ostertag,  Taylor  and 
Wilder.  Many  different  styles  of  refrig- 
erator cars  have  been  devised,  but  in 
general  two  systems  are  utilized,  one  in 
which  the  air  is  drawn  through  the  ice 
from  the  outside  into  the  cooling  cham- 
ber, and  another  in  which,  by  means  of 
ventilators,  the  air  is  kept  in  constant 
circulation  between  the  ice  room  and 
cooling  room. 

In  one  style  of  refrigerator  car  the 
air  is  drawn  in  by  a  fan  as  the  car 
moves,  and  after  passing  through  the  ice 
chamber  is  delivered  at  the  top  of  the 
cooling  room.  The  ice  may  be  in  a 
doubled  walled  chamber  surrounded  by 
an  air  space  or  may  be  placed  on  grat- 


ings at  either  end  of  the  ear,  or  in 
swinging  doors  or  partitions  hinged  to 
the  top  or  walls  of  the  car.  Schreiber's 
refrigerator  cars  are  described  as  fol- 
lows: "The  double  floor  is  provided  with 
a  layer  of  sawdust.  The  side  walls  con- 
sist of  three  layers  of  boards,  and  the 
two  inner  walls  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  cattle  hair  and  are  coated  with 
waterproof  paste.  The  whole  space  is 
surrounded  with  a  thick  layer  of  felt, 
held  in  place  by  a  layer  of  galvanized 
iron  which  constitutes  the  inner  wall  of 
the  space.  The  meat  is  hung  on  longi- 
tudinal bars  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
pieces  do  not  quite  come  in  contact 
with  one  another." 

In  some  cars  devices  have  been  ar- 
ranged for  removing  the  moisture  of  the 
air  by  condensation  and  by  passing  the 
air  through  chloride  of  lime.  Refriger- 
ator cars  have  also  been  cooled  by  the 
use  of  volatile  liquids,  refrigerating  ma- 
chinery (using  a  dynamo  for  power),  and 
by  liquid  air.  Ice  and  salt,  however,  is 
the  common  source  of  cold  in  these  cars. 
The  amount  of  salt  used  in  the  ice  varies 
from  7  to  15  per  cent,  more  being  re- 
quired in  hot  weather.  The  ice  should 
be  thoroughly  broken  up  in  a  crusher 
before  it  is  put  in  the  car  tank.  After 
the  tank  is  half  full  one-half  of  the  salt 
is  added  and  the  rest  of  the  salt  is  put 
on  top  of  the  ice  after  the  tank  is  full. 
In  very  hot  weather  the  cars  should  be 
iced  on  the  day  before  they  are  loaded. 
The  next  morning  the  tank  may  be 
opened,  well  tamped  and  more  ice  added 


Fig.   190 HAMS  TRIMMED  AND  UNTRIMMED 

with  about  7  per  cent  of  salt.  In  ex- 
treme winter  weather  the  ice  tank 
around  the  cooling  room  protects  the 
meat  from  freezing. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


Artificial  refrigerating  machines — A 
great  variety  of  machinery  has  been  de- 
vised for  artificial  refrigeration  on  a 
commercial  scale,  but  many  of  the  de- 
tails of  these  matters  are  of  interest 
chiefly  to  technicians  and  builders.  For 
the  refrigeration  of  animal  products  two 
systems  are  in  most  extensive  use,  viz.: 
cold  air  or  expansion  machines  and  cold 
vapor  or  compression  machines.  The 
first  system  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
compressed  air  becomes  much  colder  and 
absorbs  heat  in  expanding.  Air  under 
the  pressure  of  two,  three  or  four  atmos- 


temperature  of  —40  to  —58°  F.  The 
greatest  defect  of  this  system  has  been 
the  formation  of  snow  in  the  pipes  by  the 
freezing  of  the  moisture  in  the  air. 
Many  improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  way  of  drying  the  air,  particularly 
in  the  Arctic  cold-air  machine.  In  this 
machine  the  air  is  cooled  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  32°  F.  before  reaching  the  ex- 
pansion cylinder.  The  low  temperature 
thus  deprives  the  air  of  all  excess  of 
moisture. 

Compression    machines   make   use   of 
rapidly   vaporizing   substances,   such   as 


- 

Fig.    191 — THE   GALLOWAY   SKIN   MAKES  AN  EXCELLENT  RUG 


pheres  and  at  a  temperature  of  86°  F., 
acquires  temperatures  of  — 13°  F.,  — 63° 
F.  and  — 94°  F.  respectively,  on  expand- 
ing. 

The  Bell-Coleman  cold  air  machine 
— In  this  machine  the  air  is  taken  from 
the  cooling  room  and  subjected  to  a  pres- 
sure of  two  to  three  atmospheres  in  a 
compression  cylinder.  The  air  thus 
heated  by  compression  is  cooled  by  a 
water  spray,  dried  by  passing  through 
a  series  of  sieve  structures  and  finally 
cooled  in  tubes  to  a  temperature  of  41° 
F.  From  the  expansion  cylinders,  the 
air  escapes  into  the  cooling  rooms  at  a 


methyl  ether,  sulphuric  ether,  sul- 
phurous acid  and  ammonia,  but  princi- 
pally ammonia.  The  principle  on  which 
these  machines  are  based  is  that  fluids 
when  vaporized  extract  heat  from  sur- 
rounding substances.  The  ammonia  is 
kept  in  circulation  in  a  system  of  pipes 
and,  after  being  vaporized,  is  brought 
back  in  a  fluid  form  and  the  heat  ab- 
sorbed by  water. 

Importance  of  refrigeration — The  im- 
portance of  cold  storage  can  scarcely  be 
overestimated.  Cold  is  the  best  method 
for  preserving  animal  products.  It  pro- 
duces no  unfavorable  change,  either  ic 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  taste  or  nutritive  value  of  the  food 
thus  preserved.  On  the  contrary,  the 
flavor  and  quality  of  meat  is  improved 
by  refrigeration.  Sarcolactic  acid  de- 
velops in  meat  and  brings  about  desir- 
able ripening  processes.  Moreover,  no 
hygienic  objections  can  be  raised  against 
refrigeration  properly  done.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  neither  putrefactive 
nor  pathogenic  bacteria  are  destroyed  by 
cold.  They  are,  however,  prevented  from 
multiplying.  When  meat  is  placed  in 
the  cooler,  there  is  a  certain  amount  of 
excess  moisture  which  must  evaporate  in 
order  to  allow  the  successful  handling 
of  the  meat  subsequently. 

In  light  hogs,  according  to  Wilder, 
this  shrinkage  in  weight  is  3  per  cent 
within  48  hours,  P/2  per  cent  within  72 
hours  and  about  5  per  cent  within  94 
hours.  Grassman  states  that  in  a  care- 
ful shrinkage  test,  beef  had  lost  8.8  per 
cent  after  four  months  in  cold  storage 
at  a  temperature  of  25°  F.,  pork  7.4  pei 
cent  and  mutton  11.5  per  cent;  aftei 
nine  months,  beef  l.ad  lost  17.8  per  cent 
in  weight,  pork  12.8  per  cent  and  mutton 
23.4  per  cent.  In  this  test  mutton  froze 
most  quickly  and  beef  most  slowly.  Ac- 
tual freezing  has  given  satisfactory  re- 
sults also  with  fish,  game,  fowls,  eggs 
and  milk.  Under  ordinary  refrigeration 
temperatures,  without  freezing,  meat 
can  be  kept  from  decomposing  only  for 
a  few  weeks.  Hengst  found,  for  exam- 
ple, that  calf  and  hog  quarters  begin  to 
show  evidence  of  decomposition  within 
two  weeks  and  beef  quarters  after  21 
days.  Mutton  kept  well  more  than  four 
weeks.  Decomposition  is  due  to  bacteria 
and  begins  on  the  surface  of  the  meat 
where  it  is  at  first  confined.  Underneath 
this  surface  layer  the  meat  is  still  in 
good  condition.  The  loss  of  weight  in 
cold  storage  during  the  first  few  days  is 
not  greater  than  would  occur  in  the 
open  air. 

Estimation  of  amount  of  ice,  etc. On 

the  farm  where  ice  is  used  for  refrigera- 
tion, 1  pound  of  ice  under  the  best  con- 
ditions will  cool  down  3  pounds  of  meat 
from  a  temperature  of  80°  F.  to  the 
lowest  point  possible  with  melting  ice. 
After  that  the  amount  of  ice  required 
to  keep  the  meat  cool  will  depend  on  the 
construction  of  the  cooling  room,  insu- 
lation and  ventilation.  In  different 
packing  houses  which  use  artificial  re- 
frigeration, 1  square  foot  of  pipe  surface 
containing  the  refrigerating  mixture  is 
allowed  for  every  3  to  121/2  cubic  feet 


of  space  in  the  chilling  room.  Different 
estimates  are  required  if  Gardner's  cur- 
tain system  of  exposed  brine  circulation 
is  iised. 

Cooling  beef — It  has  been  found  de- 
sirable in  packing  houses  to  put  beef 
into  the  coolers  as  soon  as  it  is  dressed. 
Coolers  should  have  two  separate  com- 
partments, in  the  first  of  which  the  tem- 
perature should  be  40  to  45°  F.,  or  at 
most,  not  above  50°  F.  The  next  day 
after  killing,  beef  is  placed  in  the  main 
cooler,  where  a  temperature  of  34  to 
36°  F.  is  maintained.  The  use  of  a 
preliminary  cooler  with  a  moderate  tem- 
perature is  not  only  economical  but 
necessary  for  the  proper  preservation  of 
the  meat.  Wilder  has  well  described 
the  troubles  which  arise  when  an  at- 
tempt is  made  to  cool  beef  too  quickly. 
The  outside  layer  of  meat  is  chilled, 
thus  forming  an  insulation  against  the 
inside  and  causing  so-called  bone-sour 
or  bone-stink  beef. 

Beef  has  the  best  appearance,  however, 
if  it  is  put  into  the  preliminary  cooler 
at  once.  For  the  first  24  hours  beef 
should  hang  from  12  to  18  inches  apart, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  animal;  later 
it  may  be  pushed  closer  together.  Sep- 
arate pieces  of  meat  must  not  be  placed 
in  contact  with  one  another  in  the  cool- 
ing r5om.  This  is  a  mistake  which  is 
often  made  on  the  farm,  with  the  result 
that  the  meat  does  not  keep  well.  The 
pieces  must  hang  free  or  be  separated  by 
grating  with  air  spaces  between  them. 
If  all  sanitary  requirements  are  met — 
cleanliness,  dryness,  ventilation,  etc — 
beef  can  be  kept  without  decomposition 
for  several  months  at  a  temperature  of 
33°  F. 

Cooling  pork — Formerly  the  operators 
of  packing  houses  left  hogs  over  night  in 
an  open  air  hanging  room.  During 
this  time  the  carcasses  cooled  off  some- 
what and  became  dry.  Better  results 
are  obtained  if  the  hogs  are  at  once  put 
into  the  cooling  room,  in  which  the  tem- 
perature may  run  up  to  45°  F.  during 
the  process  of  filling,  but  should  fall  to 
36°  F.  within  the  first  12  hours,  and 
to  32°  F.  within  48  hours.  Before  the 
pork  is  cut  the  cooling  room  should  be 
brought  down  to  28°  F.  With  sheep 
there  is  no  danger  of  cooling  the  car- 
cass too  fast  as  long  as  the  temperature 
of  the  cooling  room  is  above  32°  F. 
The  animal  heat  escapes  rapidly  from 
mutton  for  the  reason  that  the  carcass 
is    thin.    Mutton    may    be    thoroughly 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


chilled    and    dried   ready   for    shipment 
within  24  hours. 

Eggs  in  cold  storage — Eefrigeration 
of  eggs  has  grown  to  be  a  business  of 
such  proportions  that  more  than  $20,- 
000,000  worth  of  eggs  are  annually  held 
in  cold  storage  in  this  country.  Re- 
garding the  practical  details  of  cold 
storage  for  eggs,  Cooper  has  collected 
some  interesting  information  from  men 
who  are  engaged  in  the  business. 

Temperature — For   long   storage   32° 
F.  seems  to  be  the  preferred  temperature. 
The  actual  temperature  in  different  cold 
storage  plants  ranges  from  28  to  40° F., 
but  28°  F.  is  near  the  freezing  point  of 
egg  albumen  and  40°F.  is  too  high  for 
the  effective  preservation  of  eggs.     Re- 
cently there  is  a  tendency  to  prefer  30 
or  31°  F.    Most  operators  claim  that  the 
lowest  safe  temperature  is  about  two  de- 
grees  below   the   optimum   temperature. 
Too  low  temperatures   are  said  to  pro- 
duce dark  spots,  make  the  white  more 
liquid  and  injure  the  keeping  quality  of 
the  eggs.     Eggs  may  be  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature  of   40°    F.    for   three   months, 
after   which   they   begin   to   get    musty. 
Cooper  has  shown  that  fresh  eggs  freeze 
at  26  or  27°  F.,  while  sour  or  half  rotten 
eggs  freeze  just  below  32°  F.     Eggs  kept 
between  28  and  30°  F.  for  five  months 
will  keep   for   three  weeks  longer  after 
removal  from  cold  storage.     Eggs  must 
be  cooled  down  slowly  when  put  in  cold 
storage,  and  warmed  up  slowly  when  re- 
moved;   otherwise    the    white    becomes 
thin  and  other  bad  effects  are  produced. 
Humidity — The  humidity  of  the  air  in 
cold  storage  is  an  important  point  and 
should  be  tested  by  means  of  a  wet  bulb 
thermometer   or   hygrometer.      The   hu- 
midity in  plants  actually  in  use  for  re- 
frigerating eggs   varies   from   65   to   85 
per  cent,  averaging  about   75  per  cent. 
The  percentage  of  humidity  varies  with 
the    season,    ventilation    and    absorbents 
■used.      It    should    be    remembered    that 
the  higher  the  temperature   of  the  air, 
the  greater  its  capacity  to  hold  water.  If 
the  humidity  is  too  low,  the  eggs  lose  too 
much  by  evaporation,  while  if  it  is  too 
high,  they  become  musty  by  the  growth 
of   molds.      On    account   of   the   danger 
from  the  development  of  molds  in  high 
temperatures  it  is  evident  that  the  higher 
the  temperature  the  lower  must  be  the 
relative  humidity  of  the  air  for  the  sake 
of  safety. 

According  to  Cooper's  tests  the  proper 
relative  humidity  of  the  air  at  different 


temperatures  is  as  follows:  28°  F.  80 
per  cent,  29°  F.  78  per  cent,  30°  F.  76 
per  cent,  31°  F.  74  per  cent,  32°  F.  71 
per  cent,  and  40°  F.  53  per  cent.  It  is 
apparent  from  these  figures  that  at  a 
temperature  of  28°  F.  the  high  relative 
humidity  will  largely  prevent  evapora- 
tion from  the  egg  into  the  air,  while  the 
low  temperature  will  effectively  prevent 
the  growth  of  molds  and  bacteria.  At  a 
temperature  of  40°  F.,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  low  relative  humidity  permits  rapid 
evaporation  from  the  egg.  Perhaps  the 
best_  instrument  for  determining  the  hu- 
midity of  the  air  in  cold  storage  rooms  is 
the  sling  psychrometer  devised  by  Prof- 
essor Marvin  of  the  United  States 
weather  bureau.  Tables  are  furnished 
with  the  instrument  by  which  the  mois- 
ture can  readily  be  determined. 

_  Circulation— A   good    circulation    of 
air  is  necessary  to   the  preservation  of 
eggs  in  cold  storage.     Circulation  is  re- 
quired to  equalize  the  temperature  of  all 
parts  of  the  cooling  room,  and  to  carry 
away  the  moisture  from  the  eggs  to  the 
refrigerating  pipes  where  it  is  condensed. 
Gravity  circulation  is  fairly  well  accom- 
plished    by    placing     the     refrigerating 
pipes   near  the  ceiling  and  using  false 
partitions  or  false  ceilings  to  direct  the 
cold   air   down   by  one   course   and   the 
warm  air  back  to  the  pipes  by  another 
course.     If  the  arrangements  for  circu- 
lation   are   poor,    the    temperature    may 
vary  as  much  as  five  degrees  in  different 
parts_  of   the   room.      The   greatest  uni- 
formity  of    temperature    is    secured    by 
keeping  the  pipes  outside  the  room  and 
forcing  the  air  by  means  of  fans  so  that 
it  enters  at  one  side  and  leaves  at  the 
other   side   of   the   room.      With   proper 
circulation    it    is    safe    to    maintain    a 
higher  humidity  of  the  air  and  thus  pre- 
vent too  great  evaporation  from  the  eggs. 
Ventilation— The    odors,    gases    and 
moisture  from  eggs  in  cold  storage  are 
partly  collected  by  absorbents  used  in  the 
cooling  room  and  condensed  on  the  pipe3. 
These  means,  however,  are  not  sufficient 
for  removing  all  impurities,  consequently 
some   ventilation   is   required.     A   little 
air  leaks  in  around  windows  and  doors 
but  it  is  not  enough  and  cannot  be  regu- 
lated.    Many  cold  storage  operators  do 
not_  ventilate    at    all   and,    as    a    result, 
their    products    possess    a    disagreeable 
flavor  and  odor.     In  ventilating  cooling 
rooms  for  eggs,  Cooper  recommends  that 
the  air  be  first  cooled,  dried  and  purified 
before    being    forced    into    the    cooling 


264 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


room.  It  is  better  to  ventilate  by  forcing 
pure  air  in  rather  than  by  drawing  foul 
air  out,  for  while  foul  air  is  sucked  out 
by  the  exhaustion  method  other  foul  air 
is  drawn  in  around  doors  and  through 
other  cracks.  Ventilating  air  may  be 
purified  and  cooled  by  being  forced  up  a 
shaft  through  a  spray  of  water  falling 
through  a  perforated  disk. 

Moisture  absorption — The  absorbents 
in  common  use  in  cold  storage  are  quick- 
lime and  chloride  of  lime.  The  walls  oi 
the  cooling  room  may  be  whitewashed 
so  as  to  look  very  neat  and  the  white- 
wash serves  also  as  an  absorbent  of 
moisture.  For  this  purpose  lime  should 
be  slaked  with  water  to  the  consistency 
of  cream  and  salt  added  at  the  rate  of 
one  part  to  two  parts  of  lime.     Portland 


suits.  The  looseness  of  construction  re- 
quired in  the  case  will  depend  upon  the 
humidity  of  the  air  in  the  cooling  room. 
For  protecting  the  eggs  at  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  cases,  cork  shavings  and 
excelsior  are  best. 

Formerly,  when  eggs  were  stored  at  a 
temperature  of  35  to  50°  F.,  it  was  nec- 
essary to  turn  them  from  time  to  time 
for  the  reason  that  the  yolks,  being 
lighter  than  the  white,  would  rise  and 
stick  to  the  shell.  In  eggs  preserved  at 
30°  F.  the  white  is  less  fluid  and  the 
yolk  remains  in  place.  The  necessity  of 
moving  or  turning  eggs,  is,  therefore,  en- 
tirely obviated.  Eggs  may  be  kept  in 
the  same  refrigerating  room  with  apples 
or  other  fruit,  providing  the  fruit  is  in 
good    condition   and   does   not   give   off 


Fiff.   192 WHITE  WYANDOTTES,  15  WEEKS  OLD,    DRESSED    FOR    MARKET 


cement  may  be  added  at  the  rate  of  one 
part  to  six  parts  of  lime.  Cold  water 
paints  may  be  used  in  places  where 
whitewash  is  not  suitable.  Quicklime 
and  chloride  of  lime  may  also  be  placed 
about  the  cooling  room  in  trays  or  pans. 
Chloride  of  lime  is  the  most  active  of 
moisture  absorbers. 

Cooper  and  others  have  demonstrated 
that  eggs  must  be  allowed  to  evaporate  a 
certain  amount  of  moisture;  otherwise 
they  will  become  rotten,  even  in  cold 
storage,  within  60  days.  Egg  cases  must 
therefore  not  prevent  evaporation.  The 
best  cases  are  made  of  cottonwood  oi 
basswood  and  are  kiln-dried  before  be- 
ing used.  The  fillers  or  pasteboard 
frames  must  be  odorless  and  must  not 
absorb  too  much  moisture.  Recently  a 
manilla   pasteboard   has   given   good   re- 


odors  and  also  provided  suitable  ventila- 
tion is  supplied. 

Frozen  egg  meat — Where  eggs  are 
frozen  in  bulk  in  the  form  of  egg  meat 
after  removal  from  the  shell,  they  should 
be  handled  in  hermetically  sealed  tin 
packages  after  thoroughly  mixing  the 
yolks  and  whites  together.  The  egg 
meat  may  then  be  frozen  and  stored  at 
temperatures  ranging  from  zero  to  20° 
F.,  but  20°  F.  is  low  enough. 

Poultry  in  cold  storage — Poultry  is 
held  in  cold  storage  at  temperatures  of 
8  to  30°  F.  It  is  generally  considered 
that  20°  F.  is  too  high  for  the  best 
freezing  and  storage  of  poultry  and 
game  birds,  and  10  to  15°  F.  is  now 
recommended.  The  low  temperatures 
are  required  for  poultry  for  the  reason 
that  the  meat  is  nearly  always  exposed 


ANIMAL. PRODUCT  8 


265 


to  high  temperatures  in  shipment  to  the 
receiving  centers  and  frequently  begins 
to  decompose  before  being  placed  in  cold 
storage.  It  is  necessary  to  check  this 
process  by  extreme  cold.  Moreover,  cold 
storage  poultry  is  not  drawn,  and  the 
bacteria  and  feces  in  the  intestines  pene- 
trate into  the  meat  more  slowly  at  low 
than  at  high  temperatures.  Experiments 
have  shown  that  drawn  poultry  will  keep 


result  of  the  rapid  multiplication  of  bac- 
teria in  it.  In  fact,  milk  spoils  more 
quickly  than  any  other  animal  food 
product.  Milk  as  such  does  not  require 
preservation  for  more  than  one  or  two 
days.  Bacteria  grow  10  to  20  times  as 
fast  in  milk  at  a  temperature  of  75°  F. 
as  at  32°  F.  Milk  is  considerably  altered 
in  its  chemical  and  physical  properties 
by  freezing.    When  milk  is  partly  frozen, 


Fig.    193 — TWO   VERTICAL   CHEESE  SECTIONS.     CHEESE    CURED   AT    40°    ON    RIGHT 
AND    CHEESE   CURED   AT   60°    ON   LEFT 


longer  than  undrawn  birds,  but  poultry 
dealers  for  some  reason  persist  in  recom- 
mending this  insanitary  method  of  mar- 
keting poultry. 

Refrigeration  in  the  dairy — The  de- 
velopment of  the  dairy  industry,  the 
transportation  of  milk  to  market,  the 
preservation  of  market  milk,  the  proper 
care  of  milk  in  the  household,  the  pres- 
ervation of  butter,  cheese  and  other  milk 
products  depend  on  refrigeration.  With- 
out cooling,  milk  soon  becomes  sour  as  a 


the  solid  portion  contains  more  fat  and 
water  and  less  ash,  casein  and  sugar 
than  the  fluid  part  of  the  milk.  In 
certain  German  experiments  it  seems 
that  if  butter  be  cooled  down  to  a  tem- 
perature of  10°  F.,  it  takes  on  a  crystal- 
line structure,  the  fat  globules  are 
broken  up,  and  the  odor  and  flavor  are 
largely  destroyed  within  a  month.  At 
temperatures  of  25  to  27°  F.,  butter  may 
be  kept  in  cold  storage  rooms  for  six 
months   or  longer  without  harm  to  its 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


flavor  or  aroma,  provided  suitable  venti- 
lation is  furnished. 

Milk,  as  soon  as  it  comes  from  the 
cow,  should  be  cooled  to  a  temperature 
of  40  to  50°  F.,  as  will  be  described  under 
Dairying,  and  should  be  delivered  to  the 
consumer  not  warmer  than  50°  F. 
Cream  intended  for  churning  must  lute- 
wise  be  cooled  after  separation.  The 
amount  of  water  in  butter  is  slightly- 
diminished  by  keeping  the  cream  cool 
before  churning.  If  a  small  quantity 
of  frozen  cream  or  frozen  milk  be  added 
to  the  cream  just  before  churning,  the 
butter  shows  a  higher  fat  content  and 
less  sugar  and  albumen,  especially  in  the 
case  of  sweet  cream  butter.  When  the 
cream  is  treated  in  this  way  the  butter 
has  a  better  keeping  quality. 

Cold  storage  of  butter — For  the  cold 
storage  of  butter  various  temperatures 
have  been  adopted  ranging  from  below 
zero  to  50°  F.  As  just  explained,  how- 
ever, too  low  temperatures  may  produce 
unfavorable  changes  in  the  butter,  such 
as  destruction  of  its  natural  physical 
constitution  and  flavor.  Again,  if  the 
temperature  is  too  high,  bacteria  develop 
rapidly  and  the  butter  becomes  rancid 
or  develops  other  disagreeable  flavors 
and  aromas.  Consequently,  for  the  best 
results  in  the  cold  storage  of  butter,  Kas- 
dorf  recommends  that  it  should  be  kept 
slightly  below  43°  F.  The  tempera- 
ture most  strongly  recommended  is  35  to 
40°  F. 

On  the  farm  lower  temperatures  can 
not  be  secured  economically.  In  cold 
storage  plants,  Lane  has  found  that,  con- 
trary to  the  German  experience  men- 
tioned above,  the  best  temperatures  for 
storing  butter  are  zero  to  10°  below  zero. 
The  quality,  flavor  and  appearance  were 
perfectly  preserved  for  more  than  nine 
months  and  there  was  no  appreciable 
loss  by  shrinkage. 

Cold  storage  of  cheese — Cheese  is 
exceedingly  sensitive  to  changes  in  tem- 
perature in  cold  storage  and  therefore 
the  temperature  should  be  kept  as  uni- 
form as  possible.  In  Canada,  cold 
storage  rooms  are  maintained  at  28  to 
32°  F.  for  different  kinds  of  cheese,  and 
in  general  a  range  of  28  to  36°  F.  is  in- 
dicated as  best  for  ripe  cheese.  The 
humidity  of  the  air  in  cold  storage 
should  be  about  80  per  cent.  The  ripen- 
ing process  takes  place  more  slowly  at 
low  temperatures,  cheddar  cheese  re- 
quiring five  or  six  months  at  40°  F.,  but 
Bhrinkage  is  somewhat  reduced.  Cheddar 
cheese  may  be  ripened  with  a  good  flavor 


at  50  to  60°  F.  In  New  York,  cheese 
cured  below  00°  F.,  scored  considerably 
higher  than  when  cured  at  65  to  75°  F. 
The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and 
the  Wisconsin  experiment  station  had 
excellent  results  in  curing  cheese  at  40° 
F.  or  below.  There  seems  to  be  a  dis- 
tinct advantage  in  putting  cheese  in 
cold  storage  as  soon  as  made,  and  allow- 
ing it  to  ripen  under  low  temperatures. 
In  experiments  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal 


Fig.  194. — various  kinds  of  cheese 

Industry  28  to  30°  F.  gave  the  best  re- 
sults. Cheddar  cheese  stored  at  28°  F. 
lost  about  3  per  cent  in  eight  months, 
while  at  40°  F.  it  lost  more  than  twice 
as  much  in  the  same  period.  Low  tem- 
peratures and  coating  with  melted  par- 
affine  greatly  reduced  the  loss  in  weight. 
Temperatures  of  28  to  34°  F.  also  gave 
the  best  general  results  as  to  quality  of 
the  cheese.  An  experiment  in  holding 
cheese  at  5°  F.  showed  that  the  flavor 
is  not  affected  by  this  low  temperature, 
but  the  cheese  crumbled  somewhat  and 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


this  granular  condition  lowered  the  mar- 
ket price  of  the  cheese. 

Refrigeration  on  vessels — There  re- 
main for  consideration  some  of  the  other 
commercial  uses  of  refrigeration  of  ani- 
mal food  products.  On  meat  transport 
vessels  actual  freezing  is  usually  resorted 
to  in  order  to  make  sure  that  decom- 
position is  prevented  as  far  as  possible. 
Australia  exports  about  7,000,000  frozen 
rabbits  annually.  Some  of  the  meat 
transport  steamers  plying  between  Aus- 
tralia and  England  are  fitted  with  freez- 
ing rooms  in  which  the  carcasses  of  4,000 
cattle  and  14,000  sheep  can  be  stored. 
When  frozen  meat  .is  thawed  out  the 
juices  run  out  of  the  cut  surfaces  read- 
ily, it  keeps  but  a  short  time,  and  its 
flavor  is  imfavorably  affected.  On  long 
transoceanic  trips  and  in  provisioning 
garrisons  it  may  be  necessary  to  freeze 
the  meat  despite  the  disadvantages  of 
the  process.  Millions  of  pounds  of  frozen 
beef  and  mutton  have  been  shipped 
to  the  Philippines.  Fish  have  been 
frozen  and  skipped  in  a  frozen  condition 
for  the  last  30  years.  Fish  meat  seems 
not  to  take  much  harm  from  freezing. 

Construction  of  cold  storage  houses — 
We  may  now  mention  briefly  some  of 
the  points  to  be  observed  in  the  materials 
and  methods  of  construction  of  cold 
storage  rooms.  The  requirements  re- 
garding temperature,  circulation  of  air, 
humidity  and  absorbents  have  been  men- 
tioned above  in  connection  with  a  discus- 
sion of  the  various  animal  products  in 
cold    storage. 

Insulation — Another  very  important 
feature  of  the  internal  construction  of 
cold  storage  rooms  is  insulation.  Besides 
being  a  non-conductor  of  heat  the  insu- 
lating material  should  be  non-odorous, 
should  not  absorb  moisture,  should  be 
vermin  proof,  fireproof,  inexpensive, 
durable  and  air-tight.  Cold  storage 
operators  have  found  that  the  best  insu- 
lation is  the  cheapest  in  the  end.  Some 
loss  of  heat  occurs  despite  all  efforts,  but 
it  is  economy  to  reduce  this  loss  to  a 
minimum  by  making  a  sufficient  outlay 
for  good  insulation  at  the  start.  Light- 
foot  recommends  an  outer  and  inner 
layer  of  tongued  and  grooved  boards  1 
or  iy2  inch  in  thickness,  separated  by  a 
9-inch  space  which  is  filled  with  char- 
coal, silicated  cotton  or  slag  wool. 

In  France  and  Germany,  ground  cork 
is  much  used  for  this  purpose,  and  in 
New  Zealand  and  Australia,  pumice 
stone.     Among    the    large    number    of 


other  materials  which  have  been  used, 
Taylor  mentions  asbestos,  cotton  wool, 
sheep's  wool,  pine  wood,  loam,  ashes, 
sawdust,  hairfelt,  lampblack,  mica,  paper, 
.pitch,  etc.  Various  proprietary  com- 
pounds have  also  been  manufactured 
for  this  special  purpose.  The  packing 
in  the  space  between  the  two  walls  must 
not  only  be  a  non-conductor  but  must 
not  absorb  moisture.  In  these  respects 
cork  is  very  desirable,  as  is  also  lamp- 
black, pitch  and  mica.  Cork  and  lamp- 
black possess  the  advantage  of  lightness 
and  elasticity.  Air  inclosed  with  the  in- 
sulating material  between  the  walls  helps 
in  preventing  the  heat  from  leaking  in. 
The  amount  of  heat  transmitted  by  dif- 
ferent substances  varies  greatly.  Thus, 
copper  conducts  2,000  times  as  much 
heat  as  blotting  paper,  iron  800,  stone 
56,  glass  25,  brickwork  17,  cork  four 
times  as  much  and  cotton  about  the  same 
amount  as  the  blotting  paper.  In  con- 
structing an  ice  house  and  cooling  room 
it  is  obviously  necessary  to  give  due 
heed  to  these  points.  Dry  air  is  a  very 
poor  conductor  of  heat.  Dead  air  spaces 
are  therefore  effective  in  preventing  the 
penetration  of  heat  from  the  outside. 

Good  insulation  implies  that  the  walls 
are  waterproof.  For  this  purpose,  Stod- 
dard tested  a  large  variety  of  paints,  oils, 
varnishes,  cements  and  waterproof  coat- 
ings. Resins,  gums  and  oils  were  found 
to  be  of  no  practical  use.  Pitch  and 
asphaltum  proved  objectionable  on  ac- 
count of  their  odor.  The  best  results 
were  obtained  from  the  use  of  Bay  State 
Air  and  Waterproofing,  Red  Mineral 
paint,  Spar  varnish,  Portland  cement, 
hot  paraffine,  water  paint,  etc.  From 
two  to  four  coats  are  required.  Doors 
must  be  constructed  like  the  walls  so 
that  heat  cannot  penetrate  and  so  that 
they  will  not  frost  through  in  zero 
weather.  Windows  can  be  dispensed 
with  in  a  cooling  room,  or  if  present 
should  consist  of  three  sashes  with  dead 
air  spaces  between  them. 

Cold  storage  on  the  farm — In  the 
above  account  of  refrigeration  we  have 
discussed  chiefly  cold  storage  on  a  com- 
mercial scale.  The  farmer  may  also 
wish  to  have  an  ice  house  and  cooling 
room.  In  the  following  pargraphs  sug- 
gestions are  made  regarding  cold  storage 
on  the  farm  and  the  relation  of  cold 
storage  in  general  to  the  farmer. 

In  all  cases,  it  is  best  to  have  the  whole 
structure  above  ground  and  the  ice  room 
above  the  cooling  room.  The  ventila- 
tion of  the  cooling  room  can  then  be 


268 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OE  LIVE  STOCK 


regulated  properly  and  a  gravity  circu- 
lation is  secured  by  the  descent  of  the 
cold  air  from  the  ice.  Careful  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  various  points 
mentioned  above  for  commercial  refrig- 
eration in  so  far  as  the  conditions  in  the 
case  of  each  farmer  will  permit.  In 
New  York,  Beach  obtained  entirely  sat- 
isfactory results  by  constructing  the 
walls  of  the  building  with  two  spaces, 
one  a  dead  air  space,  and  the  outside 
space  filled  with  sawdust.  Each  space 
was  lined  with  sheathing  paper  and 
matched  lumber.  The  floor  and  ceiling 
were  constructed  in  the  same  manner. 
In  West  Virginia,  it  was  found  that  a 
refrigerating  house  holding  1,000  barrels 


water  from  the  ice  may  be  used  in  cool- 
ing milk.  The  floor  of  the  ice  room 
should  be  covered  with  galvanized  iron 
or  other  metallic  sheathing  to  prevent 
leakage  into  the  cooling  room.  We  have 
spoken  of  the  cooling  rdbm  as  if  there 
were  no  other  storage  room  for  food 
products  in  the  farmer's  refrigerating 
house.  He  may,  however,  have  two 
rooms  in  his  building,  a  refrigerating 
room  at  a  lower  temperature,  and  a  cool- 
ing room  somewhat  warmer  and  connect- 
ing with  the  outside  through  a  small  en- 
trance room. 

Cold  storage  rooms  on  the  farm  are  of 
great  value.  As  stated  by  Faville,  the 
ice  and  cold  storage  house  at  the  home 


Fig.    195 — CREAMERY   AND   COLD   STORAGE    HOI  SE 


of  apples  could  be  built  for  $2,500. 
Where  rubble  stone  and  cement  are  con- 
venient a  grout  wall  may  be  constructed, 
6  to  10  inches  thick,  with  a  2  to  4-inch 
dead  air  space  inside  sheathed  with 
paper  and  matched  lumber. 

The  use  of  1-inch  strips  and  another 
sheathing  will  give  a  second  air  space. 
The  lumber  used  in  the  walls,  floor  and 
ceiling  must  be  as  near  odorless  as 
possible.  For  this  reason  pine  is  objec- 
tionable. It  is  desirable  to  have  two 
doors  at  the  entrance  to  the  cooling 
room,  one  opening  in  and  the  other  out- 
ward. Ventilation  pipes  arranged  so 
that  they  may  be  opened  or  closed  at 
will  and  leading  from  the  ice  chamhci 
through  the  roof  are  all  that  will  bo 
necessary  along  this  line.     The  melting 


provides  a  means  of  keeping  products 
that  are  of  daily  demand  in  the  home 
and  on  the  local  market.  Some  of  these 
products  are  very  perishable,  but  are  not 
produced  in  sufficient  quantity  to  war- 
rant their  being  sent  to  a  commercial 
cold  storage  plant.  Fresh  meats,  milk, 
butter  and  eggs  may  be  kept  during  the 
hottest  weather  of  summer  without  de- 
terioration in  quality.  Without  a  cold 
storage  arrangement,  it  is  impossible  to 
slaughter  beef,  pork  or  mutton  on  the 
farm  in  summer.  With  it  the  farmer 
may  have  these  meats  on  his  table  the 
year  'round. 

Berries  may  be  kept  over  Sunday  for 
the  Monday  delivery  and  other  fruits 
may  be  stored  in  connection  with  animal 
products.     It  should  be  remembered  that 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


269 


milk  absorbs  odors  very  readily,  and  no 
bad  odors  should  be  allowed  to  accumu- 
late in  the  cooling  room.  All  fruit  must 
be  removed  before  it  rots.  Meats  must 
not  be  allowed  to  become  stale.  Meat, 
eggs  and  milk  must  be  freely  exposed  to 
the  air  in  the  cooling  room.  Apples  or 
pears  may  be  kept  in  tight  barrels  or 
crates,  and  butter  in  air-tight  stone  jars 
or  other  packages.  It  is  quite  apparent 
that  where  several  kinds  of  products  are 
kept  in  the  same  cooling  room,  the  dif- 


eliminates  the  constant  difference  be- 
tween the  supply  and  the  consumption 
of  food  products.  The  farmer,  however, 
gets  little  or  no  advantage  from  the  oper- 
ation of  these  immense  refrigeration 
plants.  They  prevent  the  operation  of 
the  natural  law  of  supply  and  demand. 
The  farmer's  products  are  bought  up 
when  the  price  is  at  the  lowest  ebb,  and 
held  for  an  artificially  high  price  at  a 
season  when  the  farmer  has  nothing  of 
the  sort  to  sell  and  cannot,  therefore,  re- 


Fig.    196 — COMMERCIAL    ICE    CREAM    PLANT 


ferent  products  must,  so  far  as  possible, 
be  kept  from  contamination  with  the 
odors  of  other  materials.  This  is  to  be 
accomplished  through  air  circulation  by 
having  the  ice  above  the  cooling  room, 
so  that  air  currents  come  down  from  the 
ice,  taking  moisture,  heat  and  odor  from 
each  article  in  storage  and  returning  by 
another  course  to  the  ice.  Ventilation 
from  the  ice  through  the  roof  will  then 
remove  impurities. 

Commercial  refrigeration  and  the 
farmer — The  commercial  cold  storage 
plant    serves    as   an    accumulator   which 


ceive  any  benefit  from  the  high  prices. 
In  other  words,  commercial  cold  storage, 
as  at  present  operated,  tends  to  prevent 
the  consumer  from  obtaining  food  prod- 
ucts except  at  a  high  price,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  farmer  from  selling  food  prod- 
ucts except  at  a  low  price.  Aside  from 
the  use  of  cold  storage  on  a  small  scale 
at  home,  the  farmer  cannot  hope  for  any 
benefit  from  refrigeration,  unless  he 
goes  into  large  co-operative  schemes,  or 
deposits  his  products  in  cold  storage  at  a 
stipulated  monthly  rent  and  retains  en- 
tire control  of  his  own  products. 


270 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


MEAT  INSPECTION 

It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  insist  upon 
the  tremendous  importance  of  meat  pro- 
duction in  this  country.  Both  home 
consumption  and  the  demand  for  our 
meats  abroad  increases  year  by  year. 
With  44,000,000  beef  cattle,  worth  $670,- 
000,000,  and  47,000,000  hogs,  worth 
$284,000,000,  we  naturally  have  an  im- 
portant function  to  perform  in  the  reg- 
ulation of  these  food  products.  In  1905, 
nearly  66,000,000  animals  were  inspected 
by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 
There  were  labeled  and  tagged  22,000,- 
000  quarters  of  beef,  8,000,000  mutton 
carcasses,  845,000  veal  carcasses,  1,000,- 
000  hogs,  and  800,000  sacks  of  pork. 
At  the  same  time,  66,846  stock  cars  were 
inspected,  and  824,914  live  cattle,  423,- 
780  sheep,  and  2,358  horses  for  export. 
Danger  from  eating  diseased  meat — 
During  the  past  few  years  there  has 
been  an  unusual  agitation  for  the  purity 
of  food  products.  From  the  standpoint 
of  human  health,  meat  is  one  of  the 
most  important  food  products.  ^  Its  im- 
portance in  the  human  diet  is  gener- 
ally recognized  and  the  necessity  of  reg- 
ulating traffic  in  meat  is  becoming  more 
obvious  to  all  concerned.  The  chief 
purpose  of  meat  inspection,  as  stated 
by  Ostertag,  is  to  protect  man  against 
the  dangers  from  eating  diseased  or 
harmful  meat.  These  dangers  are  quite 
numerous,  but  the  most  striking  are 
found  in  the  possibility  of  transmitting 
infectious  diseases  (tuberculosis,  an- 
thrax, glanders,  rabies,  septicaemia,  pye- 
mia, etc),  toxic  diseases  (meat  poison- 
ing, sausage  poisoning,  etc),  or  animal 
parasites  (trichina,  tapeworms,  etc). 
In  the  following  paragraphs  we  may 
briefly  consider  some  of  these  dangers 
from  eating  meat. 

Diseases  transmitted  in  meat: — Tuber- 
culosis may  be  acquired  by  man  by 
eating  tuberculous  organs.  Tubercle 
bacilli  are  seldom  found  in  the  muscle 
tissue  proper  or  in  the  blood.  The 
lymphatic  glands  in  the  muscles,  how- 
ever, are  often  infected,  and  tubercles  are 
frequently  found  in  the  vital  organs  and 
on  the  lining  membrane  of  the  body  cav- 
ity and  chest.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
the  whole  carcass  of  a  tuberculous  ani- 
mal be  condemned.  It  is  often  sufficient 
merely  to  remove  the  affected  organs  or 
sometimes  a  badly  diseased  quarter,  or 
the  lining  of  the  body  cavities,  together 
with  the  lymphatic  glands,  may  be  care- 
fully   removed.      Where    the    disease    is 


generalized  or  distributed  throughout 
the  body  the  whole  carcass  is  to  be  con- 
demned, but  where  the  disease  is  local, 
affecting  only  one  or  a  few  organs,  the 
meat  is  undoubtedly  harmless.  Organs 
affected  with  lymphadenitis,  especially 
in  sheep,  should  be  excluded  from  the 
market. 

Actinomycosis,  also  called  big  jaw  in 
cattle,  affects  chiefly  the  jaw,  throat  and 
tongue  of  cattle  and  the  udder  of  hogs. 
Rarely  the  disease  becomes  generalized, 
in  which  case  the  whole  carcass  is  un- 
fit for  food;  otherwise,  merely  the  af- 
fected parts  should  be  rejected.  It  is 
not  definitely  known  whether  actinomy- 
cosis may  be  transmitted  from  animals 
to  man.  There  is  apparently  no  danger 
to  human  health  from  eating  the  meat 
of  animals  affected  with  botryomycosis, 
cattle  plague,  malignant  catarrhal 
fever,  pleuro-pneumonia,  broncho-pneu- 
monia, blackleg,  braxy,  dysentery  in 
calves,  calf  diphtheria,  swine  erysipelas, 
urticaria,  swine  plague,  hog  cholera, 
fowl  cholera,  or  roup;  for  man  is  not 
subject  to  these  diseases.  Nevertheless 
the  meat  from  such  cases  is  utterly  un- 
fit for  food  if  the  disease  has  assumed  a 
generalized  form,  or  is  in  an  acute  stage, 
or  is  accompanied  with  fever. 

Glanders  is  not  easily  transmitted  in 
meat.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  thou- 
sands of  glanderous  horses  were  eaten 
without  harm.  Man  may  become  in- 
fected with  glanders,  however,  and  all 
glanderous  horses  should  be  destroyed  as 
soon  as  the  disease  is  detected.  More- 
over, in  this  country  little  horse  meat 
is  eaten,  nearly  all  of  the  small  amount 
slaughtered  being  shipped  abroad.  Ap- 
parently rabies  cannot  be  transmitted  in 
eating  the  meat.  Infection  may  arise 
in  cutting  it  up,  however,  and  such  meat 
is  to  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the 
market. 

Sheeppox  in  a  benign  form  does  not 
render  the  meat  dangerous.  Likewise 
no  harm  has  even  been  observed  from 
eating  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with 
cowpox. 

Foot  and  mouth  disease — While  man 
may  readily  become  infected  with  foot 
and  mouth  disease,  the  meat  from  such 
cases  is  not  dangerous.  All  parts  of 
the  body  bearing  erosions  are  highly 
dangerous.  Even  in  cases  of  anthrax, 
the  meat  is  usually  harmless  when  eaten, 
but  infection  may  readily  occur  in  han- 
dling or  cutting  the  meat  if  the  hands 
bear    scratches    or    wounds.      Similarly 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


2T1 


with  tetanus  the  meat  does  not  produce 
infection  when  eaten. 

Wounds — The  meat  from  cases  of  seri- 
ous wounds  or  putrid  intoxication  may 
or  may  not  be  dangerous  according  to 
the  extent  of  the  disease.  All  cases  of 
general  pyemia  or  septicaemia  (blood 
poisoning)  are  extremely  dangerous. 
In  fact,  no  other  disease  is  of  such  im- 
portance in  meat  inspection  as  septicae- 
mia, tuberculosis  not  excepted.  The 
most  important  septic  diseases  are  calf 
lameness,  hemorrhagic  enteritis  of  calves, 
septic  intestinal  and  mammary  diseases 
of  cattle  and  petechial  fever.  So  far  as 
the  meat  is  concerned,  septicaemia  is  by 
far  the  most  dangerous  of  all  animal  dis- 
eases. This  matter  is  referred  to  below 
under  meat  poisoning. 

Parasites  transmitted  in  meat — The 
most  important  animal  parasites  which 
may  be  transmitted  to  man  in  meat  are 
trichina,  tapeworms,  echinococcus  and 
pentastomum.  Beef  measles  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  the  beef  measle  worm  in 
the  muscles.  This  Worm  varies  in  size 
from  a  pin-head  to  a  pea  and  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  muscles  of  mastication, 
but  also  in  the  heart,  tongue  and  muscles 
of  the  neck  and  chest.  The  beef  measle 
worm  is  the  immature  stage  of  a  tape- 
worm, Taenia  saginata.  The  tapeworm 
develops  from  the  measle  worm  when  the 
latter  is  set  free  by  the  digestion  of  the 
beef  in  the  human  intestines.  Beef 
measle  worms  are  killed  by  thoroughly 
boiling  the  meat,  by  pickling  the.  meat 
in  strong  brine  for  14  days  or  by  keep- 
ing the  meat  in  cold  storage  for  three 
weeks.  Rendered  lard  from  measly  cat- 
tle is  perfectly  safe  for  use. 

The  hog  measle  worm  is  likewise  the 
immature  or  larval  stnge  of  another 
tapeworm  of  man,  Taenia  solium.  This 
tapeworm  is  exceedingly  rare  as  com- 
pared with  Taenia  saginata  and  the  hog 
measle  worm  is  correspondingly  rar°. 
The  hog  measle  worm  is  found  chiefly 
in  the  abdominal  muscles,  diaphragm, 
tongue,  heart,  and  muscles  of  mastica- 
tion. This  larval  worm  not  only  de- 
velops into  a  tapeworm  in  the  intestines 
but  may  also  infest  man  in  the  larval  or 
cysticercus  stage,  causing  disease  and 
death.  The  cysticercus  is  found  in  man 
in  the  brain,  muscles,  heart  and  eyes. 
In  Germany,  its  occurrence  in  man  ha3 
been  greatly  reduced  by  means  of  meat 
inspection.  The  hog  measle  worm,  like 
the  beef  measle  worm,  is  killed  by  boil- 
ing or  pickling  and  is,  therefore,  only  in 


raw  pork.  Measly  pork  cannot  be  ren- 
dered harmless  by  preservation  in  cold 
storage. 

The  trichina  is  a  minute,  parasitic 
round  worm  about  0.04  of  an  inch  in 
length.  It  occurs  in  two  forms,  muscle 
and  intestinal  trichinae.  The  muscle 
trichinae  occur  in  pork  and  may  infest 
man  through  raw  pork,  causing  disease 
and  death  in  10  to  40  per  cent  of  cases. 
The  trichina  occurs  in  the  hog,  dog,  cat, 
bear,  fox,  badger,  martin  and  rat.  The 
hog  becomes  infested  by  eating  rats,  and 
man  by  eating  pork.  The  frequency  of 
infestation  in  hogs  varies  greatly  but 
averages  perhaps  1  to  3  per  cent.  Natu- 
rally outbreaks  of  trichinosis  in  man 
occur  most  frequently  where  the  most 
raw  pork  is  eaten.  The  symptoms  are 
sometimes  mistaken  for  those  of  typhoid 
fever.  Children  are  less  seriously  af- 
fected than  adults.  Neither  refrigera- 
tion nor  decomposition  of  the  meat  has 
any  effect  on  trichinae.  They  are  read- 
ily killed  by  cooking  the  meat  or  by  salt 
pickling  it  for  four  weeks.  There  is  no 
danger  fron  trichina  in  well  cooked 
pork. 

The  echinococcus  disease  is  the  most 
fatal  of  all  parasitic  diseases  which  af 
feet  man,  50  per  cent  dying  within  five 
years  after  infestation.  The  adult  of 
this  parasite  is  a  tapeworm,  Taenia  echi- 
nococcus, which  lives  in  the  intestines 
of  dogs  and  wolves.  The  dangerous, 
bladder  worm  stage  occurs  in  any  organ 
of  the  body,  but  chiefly  in  the  liver  and 
lungs  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine  and  man. 
In  preventing  this  disease,  dogs  should 
not  be  allowed  in  the  house  too  much  or 
around  slaughter  houses,  and  should 
frequently  be  treated  for  tapeworms.  All 
bladder  worms  found  in  slaughtered  ani- 
mals should  be  destroyed  by  heat  in  or- 
der to  prevent  infestation  of  man  and 
dogs.  Fortunately,  the  echinococcus  dis- 
ease is  not  common  in  the  United  States. 

Meat  poisoning  js  c]ue  to  eating  meal 
which  has  from  some  cause  become 
spoiled.  The  spoiling  may  be  due  to 
bacterial  infection  or  to  decomposition. 
Meat  poisoning  is  of  very  frequent  oc- 
currence. The  symptoms  include  nau- 
sea, vomiting,  colicky  pains,  diarrhea, 
chills,  headache,  vertigo,  delirium,  etc, 
according  to  the  severity  of  the  case. 
Recovery  may  take  place  in  a  few  days 
or  not  for  months  and  a  small  percent- 
age of  cases  is  fatal.  Large  animals  are 
disemboweled  as  soon  as  slaughtered  and 


272 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


bacteria  in  the  intestines  have  no  op- 
portunity to  penetrate  into  the  meat. 
The  case  is  quite  different  with  fowls, 
for  undrawn  poultry  may  lie  for  months 
in  cold  storage  and  then  be  exposed  foi 
several  days  at  a  warm  temperature  be- 
fore being  eaten.  In  the  meantime,  the 
bacteria  and  repulsive  odors  from  the 
intestines  have  penetrated  into  the  meat. 
It  is,  in  fact,  a  cause  of  some  wonder  thai, 
such  meat  is  ever  eaten  without  caus- 
ing trouble. 

In  examining  meat  in  cases  of  meat 
poisoning  various  bacteria  have  been 
found,  such  as  the  common  coli  bacillus, 
Bacillus  enteritidis,  B.  bovis  morbificans, 
etc.  As  a  rule,  only  the  outer  surface  of 
the  meat  is  infected,  if  the  animal  was 
originally  healthy.  Good  meat  exposed 
even  for  a  period  of  10  days  should  not 
allow  the  penetration  of  bacteria  to  a 
greater  depth  than  y2  inch.  It  should 
be  remembered,  however,  that  from  the 
moment  of  slaughter  until  it  is  placed 
on  the  table,  meat  may  undergo  a  greac 
variety  of  alterations. 

Meat  may  be  contaminated  by  care- 
less handling  in  slaughtering.  After 
slaughter  it  at  once  shows  an  acid  fer- 
mentation which,  within  bounds,  im- 
proves the  flavor  and  makes  the  meal 
more  tender.  Wild  game  decomposes 
more  slowly  than  the  meat  of  domestic 
animals.  But  all  meat  begins  to  decom- 
pose as  soon  as  the  animal  is  dead.  "We 
soon  have  the  condition  known  as  high, 
hautgout,  etc.  Meat  readily  absorbs 
bad  odors  or  metallic  poisons,  such  as 
white  lead.  It  may  be  contaminated  by 
insects  and  all  sorts  of  bacteria  from  the 
dust  of  the  street  and  unclean  hands. 
Some  of  these  bacteria  cause  the  forma- 
tion of  more  or  less  virulent  toxins, 
some  hasten  decomposition,  some  pro- 
duce color  or  light.  Thus  we  have  the 
so-called  gray  coloration  of  sausage,  phos- 
phorescent meat,  rancidity  of  fat. 

Cooking  does  not  prevent  decomposi- 
tion. Some  of  the  worst  cases  of  meat 
poisoning  have  occurred  from  eating 
meat  which  had  been  kept  too  long  after 
cooking. 

Meat  which  has  been  kept  in  cold 
storage  decomposes  rapidly  after  removal 
and  must  be  eaten  at  once.  A  high 
blood  content  in  the  meat  also  favors 
decomposition.  Sausages  are  so  often 
prepared  from  partly  decomposed  scrap 
meat  that  we  need  not  wonder  at  the 
frequency  and  severity  of  sausage  poi- 
soning. It  is  usually  due  to  the  presence 
of  Bacillus  bohilinus  in  the  sausage  and 


is  fatal  in  from  30  to  40  per  cent  of 
cases.  Poisonous  effects  are  also  occa- 
sionally observed  from  eating  minced 
meat,  clams,  oysters,  etc.  The  preserva- 
tion of  meat  against  decomposition  has 
already  been  discussed  under  Slaughter- 
ing and  Curing  Meat.  From  the  above 
brief  outline  of  the  subject  of  meat  in- 
spection as  it  affects  the  farmer,  it  is 
apparent  that  the  meat  inspector  has  an 
important  duty  to  perform.  We  may 
now  consider  how  he  does  it. 

Inspection  by  federal  authority — Ac- 
cording to  Act  of  Congress  of  1891, 
amended  in  1895,  the  proprietors  of 
slaughterhouses,  canning,  salting,  pack- 
ing or  rendering  establishments  who 
carry  on  interstate  or  foreign  business, 
must  agree  to  abide  by  the  inspection 
rules  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 
An  inspector,  together  with  assistant  in- 
spectors and  microscopists,  is  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  the  examination  and 
inspection  of  animals  and  their  products 
in  each  institution  of  this  sort.  The  in- 
spector and  those  under  his  direction 
have  free  access  to  all  parts  of  the  build- 
ings and  premises  used  in  the  slaughter 
of  animals  and  the  conversion  of  their 
carcasses  into  food  products. 

In  the  inspection  of  live  animals  all 
are  rejected  which  show  evidence  of  any 
of  the  following  diseases:  Hog  cholera, 
swine  plague,  anthrax,  rabies,  malignant 
epizootic  catarrh,  mange,  scab,  lumpy 
jaw,  pneumonia,  pleurisy,  enteritis, 
peritonitis,  metritis,  Texas  fever,  tuber- 
culosis, hemorrhagic  septicaemia,  and 
black  leg;  moreover,  animals  are  rejected 
on  account  of  pregnancy,  fever,  imma- 
turity, emaciation,  wounds,  abscesses, 
suppurating  sores  and  tumors.  All  ani- 
mals, whether  passed  or  rejected  in  the 
ante-mortem  inspection,  are  again  in- 
spected after  slaughter. 

The  carcass  and  internal  organs  are 
passed  or  condemned  according  to  the 
findings  and  according  to  the  known 
facts  regarding  the  harmfulness  and  in- 
fectiousness of  animal  diseases.  All 
cases  of  anthrax,  rabies,  pyemia,  septi- 
caemia, Texas  fever,  hemorrhagic  septi- 
caemia, and  blackleg  are  condemned  in 
toto,  as  are  also  extensive  or  generalized 
cases  of  swine  plague,  hog  cholera,  ma- 
lignant catarrh,  scab,  tuberculosis,  lym- 
phadenitis, jaundice,  and  urticaria. 
Moreover,  condemnation  takes  place  in 
cases  of  advanced  pregnancy,  emacia- 
tion, calves,  pigs  and  lambs  under  four 
weeks  of  age,  parasitic  ieterohematuria 
of  sheep,  and  uremia.  . 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


273 


Pork  for  export  trade,  but  not  that  for 
interstate  trade,  formerly  was  subjected 
to  a  microscopic  examination  for  tri- 
china. Pork  found  to  contain  living 
trichinae  was  condemned  absolutely,  or 
rendered  into  lard  at  a  temperature  01 
not  less  than  220°  F.,  or  thoroughly 
boiled  and  used  for  food.  Germany  no 
longer  accepts  our  inspection  certificate 
for  freedom  from  trichina?,  and  no  other 
foreign  country  requires  it.  It  has, 
therefore,  been  abandoned. 

The  inspection  work  of  the  bureau  of 
animal  industry  was  begun  in  1891  and 
has  steadily  grown  until  inspection  is 
now  carried  on  in  establishments  in 
nearly  all  cities,  by  a  force  of  more 
than  4000  inspectors,  microscopists,  and 
taggers.  As  shown  by  Mohler  and  others, 
the  work  is  carefully  done  and  is  effec- 
tive in  safeguarding  the  health  of  the 
meat  consumer  and  the  interest  of  stock 
raisers,  by  excluding  harmful  meat  from 
the  markets,  utilizing  all  that  can  be 
safely  utilized,  and  preventing  the 
spread  of  infectious  diseases  in  stock 
yards. 

The  criticism  of  our  federal  inspec- 
tion by  foreigners  is  partly  due  to  politi- 
cal considerations  and  partly  to  an  in- 
ability to  understand  how  our  inspectors 
can  inspect  so  many  animals  in  the  time 
at  their  disposal.  This  is  made  possible 
by  the  systematic  organization  of  the 
work,  so  that  maximum  results  ai-e  ob- 
tained by  a  minimum  time  expenditure 
by  the  inspector.  The  greatest  foreign 
authority  on  meat  inspection  on  a  recent 
visit  to  this  country  stated  that  our 
system  of  inspection  could  not  have  been 
made  better  in  the  time  since  its  organ- 
ization. 

According  to  the  new  meat  inspection 
law  of  June  30,  190G,  the  bureau  of  ani- 
mal industry  has  more  power  than  here- 
tofore to  compel  the  observance  of  its 
rules  and  regulations.  The  veterinary 
inspecting  force  will  be  increased  by 
about  150  men,  and  400  additional  men 
will  lie  occupied  entirely  with  the  in- 
spection of  cured  and  canned  meat 
products.  The  bureau  is  now  in  a  bet- 
ter position  than  ever  before  to  safe- 
guard the  meat  consumer. 

State  and  municipal  inspection — So 
much  for  federal  meat  inspection.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  we 
have  no  compulsory  federal  inspection 
except  for  meat  in  interstate  and  foreign 
commerce.  The  proprietors  of  abattoirs 
do  not  have  to  subject  other  meat  to  in- 


spection. If  they  ask  for  inspection  by 
the  federal  authorities  they  must  agree 
to  abide  by  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  bu- 
reau of  animal  industry.  Moreover,  the 
abattoirs  under  inspection  furnish  95 
per  cent  of  the  meat  consumed  in  all 
large  cities.  But  the  meat  consumer  may 
ask  concerning  non-inspected  meat.  As 
stated  by  Mohler,  ''the  necessity  for  state 
and  municipal  inspection  may  be  appre- 
ciated when  it  is  understood  that  the 
government  has  no  power  to  inspect 
meats  that  do  not  leave  the  confines  of 
the  state." 

Moreover,  as  above  indicated,  the 
most  careful  and  conscientious  inspec- 
tion may  not  protect  the  consumer,  for 
after  inspection,  meat  may  become  con- 
taminated by  careless  handling,  and 
may  undergo  various  harmful  or  danger- 
ous alterations  before  it  reaches  the  con- 
sumer. State  and  municipal  inspection 
is  therefore  necessary  to  take  cognizance 
of  all  such  conditions.  Meat  may  ac- 
quire harmful  properties  after  passing 
beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  federal  in- 
spector. What  we  most  need  in  this  re- 
spect is  an  efficient  system  of  market 
inspection  which  will  insure  the  sanitary 
handling  of  meat  by  local  dealers  and 
will  prevent  the  sale  of  decomposed  or 
otherwise  dangerous  meat  to  unsuspect- 
ing customers. 

Another  source  of  danger  to  the  meat 
consumer  lies  in  the  unspeakably  filthy 
slaughtehouses  often  seen  in  country 
districts  and  on  the  outskirts  of  cities. 
In  these  establishments  diseased  animals 
may  be  slaughtered,  because  no  inspec- 
tion is  requii*ed.  Moreover,  hogs  run  in 
the  surrounding  yards,  feeding  on  the 
offal  of  slaughtered  animals  and  thereby 
becoming  tuberculous  or  infested  with 
trichina  and  other  parasites.  Such 
slaughter  houses  serve  as  hotbeds  for  the 
propagation  of  all  kinds  of  animal  dis- 
eases. Many  cities  and  states  have 
adopted  inspection  laws  and  the  propa- 
ganda is  rapidly  spreading;  for  example, 
in  Colorado,  Indiana,  Minnesota,  Mon- 
tana, Pennsylvania,  etc,  and  in  Boston, 
Detroit,  Montgomery,  New  Orleans, 
Washington,  etc.  The  inspection  law 
recently  passed  in  Montana  requires  in- 
spection of  meat  and  milk  in  all  cities  of 
more  than  5,000  inhabitants.  The  in- 
spection must  be  done  by  a  competent 
sanitary  officer. 

An  efficient  system  of  meat  inspection 
is  of  distinct  advantage  to  the  stock 
raiser.     It  brings   about  the  utilization^ 


274 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


of  animal  products  to  the  greatest  possi- 
ble extent  consistent  with  human  health. 
The  consumer  feels  that  it  is  safe  to  use 
these  animal  products.  It  assists  in  the 
detection  of  diseases  among  animals  and 
prevents  further  loss  to  the  farmer  from 
this  source.  The  conscientious  farmer 
who  strives  to  produce  clean  and  whole- 
some food  products  should  protect  his 
reputation  by  demanding  a  system  by 
which  his  products  reach  the  consumer 
without  deterioration. 

MILK  INSPECTION 

Of  all  food  products  milk  is  the  most 
important.  It  is  the  natural  food  of 
children  and  of  all  young  mammals.  The 
conscientious  farmer  and  dairyman  de- 
sire to  produce  milk  of  a  good  quality 
and  in  sanitary  condition.  Now,  milk 
may  vary  considerably  in  composition 
and  the  unscrupulous  may  adulterate  it 
and  otherwise  diminish  its  value  or 
render  it  dangerous  by  careless  handling 
or  by  the  addition  of  certain  preserva- 
tives. It  has  become  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  establish  market  standards  for 
milk  and  to  enforce  these  requirements 
by  a  system  of  milk  inspection.  The 
purpose,  methods  and  effectiveness  of 
such  inspection,  therefore,  become  sub- 
jects of  interest  to  the  farmer  and  re- 
quire some  discussion  in  this  connection. 
The  milk  of  healthy  cows  comes  from  the 
udder  practically  without  bacteria, 
molds,  ferments  or  virus  of  any  sort. 
The  problem  is  how  to  collect  it  and  de- 
liver it  to  the  consumer  without  change 
and  without  allowing  harmful  substances 
to  gain  entrance  to  it. 

Composition  of  milk — Normal  milk 
contains  4  per  cent  albuminoids,  3.4  per 
cent  fat,  3.8  per  cent  sugar,  0.6  per  cent 
mineral  salts  and  88.2  per  cent  water. 
These  figures  are  the  average  from  a 
large  number  of  analyses.  The  percent- 
age of  different  constituents  fluctuates 
considerably  according  to  breed,  condi- 
tion, character  of  food,  period  of  lacta- 
tion and  various  other  factors.  For  ex- 
ample, the  casein  may  vary  from  2  to  6 
per  cent,  the  fat  from  2  to  8  per  cent,  or 
even  10  per  cent,  and  the  sugar  from  3 
to  5.7  per  cent.  The  composition  of 
milk  varies  at  different  periods  of  the 
day  and  at  different  stages  of  the  proc- 
ess of  milking.  Morning's  milk  con- 
tains more  water  than  evening's  milk, 
and  the  strippings  contain  more  fat  than 
the  first  streams. 

Thus,  according  to  Uffelman,  morn- 
ing's milk  contains  87.45  per  cent  water, 


evening's  milk  8G.92  per  cent,  milk  from 
first  stage  of  milking  1.5  per  cent  fat, 
from  second  stage  2.37  per  cent,  from 
third  stage  4.1  per  cent.  Fresh,  normal 
cow's  milk  should  show  a  neutral  or 
slightly  alkaline  reaction.  The  specific 
gravity  varies  according  to  the  composi- 
tion, ranging  from  1.029  to  1.034,  with 
an  average  of  1.030.  The  average 
amount  of  fat  in  milk  from  Jerseys  is 
5.49  per  cent,  from  Guernseys  5.28  per 
cent,  from  American  Holderness  3.61  per 
cent,  from  Ayrshires  3.58  per  cent,  from 
Holsteins  3.3  per  cent,  Red  Polls  3.92  per 
cent,  Angus  4.9  per  cent. 

Adulteration  of  milk — The  most  fre- 
quent forms  of  adulteration  are  the  de- 
liberate addition  of  water,  the  addition 
of  skim  milk  and  the  removal  of  a  part 
of  the  cream.  The  general  use  of  cream 
separators  on  farms  and  dairies  makes 
it  possible  to  add  skim  milk  to  the  milk 
intended  for  sale  until  the  fat  content  of 
the  latter  is  lowered  to  the  minimum  re- 
quirement of  the  inspector.  When  this 
is  done  it  is  practically  impossible  to  de- 
tect the  fraud.  Nevertheless,  extensive 
frauds  of  this  sort  have  been  discovered. 
In  St.  Louis,  about  1,600  gallons  of  cream 
per  day  are  fraudulently  removed  from 
the  market  milk.  In  the  city  of  New 
York  analyses  showed  that  a  considerable 
percentage  of  the  cream  is  removed. 
Most  of  the  condensed  milk  companies 
skim  the  milk  before  condensing  it.  The 
removal  of  the  fat  or  the  addition  of 
fresh  skim  milk  is  merely  a  fraud  and 
does  not  render  the  milk  harmful  or 
dangerous. 

The  case  is  quite  otherwise  when  water 
is  added.  If  the  water  be  impure — and 
the  man  who  deliberately  adds  water 
is  not  likely  to  pay  much  attention  to  the 
quality  of  water — disease  germs  may  be 
thereby  added  to  the  milk,  thus  making 
it  an  effective  agent  for  the  transmission 
of  infectious  diseases  both  to  children 
and  adults.  When  water  is  added  the 
percentage  of  non-fatty  solids  in  the 
milk  is  reduced  and  the  fraud  is  easily 
detected.  From  analyses  made  in  New 
York  city,  it  appears  that  an  average  of 
33  per  cent  of  water  is  added  to  the 
milk ;  in  the  state  of  New  York,  from  3 
to  25  per  cent,  with  an  average  of  12  per 
cent  of  water,  is  added.  As  shown  by 
Kober,  a  review  of  the  evidence  of  milk 
adulteration  shows  the  .great  prevalence 
of  the  most  shameful  practices.  The 
most   flagrant  cases  of   adulteration   at 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


275 


first  detected  by  inspectors  gave  no  ac- 
curate information  regarding  the  extent 
of  such  frauds. 

On  account  of  the  existence  of  these 
fraudulent  practices,  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  adopt  legal  standards  for 
market  milk.  Some  difficulty  was  met 
in  establishing  standards  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  the  composition  of  milk 
honestly  and  conscientiously  collected 
and  cared  for,  may  vary  considerably 
under  different  conditions.  In  actual 
analyses  of  market  milk  the  total  solids 
have  been  found  to  vary  from  10  to 
nearly  16  per  cent,  and  the  fat  from 
2.43  to  5.97  per  cent.  If,  then,  the  high 
standard  be  adopted,  large  amounts  of 
normal  genuine  milk  would  be  con- 
demned. If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  low 
standard  be  adopted,  it  would  be  the 
same  as  legalizing  the  additions  of  skim 
milk,  the  removal  of  part  of  the  fat  and 
utter  indifference  in  the  care  of  stock 
and  selection  of  breeds.  Taking  an  av- 
erage of  numerous  analyses  as  a  good 
basis  on  which  to  proceed  we  should 
expect  market  milk  to  contain  12.52  per 
cent  of  total  solids,  and  3.75  per  cent 
of  fat.  The  legal  standards  adopted  for 
milk  in  different  states  vary  in  their 
requirements  from  11.5  to  13  per  cent 
for  total  solids,  from  8  to  9.3  per  cent 
for  non-fatty  solids,  and  from  2.5  to  3.7 
per  cent  for  fat.  The  legal  requirement 
for  fat  in  cream  varies  from  15  to  20 
per  cent  and  for  butter  from  80  to  83 
per  cent. 

All  sorts  of  substances  have  been  add- 
ed to  milk  to  conceal  the  fact  that  it  has 
been  adulterated  with  water.  The  list 
includes  caustic  soda,  common  salt,  salt- 
peter, sugar,  starch,  gelatine,  etc.  Chalk, 
gypsum  and  calves'  brains  are  sometimes 
mentioned  as  adulterants  of  milk,  but  on 
doubtful  authority.  As  stated  by  Kobei 
and  others,  turmeric,  annatto,  yellow  coal 
tar  dyes  and  chromates  have  been  added 
to  lend  a  yellow  color  to  watered  or  poor 
milk. 

Examination  of  milk — Inspectors  first 
determine  the  specific  gravity  and  per- 
centage of  fat  in  milk.  Suspicious  sam- 
ples may  then  be  preserved  for  more 
complete  analysis  if  necessary.  In  states 
in  which  the  inspector  depends  princi- 
pally upon  the  specific  gravity  of  the  milk 
this  is  assumed  to  be  1.030  at  60°  F.  and 
1.029  at  70°  F.  The  specific  gravity  is 
determined  by  the  use  of  a  lactometer,  a 
cylindrical  glass  instrument  with  a 
graduated  scale,  which  is  placed  in  the 


sample  of  milk  to  be  tested.  If  the 
spindle  of  the  lactometer  floats  below  29 
the  milk  is  probably  watered,  while  if  it 
floats  above  30  the  milk  has  probably 
been  skimmed.  There  are  several  other 
instruments  for  determining  the  fat  in 
milk,  such  as  the  lactoscope,  creamom- 
eter  and  lactobutyrometer,  which  need 
not  be  described  in  this  connection.  The 
farmer  can  readily  determine  the  amount 
of  fat  in  his  milk  by  the  use  of  the 
Babcock  test,  which  will  be  described 
under  the  subject  of  Dairying.  If  a 
good  quality  of  dairy  cow  be  kept  and 
the  proper  care  bestowed  on  them,  the 
farmer  need  have  no  fear  about  his  milk 
coming  up  to  the  standard  so  far  as 
fat  content  is  concerned. 

Special  analytical  methods  have  also 
been  devised  for  the  estimation  of  water 
in  milk  by  specific  gravity  and  by  deter- 
mination of  the  total  solids,  for  the  de- 
termination of  nitrates  and  nitrites  de- 
rived from  water,  for  the  determination 
of  fat,  or  total  solid  and  fat,  by  the  Bab- 
cock asbestos  method,  for  the  estimation 
of  albuminoids,  milk  sugar  and  free  lac- 
tic acid,  as  well  as  for  the  detection  of 
starch,  annatto,  coal  tar  dyes,  chromates 
and  caramel. 

Preservatives  in  milk — As  already 
stated,  milk,  when  freshly  drawn,  is  of  a 
neutral  or  alkaline  reaction.  It  soon  be- 
comes sour,  however,  under  the  influence 
of  bacteria  and  ferments.  In  order  to 
prevent  this  occurrence,  various  preserv- 
atives have  been  used.  The  chemicals 
which  have  been  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose include  formalin,  boric  acid,  borax, 
salicylates,  benzoates,  common  salt,  so- 
dium carbonate,  saltpeter,  chromates, 
etc.  Lately  most  of  these,  except  forma- 
lin, have  been  discarded. 

Formalin — Worcester  found  that  one 
part  of  formalin  to  100,000  of  milk  will 
postpone  curdling  six  hours,  one  part  in 
50,000  for  21  hours,  one  part  in  20.000 
for  48  hours,  one  part  in  10,000  for  138 
hours,  one  part  in  5,000  for  156  hours. 
Numerous  experiments  with  formalin 
leave  no  doubt  that  when  used  in  the 
proportion  of  one  part  in  40,000  to 
50,000  it  will  prevent  milk  from  souring 
for  24  hours.  This  being  established,  an 
equally  important  question  immediately 
arises  regarding  its  wholesomeness.  Wc 
cannot  enter  here  into  the  details  of  the 
bitter  controversy  on  this  point,  but  will 
mention  only  a  few  facts  established  by 
experiment, 


276 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Price  has  shown  that  formaldehyde  in 
the  proportion  of  one  to  2,500  does  not 
interfere  with  the  action  of  the  rennet 
in  coagulating  milk,  while  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  to  1,875  it  retards  coagula- 
tion and  at  a  rate  of  one  to  500  makes 
it  impossible  for  rennet  to  coagulate 
milk  in  18  hours.  Formaldehyde  used 
at  the  rate  of  one  to  125  did  not  interfere 
with  digestion  by  pepsin.  Similar  re- 
sults were  obtained  with  formaldehyde 
and  other  digestive  ferments  in  experi- 
ments carried  on  in  glass  vessels.  For- 
maldehyde used  at  the  rate  of  one  to 
20,000  preserved  the  milk  for  48  hours 
and  prevented  the  development  of  com- 
mon bacteria  in  the  milk.  The  bacteria 
were  killed  when  the  formaldehyde  was 
used  at  the  rate  of  one  to  1,560. 

Eecently  Von.  Behring  has  recom- 
mended the  use  of  formalin  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  to  40,000,  particularly  in 
the  milk  of  tuberculous  cows.  It  is 
urged  that  the  formalin  in  that  strength 
will  not  harm  children  or  calves,  that  it 
will  kill  the  tubercle  bacilli  but  will  not 
destroy  their  vaccine,  and  that  the  use  of 
milk  thus  treated  not  only  does  not  pro- 
duce immediate  infection  with  tubercu- 
losis but  serves  as  a  natural  process  of 
vaccination  against  th,e  disease.  Many 
sanitarians,  however,  have  declared  pos- 
itively against  the  use  of  formalin  un- 
der any  circumstances.  In  fact,  there 
seems  to  be  no  legitimate  excuse  for  the 
use  of  any  chemical  preservative  in  milk, 
for  milk  may  be  kept  sweet  and  delivered 
sweet  to  patrons  in  cities  300  or  400 
miles  from  the  producer  by  the  mere  ob- 
servance of  cleanly  habits  and  the  use  of 
ice.  Milk  is  produced  twice  per  day  and 
should  be  used  within  24  hours.  It  does 
not  sour  within  this  period  unless  filth 
and  bacteria  have  been  allowed  to  get  in- 
to it.  The  use  of  preservatives  suggests 
filth  and  serves  as  an  excuse  for  filthy 
habits  and  unclean  surroundings  in  the 
dairy. 

Borax  does  not  preserve  milk  unless 
used  at  a  rate  of  10  grains  per  quart. 
With  regard  to  the  influence  of  borax  on 
man,  the  most  authoritative  results  have 
been  announced  by  Wiley  on  the  basis 
of  actual,  long-continued  experiments 
on  healthy  men.  Wiley  found  that 
"when  pushed  to  the  limit  of  toleration 
the  quantities  of  the  borax  or  boracic 
acid  which  produce  nausea,  vomiting 
and  loss  of  appetite  vary  greatly  with  the 
individual.  In  some  cases  these  symp- 
toms were  produced  by  from  3  to  4  grams 


daily,  while  in  other  instances  these 
quantities  could  be  tolerated.  For  this 
reason  the  protection  of  those  more  sen- 
sitive to  the  influences  of  these  preserva- 
tives seems  to  be  a  wise  and  just 
measure." 

Sodium  carbonate  is  not  used  as  a 
preservative  but  to  neutralize  the  acid- 
ity of  milk,  which  has  already  soured. 
Its  use  is  therefore  a  deliberate  fraud. 
Salicylates,  benzoates,  chromates  and 
saltpeter  are  rarely  used  in  the  United 
States  for  the  preservation  of  milk. 
Technical  methods  have  been  devised 
for  the  detection  of  all  these  preserva- 
tives, but  a  description  of  them  would 
not  be  in  place  here. 

Bacteria  in  milk — As  already  stated, 
milk  when  secreted  in  the  healthy  ud- 
der is  practically  free  from  bacteria — 
not  absolutely  free,  for  bacteria  may 
penetrate  through  the  teats  into  the  ud- 
der to  a  greater  or  less  depth.  The  ac- 
tual number  in  milk  as  drawn  from  the 
udder  may  be  200  to  300  per  cubic  centi- 
meter. These  bacteria,  however,  are  of 
a  harmless  nature  and  have  little  or  no 
effect  in  souring  the  milk  or  otherwise 
changing   it 

In  all  inflammatory  conditions  of  the 
udder  known  as  mammitis  or  garget,  as 
well  as  in  cases  of  tuberculosis,  anthrax, 
rabies,  tetanus,  pleuro-pneumonia,  foot 
and  mouth  disease,  etc,  the  milk  may 
contain  bacteria  of  a  harmful  nature  or 
virus  derived  from  the  cow.  When  the 
cow  is  healthy  the  bacteria  in  milk 
come  from  the  milk  duets,  the  outside 
of  the  cow,  the  air.  milk  utensils  and 
milker. 

Bacteria  in  teats — The  milk  duct  in 
the  teat  and  the  milk  cistern  at  the  up- 
per end  of  the  teat  nearly  always  con- 
tain bacteria  in  considerable  numbers. 
They  make  their  entrance  through  the 
teat  from  the  outside.  The  first  few 
streams  of  milk,  or  the  foremilk,  there- 
fore, may  have  a  high  bacterial  con 
tent.  The  foremilk  should  not  be  saved, 
for  it  contains  a  very  low  percentage  of 
fat  in  addition  to  being  contaminated 
with  bacteria. 
.  Common  sources  of  contamination — 
As  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn  it  is  sub- 
ject to  bacterial  contamination.  The 
cow,  herself,  is  probably  the  most  im- 
portant source  of  bacteria.  The  skin 
and  hair  of  the  cow,  even  in  the  best 
groomed  dairies,  carry  some  filth  and 
bacteria.     These  may  be  rubbed  off  by 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


277 


the  milker  and  fall  into  the  milk.  Mi- 
cro-organisms may  also  gain  entrance  to 
the  milk  with  dirt  from  the  ceilings  of 
the  stable. 

The  air  of  most  stables  carries  con- 
siderable dust  contaminated  with  bac- 
teria. The  dust  may  come  from  the 
hay  or  other  feed,  from  the  bedding, 
from  soil  carried  in  on  the  cows'  feet 
or  from  dried  manure.  Some  dairymen 
allow  their  cattle  to  wallow  in  filthy 
yards  and  the  legs  and  flanks  of  the  cows 
rnay   become   plastered    over    with    filth. 

The  milk  vessels  unless  cleaned  with 
live  steam  or  thoroughly  washed  with 
boiling  water  are  almost  sure  to  contain 
large  numbers  of  bacteria  in  connec- 
tion with  dried  particles  of  milk  fat  or 
sediments  in  the  cracks  of  the  vessels. 
Under  ordinary  conditions  this  is  al- 
ways an  important  source  of  milk  con- 
tamination. The  water  used  in  wash- 
ing the  milk  vessels  may  be  a  source  of 
bacteria  and  may  carry  typhoid. 

The  milker — In  the  bacterial  con- 
tamination of  milk  the  milker  may  be  an 
important  factor.  His  hands  or  clothes 
may  be  soiled  or  he  may  have  insani- 
tary habits.  If  typhoid,  scarlet  fever,  or 
diphtheria  should  prevail  in  the  family 
of  the  milker  he  may  carry  these  dis- 
eases to  the  milk  and  thus  transmit 
them  to  his  patrons. 

Dangers  from  milk  itself — Milk  is 
an  excellent  medium  for  the  growth  of 
bacteria  and  many  of  them  multiply  rap- 
idly in  it.  Obviously,  therefore,  milk 
varies  greatly  in  its  bacterial  content 
when  it  reaches  the  consumer.  The  ac- 
tual number  of  bacteria  may  vary  from 
1,000  to  several  million  per  cubic  centi- 
meter of  milk.  Fresh  milk  drawn  un- 
der cleanly  conditions  should  not  con- 
tain more  than  2,000  to  3,000  bacteria 
per  cubic  centimeter.  If  it  contains  as 
high  as  20,000  per  cubic  centimeter, 
some  of.  the  precautions  of  cleanliness 
have  been  neglected.  Naturally,  the 
number  of  bacteria  is  higher  in  summer 
than  in  winter,  but  occasionally  runs  up 
to  100,000,000  per  cubic  centimeter  in  city 
milk.  It  is  difficult  to  establish  a  legal 
standard  for  the  bacterial  content  of  milk. 
It  should  not  contain  more  than  10,000 
per  cubic  centimeter,  and  some  dairies 
guarantee  to  keep   it  below  that  figure. 

Abnormal  conditions  in  milk — Some 
of  the  abnormal  conditions  of  milk  due 
to  bacteria  may  now  be  briefly  men- 
tioned. Bitter  milk  may  be  the  result 
of  eating  lupine,  ragweed,  or  other 
weeds,   or  may   be  produced  by  certain 


kinds  of  bacteria.  The  bitter  taste  may 
develop  in  fresh  milk,  sterilized  milk  or 
in  cheese.  Slimy  milk  is  a  common  trou- 
ble in  the  dairy.  It  may  be  due  to  an 
improper  ration,  to  the  existence  of  gar- 
get in  the  udder  or  to  bacteria,  usually 
to  the  last  named  cause.  Ropy  milk  or 
cream  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  scald- 
ing or  otherwise  sterilizing  all  milk 
utensils.  Soapy  milk,  characterized  by 
frothing  and  a  peculiar  soapy  taste  of 
the  milk,  is  a  rare  abnormality  due  to  a 
specific  bacillus  which  occurs  on  hay  or 
straw.  Blue  milk  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  Bacillus  cyanogenes  in  the  milk.  Red 
milk  is  sometimes  observed  as  the  re- 
sult of  the  growth  of  Bacillus  erythro- 
genes.  It  may  also  be  due  to  garget  or 
to  feeding  on  certain  plants. 

Prevention  of  bacterial  contamination 
— From  the  above  discussion  the  desi- 
rability of  reducing  bacterial  contamin- 
ation is  sufficiently  obvious.  This  may 
best  be  accomplished  by  cleanliness  and 
by  keeping  the  milk  cool.  The  cows 
must  be  regularly  groomed,  so  that  dirt 
and  hair  will  not  fall  into  the  pail  at 
milking  time.  No  dust  should  be  al- 
lowed in  the  milking  stable.  The  floors, 
walls  and  ceiling  should  be  washed.  The 
yard  in  which  the  cows  stand  should  be 
dry  and  the  water  supply  pure.  Milkers 
should  have  cleanly  habits,  wear  clean 
clothes — a  special  suit  exclusively  for 
milking,  if  convenient  ■ —  and  should 
never  go  directly  from  a  sick  room  to 
the  cows.  Milk  vessels  cannot  be  washed 
too  clean  and  are  usually  not  given 
enough  attention.  The  water  used  about 
the  milk  room  and  for  washing  must  be 
known  to  be  pure  and  wholesome.  In 
milking,  covered  milk  pails  should  be 
used  to  prevent  the  dirt  from  falling  in- 
to the  milk.  As  soon  as  it  is  drawn  the 
milk  should  be  taken  away  from  the 
stable  so  as  not  to  absorb  any  bad  odors. 
It  should  then  be  immediately  cooled, 
aerated  and  kept  cool,  as  is  described 
under  Dairying.  The  reason  for  keep- 
ing milk  cool  is  that  the  multiplication 
of  bacteria  is  thereby  greatly  retarded 
and  souring  postponed  to  a  correspond- 
ing degree. 

Transmission  of  diseases  in  milk — 
The  inspector  on  his  rounds  takes  note  of 
all  these  matters — the  health  of  the  cows, 
kind  and  quality  of  feeding  stuffs,  condi- 
tion of  stables  and  premises,  milking 
methods,  health  and  habits  of  the  attend- 
ants, care  of  dairy  utensils,  etc.  His  is 
an  important  and  responsible  position. 
Physicians   have   traced   a   considerable 


278 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


percentage  of  infant  mortality  and  a 
still  larger  percentage  of  non-fatal  ill- 
ness in  children  directly  to  milk.  These 
troubles  range  in  seriousness  from  slight 
digestive  troubles  to  such  diseases  as 
diphtheria,  typhoid  and  scarlet  fever.  In 
the  following  paragraphs  we  discuss 
briefly  the  diseases  which  may  be  trans- 
mitted in  milk. 

Sources  of  diseases  in  milk — Some  of 
these  diseases  come  from  the  cow;  others 
are  of  human  origin,  the  milk  becoming 
infected  after  it  is  drawn.  Of  the  first 
class  tuberculosis  is  the  most  import- 
ant. Regarding  the  disease  a  more  ex- 
tensive controversy  has  developed  than 
on  any  other  medical  subject.  On  the 
one  side,  Koch  and  his  disciples  main- 
tain that  tuberculosis  is  very  rarely 
transmitted  to  children  in  cows'  milk, 
and  that  the  disease  is  usually  contracted 
by  inhaling  the  bacilli.  On  the  other 
hand,  Von  Behring  claims  that  nearly- 
all  cases  of  human  tuberculosis  come 
from  cows.  Behring's  proposition  is 
that  children  become  infected  from 
drinking  cows'  milk  and  that  the  dis- 
ease may  develop  at  once  or  not  until 
later  in  life.  At  any  rate  there  can  be 
no  reasonable  doubt  that  tuberculosis 
may  be  transmitted  from  cows  to  chil- 
dren. The  milk  of  tuberculous  cows 
may  contain  tubercle  bacilli  and  should 
never  be  used  as  human  food  without 
previous  sterilization. 

Foot  and  mouth  disease  may  be  trans- 
mitted in  the  milk  and  numerous  cases 
of  this  sort  are  on  record.  The  milk 
from  cows  affected  with  cowpox  has 
been  reported  as  causing  serious  cases  of 
sore  throat.  The  milk  of  cows  suffering 
from  anthrax  or  pleuro-pneumonia  must 
also  be  considered  dangerous  for  human 
food.  For  similar  reasons  the  milk  from 
cows  infected  with  tetanus  or  rabies 
must  also  be  rejected.  All  forms  of  gar- 
get or  inflammation  of  the  udder  render 
the  milk  absolutely  unfit  for  human  use. 
In  all  such  cases  pus  finds  its  way  into 
the  milk  and  this  in  itself  is  sufficiently 
disgusting. 

Moreover,  such  milk  causes  diphthe- 
ritic sore  throat  and  various  digestive 
troubles  and  diarrhea.  Finally  the  milk 
is  unfit  for  use  or  dangerous  in  all  cases 
of  acute  intestinal  disease  of  cows,  fev- 
ers, especially  in  puerperal  cases,  and  in 
all  cases  where  wounds  are  followed  by 
septicaemia  or  blood  poisoning.  In  short 
the  conscientious  farmer  or  dairyman 
would  and  should  not  sell  to  his  patrons 


the  milk  from  cows  suffering  from  any 
serious  disease.  Such  milk  is  sold,  how- 
ever, especially  from  cases  of  garget,  pus 
and  all.  Fortunately  the  inspector  with 
improved  tests  for  pus  cells  and  white 
blood  corpuscles  is  in  a  position  to  de- 
tect such  milk  and  protect  children 
against  this  danger  to  some  extent. 

Other  diseases  carried  by  milk — Be- 
sides these  diseases  of  bovine  origin  milk 
may  also  carry  other  diseases  of  human 
origin,  especially  typhoid,  scarlet  fever, 
diphtheria  and  cholera.  In  the  hundreds 
of  epidemics  of  these  plagues  traced  to 
milk  the  disease  prevailed  on  the  prem- 
ises where  the  milk  was  produced,  at 
least  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  and 
contact  of  diseased  persons  or  nurses 
with  the  milk  was  proved  in  the  other 
epidemics.  Milk-borne  epidemics  of  the 
diseases  in  question  are  serious  enough 
to  deserve  the  thoughtful  attention  of 
dairymen,  inspectors,  dealers  and  con- 
sumers. Kober  obtained  the  history  of 
195  epidemics  of  milk-borne  typhoid. 
In  one  outbreak  431  persons  contracted 
typhoid  and  62  died  as  a  result  of  drink- 
ing the  milk  from  a  dairy  farm  where  in- 
fection spread  to  the  milk  from  a  boy 
affected  with  the  disease.  Kober  also 
collected  details  regarding  99  epidemics 
of  milk-borne  scarlet  fever,  and  36  epi- 
demics   of    milk-borne    diphtheria. 

Importance  of  sanitation — It  would 
be  too  unsavory  a  matter  to  discuss  the 
filthy  habits  and  insanitary  conditions 
which  must  prevail  in  order  to  make 
such  occurrences  possible.  The  dangers 
attending  the  use  of  insanitary  milk 
have  become  generally  known  and  on 
that  account  much  less  is  consumed  than 
otherwise  would  be.  The  average  indi- 
vidual fears  infection  and  therefore  does 
not  take  milk  except  in  small  quantities 
in  tea  or  coffee  or  when  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  other  food  material.  In  order 
to  increase  the  consumption  of  this  best 
of  all  foods  it  is  necessary  for  all  dairy- 
men to  guarantee,  and  make  good  his 
guaranty,  to  deliver  nothing  but  pure, 
wholesome  milk  to  his  consumers.  In 
some  cases  this  can  best  be  accomplished 
by  the  adoption  of  a  general  system  of 
pasteurization  or  sterilization,  which  will 
be  described  as  a  regular  routine  under 
Dairying.  Rational  milk  inspection, 
properly  enforced,  will  aid  greatly  in 
bringing  about  the  desired  result  and 
will  operate  as  much  to  the  benefit  of  the 
dairyman  as  to  the  consumer. 


PART   VI 


Horses  and   Mules 


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1 


284 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


horses,  and  running  stock  was  improved ' 
by  crossing  with  the  oriental  horse  of 
Barb,  Arab  or  Turkish  type.  In  the 
early  days  of  horse  breeding  in  England 
the  draft  horse  and  the  running  horse 
were  established.  Several  kings  took  an 
active  interest  in  the  matter  and  govern 
ment  assistance  in  the  work  was  se 
cured  in  this  way. 

In  France,  likewise,  breeding  had 
tended  to  the  production  of  the  heavy 
draft  horse  and  the  lighter  type,  but  with 
more  signal  success  in  the  former.  The 
Percheron  is  the  French  horse,  as  the 
Thoroughbred  is  the  English,  and  the 
trotter  the  American  horse.  Nearly  all 
books  on  the  horse  contain  an  elaborate 
discussion  of  the  history  of  the  horse  in 
European  countries.  It  is,  therefore, 
unnecessary  for  us  to  give  more  atten- 
tion to  this  point. 

As  stated  in  Part  I,  although  the  pre- 
historic ancestors  of  the  horse  originated 
on  this  continent,  they  subsequently  be- 
came extinct  here  after  being  dispersed 
in  Asia,  Europe  and  Africa.  There 
were  no  horses  in  America,  therefore, 
until  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  Co- 
lumbus brought  horses  on  his  second 
voyage  in  1493,  but  these  horses  ap- 
parently found  their  way  to  Central 
America.  Cortez  and  De  Soto  also 
brought  over  horses,  but  apparently  the 
first  horse  to  be  landed  in  the  United 
States  was  brought  to  Florida  in  1527  b,y 
Cabeza  de  Vaca.  Some  of  these  Span- 
ish horses  had  oriental  blood  in  them. 
Many  of  them  escaped,  multiplied  rap- 
idly and  spread  first  over  the  central 
states  and  later  throughout  the  West, 
where  their  blood  was  mingled  with 
that  of  other  horses  of  Spanish  origin 
coming  from  Mexico. 

The  modern  descendant  of  these  horses 
is  the  mustang,  which  once  roamed  over 
the  plains  in  thousands  and  was  captured 
and  used  by  the  Indians.  These  so- 
called  wild  horses  have,  at  times,  been 
a  veritable  plague  in  the  destruction  of 
range  grasses,  and  even  now  are  such 
a  nuisance  as  to  require  repressive  meas- 
ures (rounding  up  and  shooting)  from 
time  to  time,  especially  in  parts  of  Utah 
and  Nevada.  Common  horses  were  in- 
troduced into  Virginia  in  1609,  into 
New  York  in  1625,  and  into  New  Eng- 
land in  1629.  In  1730  the  first  thorough- 
bred, Bulle  Rock,  was  brought  to  Vir- 
ginia from  England.  Virginia,  and  later 
the  Carolinas  and  Kentucky,  became  the 


home  of  the  thoroughbred  horse  in  this 
country. 

Before  taking  up  the  most  important 
aspects  of  the  subject;  viz,  feeding  and 
management  of  the  horse,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  characterize  the  breeds  with 
which  we  have  to  deal.  The  Thorough- 
bred should  be  discussed  first. 

BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

The  Thoroughbred  was  the  first  breed 
of  horses  to  be  definitely  established  and 
was,  therefore,  for  some  time  "the  Thor- 
oughbred" as  contrasted  with  other  half- 
blood  or  grade  horses.  This  name  has 
persisted  and  the  breed,  therefore,  has 
no  really  characteristic  name  as  have 
the  Shire,  Percheron,  etc,  which  are 
equally  as  thoroughbred  as  the  "Thor- 
oughbred." Our  Thoroughbred  come3 
from  England,  where  it  was  produced  by 
mingling  many  different  strains  of  ori- 
ental blood.  The  English  Thoroughbred 
stud  book  was  established  in  179*1.  In 
this  the  standard  of  admission  required 
purity  of  breeding  from  the  original 
Libyan  or  oriental  blood.  The  modern 
Thoroughbred  is  thus  the  oriental  horse, 
developed  and  improved  by  centuries  of 
breeding  and  selection. 

Three  oriental  horses  are  mentioned  by 
all  authorities  as  having  contributed 
most  to  the  formation  of  the  modern 
Thoroughbred;  viz,  Darley  Arabian, 
Byerly  Turk  and  Godolphin  Arabian,  the 
only  existing  male  line  from  these 
horses  tracing  their  ancestry  to  Eclipse, 
Herod  and  Matchem,  respectively,  all 
from  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. As  stated  by  Sanders,  however, 
while  the  oriental  horse  furnished  good 
material  as  basis  for  the  breeder,  the 
skill  of  the  English  and  American  breed- 
er has  done  more  than  the  blood  of 
Arabian  and  Barb  horses.  The  Arabian 
is  docile  and  possesses  great  beauty  of 
form,  but  he  is  inferior  to  our  Thorough- 
bred in  size,  height,  speed  and  endur- 
ance. Our  Thoroughbreds  are  imported 
from  England  or  are  descendants  of 
horses  thus  imported,  with  an  occasional 
mixture  of  Arab  or  Barb,  which  is  not 
considered  as  vitiating  the  pedigree.  In 
this  country,  horses  are  entitled  to  en- 
try in  the  stud  book  if  they  show  in 
their  ancestry  an  unmixed  descent  from 
Thoroughbred  sires  for  five  generations. 

The  Thoroughbred  has  been  bred  for 
the  race  course  and  similar  purposes  for 
centuries.  In  this  long  course  of  breed- 
ing certain  defects  have  crept  into  his 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


285 


make-up  "which  unfit  him  for  farm  uses. 
He  has  become  tall,  lithe,  light  and  too 
nervous  for  everyday  use  Nevertheless 
the  Thoroughbred  has  been  used  in  the 
improvement  of  all  kinds  of  horses.  The 
favorable  influence  of  a  cross  with  a 
Thoroughbred  is  recognized  on  every 
hand.  Trotters  have  been  built  largely 
on  Thoroughbred  blood  and  this  same 
blood  is  at  the  foundation  of  nearly 
every  fine  roadster  and  driving  horse  in 
America.  A  heavy  Thoroughbred  makes 
an  excellent  cavalry  horse,  general  sad- 
dle horse  or  carriage  horse. 

The  height  of  the  Thoroughbred  varies 
from  15  to  17  hands,  the  average  of  the 


siderable  interest  in  the  Thoroughbred 
horse  for  military  purposes.  Moreover, 
many  authorities  attribute  the  superior- 
ity of  the  confederate  cavalry  in  the 
early  stages  of  our  civil  war  to  the 
Thoroughbred  blood  in  nine  of  every  ten 
of  the  southern  saddle  horses. 

As  is  familiar  to  readers  of  the  daily 
newspapers,  the  running  records  have 
been  gradually  lowered  until  a  Thor- 
ougbbred  like  Orthodox  makes  a  mile 
in  1.38.  The  number  of  registered  Thor- 
oughbreds in  the  United  States  is 
42,000  and  the  number  living  about  25,- 
000.     (For  secretary,  see  appendix.) 

The  trotter — There  were  trotting  or 


191 


.EX    MCGREGOR,   18    MONTHS   OLD 


best  animals  being  about  15  hands  3 
inches.  The  head  and  neck  should  be  as 
light  as  may  be,  with  a  lean  jaw,  full 
forehead,  pricked  ears  not  too  short,  full 
eyes,  large  nostrils,  loose  windpipe,  long 
body,  wide,  long  hips,  oblique  shoulder, 
full  thigh  and  flat  leg  bones.  The  skin 
is  thin  and  the  hair  silky.  Bay,  brown 
and  chestnut  are  the  common  colors  with 
an  occasional  gray  or  black.  Somewhat 
different  standards  are  set  up  in  the  dif- 
ferent countries,  where  the  Thorough- 
bred is  held  in  favor.  Thus  we  have 
the  English,  American,  French,  Austrian 
and  Australian  Thoroughbred.  The 
Russian  government  has  also  taken  con- 


ambling  horses  in  England  600  years  ago 
but  it  was  not  until  1818  that  an  authen- 
tic record  of  a  mile  in  three  minutes  was 
made.  In  1S06  a  horse  named  Yankee 
is  said  to  have  trotted  in  2.59,  but  the 
record  is  doubtful.  The  aim  of  the 
breeder  of  trotters  is  to  secure  a  fast 
trotting  gait  and  the  speed  of  these 
horses  has  been  gradually  increased  dur- 
ing the  past  century. 

Naturally  this  reduction  of  the  time 
is  partly  due  to  the  use  of  a  lighter 
vehicle,  ball  bearings,  pneumatic  tires, 
improvement  of  the  track,  etc,  but  a 
steady  increase  of  speed  has  been  brought 


286 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


about  by  breeding.  Tbe  Trotter  is  es- 
sentially an  offshoot  or  variety  of  the 
Thoroughbred  produced  from  the  latter 
by  breeding  and  selection  for  the  pos- 
session of  a  trotting  gait.  The  first 
known  or  definitely  recorded  sire  of  a 
winner  in  a  trotting  race  was  Coriander, 
son  of  imported  Messenger.  Several 
other  distinguished  sires  of  Trotters  de- 
cended  from  the  same  Messenger.  In 
fact,  not  until  1837  did  a  noted  Trotter 
appear  which  did  not  come  from  Mes- 
senger.    The  Morgan  family  came  into 


oughbred    mares    and    produced    Sunol, 
Palo  Alto  and  Arion. 

Standard  of  registry — The  first  vol- 
ume of  Wallace's  trotting  register  was 
published  in  1871  and  the  National 
Association  of  Trotting  Horse  Breeders 
was  formed  in  1876.  (For  secretary,  see 
appendix.)  The  number  of  registered 
Trotters  in  the  United  States  is  145,000, 
and  the  number  now  living  about  96,- 
000.  The  rules  for  registry  now  pro- 
vide that  an  animal  shall  be  accepted  as 
a  standard-bred  Trotter  if  it  is  the  prog- 


Fig.  198 — crdsceus  2:02^.    the  kixg  of  trotters 


existence  in  1840,  the  Clay  family  in 
1850  and  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian  in 
1860.  Lady  Suffolk  in  1845  first  brought 
the  trotting  record  inside  of  2.30,  and 
later  2.30  was  adopted  as  the  time  stand- 
ard for  the  breed.  For  a  long  time  horses 
were  admitted  to  registry  in  the  Ameri- 
can trotting  register  association  even  if 
the  sire  was  a  pacer,  but  such  is  no 
longer  the  case.  The  Thoroughbred,  how- 
ever, has  frequently  been  crossed  with 
Trotters  to  lend  courage  and  endurance 
to  the  latter.  Thus  Stanford  bred  the 
trotting    stallion    Electioneer    to    thor- 


eny    of    a    registered    standard    trotting 
stallion  and  mare. 

A  stallion  must  have  a  record  of  2.30 
and  must  be  the  sire  of  three  trotters 
with  records  of  2.30  from  different  mares. 
A  mare  must  be  sired  by  a  registered 
standard  trotting  horse  and  must  be  the 
mother  of  two  trotters,  with  records  of 
2.30.  Rather  strict  rules  were  found 
necessary  to  overcome  the  bad  effects  of 
poor  breeding,  for  with  the  advent  of 
fancy  prices  for  trotting  stock,  all  an- 
imals were  bred  without  regard  to  in- 
dividual   merit,    provided    they    had    a 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


2S7 


high-sounding  pedigree.  The  result  of 
this  was  greatly  to  lower  the  power  and 
endurance  of  trotters. 

Trotters  and  the  farmer — Since  our 
viewpoint  in  this  volume  is  always  thai 
of  the  farmer,  we  may  well  ask  what 
good  the  farmer  can  get  out  of  trotters. 
By  breeding  trotting  stallions  to  sound, 
active,  well  gaited  mares  the  farmer 
may  obtain  fine  roadsters  or  coachers. 
The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  is  now 
trying  to  establish  a  distinctive  breed 
of  American  roadsters  on  the  basis  of 
the  Trotter.  Trotters  are  generally  dis- 
tributed   throughout    the    country,    and 


pounds.    The  final  results  of  this  experi- 
ment are  awaited  with  much  interest. 

Pacers — As  already  indicated,  the 
Thoroughbred  has  given  us  not  only  run- 
ners and  hunters,  but  also  trotters,  pacers 
and  the  American  saddle  horse.  Pacers- 
do  not  constitute  as  yet  a  recognized 
breed.  Many  standard-bred  trotters  num- 
ber pacers  among  their  progeny.  In 
early  days  in  this  country,  pacers  were 
used  largely  as  saddle  horses.  Later 
they  were  put  on  the  track.  On  the  race 
track  the  pace  seems  to  be  a  somewhat 
faster  gait  than  the  trot.  For  general 
driving  purposes,  however,  the  pacer  is 


Fig.   199 — gaited  saddle   stallion,     potosi  star. 


any  improvement  which  can  be  made  in 
them  will  in  time  react  upon  the  whole 
horse  industry.  Speed  is  important,  but 
it  is  not  the  only  point  to  aim  at.  En- 
durance, conformation  and  size  must 
also  be  considered.  It  is  desirable  to 
establish  a  fixed  type  of  good  carriage 
horses  which  may  ultimately  become  a 
definite  breed.  For  this  purpose  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  has  purchased 
18  mares  about  15.3  hands  high  and 
weighing  1,100  to  1,150  pounds.  They 
are  bay,  brown  and  chestnut  in  color, 
without  tendency  toward  pacing  or 
mixed  gait.  The  stallion  selected  was 
the    trotter    Carmon,    16    hands,    1,200 


inferior  to  the  trotter.  The  hips  slope, 
the  shoulders  are  high  and  the  form  is 
otherwise  less  perfect.  Within  the  pasi, 
25  years  the  speed  of  the  pacer  has  been 
greatly  increased  until  Dan  Patch  made 
a  mile  in  1.56. 

This  type  of  horse,  however,  has  grad- 
ually become  unfit  for  a  saddle  horse  or 
general  driving.  He  is  nothing  but  a 
race  horse  and  carries  in  him  little  of 
value  to  the  farmer.  The  pacer  strikes 
the  ground  with  both  right  or  left  feet 
at  the  same  time,  while  the  trotter  has 
no  two  feet  on  the  ground  at  once  when 
at  speed.  The  pacing  fad  at  times  as- 
sumes considerable  proportions  and  many 


Uh  ''""■ 


HORSES  AND  MULES' 


289 


horsemen  have  called  attention  to  the 
cruel  and  highly  reprehensible  practice 
of  hobbling  horses  in  order  to  compel 
them  to  assume  the  pacing  gait.  Such 
horses  are  likely  to  acquire  an  unnatural 
pace  or  mixed  gait,  which  greatly  inter- 
feres with  their  speed  and  beauty  of 
form.  In  Rhode  Island  there  was  a 
family  of  horses  known  as  the  Narragan 
sett  pacers,  derived,  it  is  claimed,  from 
horses  obtained  in  Australia.  The  stock 
was  allowed  to  die  out. 


best  saddle  horses.  Denmark  was 
brought  to  Kentucky  in  1839  and  bred 
to  native  saddle  mares,  the  Thorough- 
bred being  relied  upon  for  courage  and 
endurance  and  the  mares  for  gait  and 
disposition  in  the  progeny.  The  Saddle 
Horse  register  was  first  published  in 
1892.      (For  secretary,  see  appendix.) 

About  5,000  saddle  horses  have  been 
registered  in  the  United  States  and  oi 
these  2,700  are  living.    The  various  fain- 


Fig.    201 — TYPE    OF    MODERN    MORGAN    STALLION 

(This  splendid  animal.  Goldmine,  No.  4,407,  was  two  years  old  when  picture  was  taken.  He  is  a  full  brother 
to  Kins  Mortfan,  selected  bv  the  Mexican  uoverninent  tor  breeding  cavalry  horses.  I'hoto  by  courtesy  of  the 
breeder,  L.  I).  Ely. 


The  American  saddle  horse — The 
foundation  stock  of  this  breed,  as  given 
by  the  American  Saddle  Horse  Breeders' 
Association,  was  Denmark  (a  Thorough- 
bred), John  Dillard  and  Tom  Hal  (Ca- 
nadian horses),  and  a  number  of  other 
Thoroughbred  and  Morgan  horses.  The 
Huns,  Arabs  and  Thibetans  were  fa- 
mous for  their  horsemanship.  The 
horses  which  they  used  were  largely  of 
oriental  blood.  In  England,  likewise, 
the  Thoroughbred  was  the  basis  of  the 


ily  types  inside  the  breed  are  quite  dis- 
tinct. 

Saddle  gaits — To  entitle  him  to  reg- 
istry the  Saddle  Horse  must  possess  five 
gaits — walk,  trot,  rack  and  canter,  and 
either  the  running  walk,  slow  pace  or 
fast  trot.  The  rack  is  also  known  as 
the  single  foot  gait.  The  color  of  the 
Saddle  Horse  is  bay,  brown,  black,  chest- 
nut or  gray,  height  about  15.2.  Style 
is  an  important  feature.  Many  of  these 
horses   are  good  for  saddle  or  driving 


290 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


and  a  few  of  them  have  trotted  faster 
than  2.30.  The  hair  is  silky,  mane  of 
medium  length,  head  small,  ears  erect, 
neck  arched,  withers  narrow,  barrel 
round,  legs  hard  and  flat  with  rather 
small  joints.  The  fox  trot  can  be  main- 
tained all  day  and  carries  a  horse  at 
the  rate  of  4  to  6  miles  per  hour.  Many 
western  cow  ponies  have  this  gait.  The 
running  walk  and  single  foot  have  a 
great  range  of  speed  from  5  miles  an 
hour  to  a  three-minute  gait.  The  Sad- 
dle Horse  possesses  a  wide  range  of  use- 
fulness. 


harness  horses.  For  this  purpose  a  small 
number  was  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  1902. 

The  Morgan  horse  originated  with 
Justin  Morgan,  owned  by  a  man  of  the 
same  name  from  West  Springfield,  Mass. 
The  foundation  horse  of  the  breed  was 
foaled  about  1793  and  was  claimed  to  be 
of  Thoroughbred  descent.  A  thorough 
investigation  by  Wallace  and  others 
shows  pretty  clearly  that  the  ancestry  of 
the  original  Morgan  horse  is  unknown. 
Sherman  Morgan  was  among  the  prog- 
eny of  this  horse,  his  dam  being  a  Nar- 


202 ENGLISH   HACKNEY   STALLION.      GENTLEMAN   JOHN 


The  Orlov  trotter — This  is  the  light 
harness  horse  of  Russia,  and  the  breed 
was  established  by  Count  Orlov  in  the 
last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
Orlov  horses  trace  their  ancestry  to  an 
Arab  horse  called  Smetanka,  imported 
from  Greece  in  1775  and  bred  to  Danish 
and  Dutch  mares.  The  tendencies  of  the 
breed  are  somewhat  mixed,  giving  rise 
to  light  and  heavy  trotters,  with  hairy 
fetlocks,  sloping  hips  and  wedge-shaped 
heads.  The  prevailing  colors  are  gray 
and  black.  The  length  of  leg  varies 
greatly  within  the  breed,  so  that  some 
are  good  trotters,  while  others  are  heavy 


ragansett  pacing  mare.  He  is  noted  as 
the  sire  of  Black  Hawk,  the  most  fa- 
mous of  all  the  Morgans.  In  1847  Black 
Hawk  made  a  mile  in  2.43y2.  Ethan 
Allen,  a  son  of  Black  Hawk,  sired  six 
trotters  inside  the  2.30  limit.  Some  of 
the  Morgans  have  been  admitted  to  the 
American  trotting  register,  but  there  is 
a  special  Morgan  register  at  Middlebury, 
Vermont.  (For  secretary,  see  appendix.) 
Mr.  Joseph  Battell  of  Middlebury  has 
given  a  good  part  of  his  life  to  the 
solution  of  the  endless  controversies 
which  have  arisen  about  the  Morgans. 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


291 


The  Morgan  horse  is  essentially  a  trot- 
ter of  small  size,  but  active  and  speedy. 
Fifty  years  ago  they  were  much  more  in 
favor  than  at  present,  and  were  widely 
known  from  Maine  to  Iowa.  About 
8,000  Morgans  have  been  registered,  of 
which  6,000  are  still  living.  The  original 
blood  has  been  somewhat  displaced  by 
Hambletonian  stock. 

The  Hackney  originated  in  northeast- 
ern England  more  than  100  years  ago 
by  the  careful  selection  of  carriage  mares 
and  the  use  of  Thoroughbred  sires.  The 
breed  was  first  called  Norfolk  trotters  or 
cobs.  The  action  of  the  Hackney  is 
very  high  and  showy,  the  leg  and  feet 


New  York,  to  satisfy  a  fad  among  fash- 
ionable society. 

Even  in  the  special  field  of  the  Hack- 
ney, however,  this  horse  has  been  beaten 
by  American  Trotters,  which  had  been 
trained  in  the  artificial  gait  of  the 
Hackney.  Notwithstanding  the  defects 
of  the  typical  Hackney,  stallions  of  this 
breed  have  been  used  with  some  success 
in  producing  a  general  purpose  farm 
horse,  by  crossing  with  native  mares. 
In  Wyoming  and  elsewhere  in  the  range 
country,  Hackney  stallions  are  bred  to 
range  mares  for  the  production  of  saddle 
and  driving  horses.  About  2,300  Hack- 
neys have  been  registered  in  the  United 


Fig.    203 TOM    NODDY,    IMPORTED    HACKNEY  GELDING 


somewhat  larger  than  trotters,  the  gen- 
eral form  rounder  and  less  angular,  back 
short  and  stout,  height  14.2  to  15.3 
hands,  hindquarters  rounded,  shoulders 
sloping,  color  chestnut  or  brown  or  bay. 
The  knee  action  is  very  high  and  the 
hind  legs  are  always  kept  under  the 
body.  Bellfounder,  imported  from  Eng- 
land to  Boston  in  1822,  and  a  Hackney, 
was  the  sire  of  the  Charles  Kent  mare 
which  was  the  dam  of  Rysdyks'  Hamble- 
tonian. The  Hackney  is  essentially  a 
heavy  harness  horse.  He  is  too  small  for 
the  farmer  and  too  slow  for  racing.  His 
endurance  is  also  not  great.  He  is 
merely  a  park  horse  and  high  stepper. 
Hackneys  are  bred  extensively  in  Can- 
ada and  in  recent  years  many  have  been 
imported  into  this  country,  especially  in 


States    and   of   this   number,    2,000    are 
living.     (For  secretary,  see  appendix.) 

The  French  coach  horse  was  at  first 
called  Demi-Sang  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  it  was  originated  by  crossing  the 
English  Thoroughbred  on  native  French 
mares,  the  latter  carrying  considerable 
oriental  blood.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  French  govern- 
ment undertook  this  work  in  order  to  ob- 
tain better  cavalry  remounts.  After  the 
type  was  fairly  well  established,  breed- 
ing was  continued  in  the  government 
studs  and  by  farmers,  under  government 
supervision.  Thoroughbred  stallions  are 
still  used  occasionally,  so  that  some 
French  coachers  may  be  half-breeds.  The 
French  government  began  this  work  in 


202 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


1780  and  in  1883  a  stud  book  was  es- 
tablished. The  French  coacher  stands 
higher  than  the  Hackney,  the  knee  ac- 
tion is  not  so  high  and  the  general  form 
more  rangy.  The  weight  is  1,050  to 
1,400  pounds  and  the  color  bay,  brown  or 
black.  The  type  is  poorly  fixed  and  it 
does  not  breed  true.  Some  are  much 
coarser  than  others,  which  may  show 
their  Thoroughbred  ancestry.  In  the 
hands  of  skillful  breeders,  the  French 
coach  horse  may  be  used  in  the  produc- 
tion of  heavy  harness  horses  and  for  this 
purpose  they  have  been  imported  in  small 


the  Oldenburg  mares  under  government 
supervision.  This  horse  is  black,  brown, 
bay  or  chestnut  in  color,  15  to  1G^4 
hands  in  height,  1,200  to  1,500  pounds  in 
weight.  The  legs  are  strong,  but  smooth 
and  the  carriage  of  the  head,  neck  and 
tail  is  graceful.  The  gait  is  much  like 
that  of  the  French  coacher.  On  the 
western  range,  German  coach  horses 
have  produced  fine  grades  from  native 
mares,  and  the  breed  seems  to  be  on  the 
increase  in  this  country.  The  number  of 
German  coach  horses  registered  in  the 
United   States  is   1,300   of  which   1,000 


.'(»■: 


-DILHAM      PRIME      .MINISTER 


numbers.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
a  -much  better  type  of  this  sort  can  be 
obtained  from  the  American  Trotter  by 
selecting  the  heaviest  animals.  (For 
secretary,  see  appendix.) 

The  German  coach  horse  is  a  name 
used  to  cover  several  breeds  of  coach 
horses  bred  in  the  northern  German 
provinces.  The  most  important  breeds 
are  the  Oldenburg,  Flanoverian,  East 
Friesland  and  East  Prussian,  the  first 
named  being  the  most  promising.  Ac- 
cording to  some  authorities,  this  type 
was  known  in  Oldenburg  as  early  as 
1C>0S.  The  breed  was  greatly  improved 
by   crossing   Thoroughbred   stallions  on 


are    living.      (Tor    secretaries,    see    ap- 
pendix.) 

The  Cleveland  bay  [s  a  coach  breed 
which  originated  in  England  by  crossing 
the  Thoroughbred  upon  native  mares  of 
the  Cleveland  district.  It  was  noted  for 
coaching  and  long  distance  work.  The 
color  is  bay,  weight  1,200  to  1,500 
pounds,  height  10  to  16.2  hands.  The 
croup  is  straight,  back  short,  thighs 
strong.  The  Cleveland  bay  is  adapted 
for  pulling  heavy  loads  at  considerable 
speed.  He  has  much  to  recommend  him 
to  the  farmer.  Since  the  establish- 
ment of  the  stud  book  in  1884,  additional 
speed  has  been  secured  by  the  further. 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


293 


admixture  of  Thoroughbred  blood.  The 
Yorkshire  coach  horse  is  very  similar 
to  the  Cleveland  bay  and  is  considered 
by  some  as  a  family  of  the  latter.  It 
shows  more  of  the  Thoroughbred,  occa- 
sional white  spots  and  does  not  breed  as 
true  as  the  Cleveland  bay.  About  1,700 
Cleveland  bays  have  been  registered  in 
the  United  States.  (For  secretary,  see 
appendix.) 

The  hunter  is  not  a  distinct  breed,  nor 


three-quarter-blood  horse  makes  a  better 
animal  for  hunting.  The  back  should  be 
of  medium  length,  front  leg  upright, 
loin  broad,  knee  and  hock  rather  large, 
head  carried  low.  Ontario,  Canada,  is 
noted  for  this  class  of  horses,  and  the 
English  government  obtains  many  cav- 
alry remounts  from  that  province.  Hunt- 
ers are  also  raised  in  West  Virginia, 
Virginia,  Missouri,  Maryland  and  else- 
where    in    the    United   States.     These 


Fig.  205 — FRENCH  COACH  STALLION.  HIGHCLIFFB 


even  a  definite  type.  Peer  suggests  that 
"almost  any  well-bred  farm  mares  of 
suitable  conformation,  even  grade  draft- 
mares  and  such  general  purpose  animals, 
as  found  on  all  farms,  make  very  excel- 
lent brood  mares  for  producing  this 
class  of  animals."  Raising  hunting  sad- 
dlers is  therefore  a  line  of  breeding  which 
the  farmer  may  undertake  with  assur- 
ance of  reasonable  profit.  The  Thor- 
oughbred stallion  should  be  used  in  all 
cases  in  order  to  give  endurance  and 
low  action.  Some  of  the  hunters  are 
nearly  Thoroughbred,  but  a  half-blood  or 


horses  bring  good  prices;  the  demand 
is  active  on  account  of  the  increasing 
number  of  hunt  clubs.  Moreover,  the 
hunter  is  not  an  artificial  product  with  a 
fictitious  value.  He  is  an  excellent  gen- 
eral-purpose horse  about  the  farm  and 
a  roadster.  The  jumping  or  hurdling 
habit  comes  naturally  to  the  Thorough- 
bred blood.  Such  horses  readily  take 
hurdles  4  to  6  feet  in  height  and  more 
rarely  8  feet. 

Influence  of  Thoroughbred — From  the 
above  discussion  of  light  breeds  of  horses, 
the  immense  influence  of  the  blood  of  the 


294 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Thoroughbred  is  apparent.  The  Thor- 
oughbred has  furnished  the  foundation 
of  the  Trotter,  Saddle  Horse,  Pacer, 
Orlov  trotter,  Morgan,  Hackney,  French 
German  and  Yorkshire  coach,  and  Cleve- 
land bay.  The  oriental  blood  is  "hot 
blood."  The  Thoroughbred  and  its 
modifications  in  various  modern  breeds 
are  known  as  "hot  blooded"  as  contrasted 
with  the  "cold  blooded"  draft  horses 
which  originated  in  continental  Europe. 
The  blood  of  the  Thoroughbred  is  every- 


posite  horse  and  may  carry  some  even  of 
the  old  English  war  horse  blood. 

Ponies  are  9  to  13  hands  high,  Gallo- 
ways 13  to  14  hands,  Hobbies  14  to  15 
hands.  The  two  latter  terms  are  not 
much  used  in  America.  The  Shetland 
pony  is  the  only  pony  breed  extensively 
raised  in  the  United  States.  This  pony 
originated  in  the  Shetland  islands  among 
the  scant  forage  of  a  hilly  country, 
hence  their  small  size  and  shaggy  coats. 
They  were  first  used  in  mines  as  a  pack 


Eig.   206 GERMAN    COACH    STALLION 

(Courtesy  J.  Crouch  and  Son) 


where  present  in  horses  which  are  dis- 
tinguished for  speed,  courage  and  en- 
durance. Even  the  Welsh  pony  carries 
some  oriental  blood.  The  "Galloways" 
and  "Hobbies"  were  simply  small  Eng- 
lish race  horses  under  14  hands  in  height. 
The  Barbs,  Turks  and  Spanish  horses 
were  of  about  the  same  size  as  the  Hob- 
bies, and  far  inferior  in  this  respect  to 
the  English  Thoroughbred.  The  Arabian 
has  contributed  much  less  than  the  Barb, 
Turk  and  native  English  horse  to  the 
formation  of  the  Thoroughbred.  At 
any   rate,    the    Thoroughbred  is  a  eom- 


and  saddle  animal.  Now  they  are  used 
chiefly  for  the  amusement  of  children. 
The  Shetland  is  9  to  10.2  hands  or  more 
high,  with  solid,  paunchy  body,  strong, 
large-boned  legs  and  all  colors,  even 
piebald.  He  is  a  heavy-harness  horse 
in  miniature,  weight  275  to  400  pounds, 
price  about  $150. 

His  gait  is  that  of  a  trotter,  and  he 
is  sturdy  and  capable  of  a  great  amount 
of  work,  with  much  abuse.  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  Shetland  will  not  overwork. 
He  is  docile  and  intelligent.  His  en- 
durance is  evident  from  the  fact  that  he 
has  made   50  miles  in  a  day.     Under 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


American  conditions  the  Shetland  as- 
sumes a  larger  size  and  smoother  coat 
and  this  type  is  now  preferred.  They 
have  sometimes  been  crossed  with  the 
Welsh  pony  and  Hackney  with  good 
results.  The  diminutive  size  of  the 
Shetland  forbids  his  use  for  anything 
else  than  a  children's  pet. 

In  England  other  breeds  of  ponies 
have  been  produced  such  as  the  Welsh, 
Celtic  (considered  by  Ewart  a  distinct 
species),  Exmoor,  Connemara,  Hebri- 
dean,  Dartmoor  and  New  Forest.  The 
Dartmoor  is  about  13  hands  high  and  the 
foundation  stock  was  apparently  Exmoor. 


northwest  cayuses.  The  foundation  stock 
of  mustangs  came  over  from  1519 
on.  The  modern  representative  is  a 
wiry,  ugly-shaped,  parti-colored  horse  of 
wonderful  endurance  and  unreliable 
temper.  They  may  be  ridden  or  driven 
50  to  125  miles  a  day.  They  are  used 
for  driving,  cow  ponies  or  pack  animals. 
In  addition  to  their  endurance  they  are 
great  rustlers  and  are  able  to  take  care 
of  themselves  under  heavy  work  with- 
out any  feed  except  what  they  pick  up 
on  the  range.  From  their  origin  it  is 
evident  they  are  based  on  the  Barb 
horse.    They  are  12  to  14  hands  high  and 


Fig.    207 — PRIZE    COACH    STALLION.      PALADIN 


The  latter  is  bay  or  brown,  with  strong 
legs,  and  12.2  hands  high.  Good  polo 
ponies  can  be  obtained  by  crossing  them 
with  Thoroughbred  sires.  The  New 
Forest  pony  from  southern  England  is 
somewhat  larger  than  the  Exmoor,  and  is 
sturdy  and  well  formed.  About  5,000 
Shetland  ponies  have  been  registered 
in  the  United  States  and  of  these  about 
4,200  are  now  living.  This  breed  has  been 
referred  to  in  history  since  the  year 
1700.     (For  secretary,  see  appendix.) 

The  ponies  of  our  western  states  are 
of  Spanish  origin.  In  Mexico  and  our 
Southwest  they  are  called  mustangs,  in 
many  localities,  Indian  ponies;  in  the 
central    Rockies,    broncos;    and    in    the 


weigh  from  600  to  1,000  pounds.  Many 
of  the  cow  ponies  have  been  trained  in 
all  the  saddle  gaits  and  their  intelligence 
is  quite  remarkable.  The  bronco  has 
been  the  Indian's  best  friend  and  an 
indispensable  factor  in  the  conquest  of 
arid  America. 

Polo  ponies  are  obtained  directly  from 
the  ranks  of  the  broncos  or  by  crossing 
Thoroughbred  sires  on  bronco,  Welsh  or 
Exmoor  pony  mares.  The  bronco  has 
much  more  of  promise  in  him  than  any 
of  the  imported  ponies.  The  use  of 
Thoroughbred  sires  greatly  improves  the 
form  and  disposition  of  the  bronco 
without  lowering  his  endurance  and 
alertness, 


296 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  Creole  pony  is  really  a  small  race 
horse  with  preponderance  of  Thorough- 
bred blood.  They  enjoy  considerable  fa- 
vor in  Louisiana.  The  Creole  has  been 
crossed  with  the  Shetland  pony  with 
fairly  good  results. 

Draft  type— As  the  light  or  "hot 
blooded"  horses  are  all  descended,  with 
modification,  from  the  Thoroughbred,  so 
the  draft  or  "cold  blooded"  horses  are 
descended  from  the  old  black  horse  of 
Flanders.  At  the  dawn  of  history  this 
wild  black  horse  was  found  throughout 


Pennsylvania  from  the  seaboard  to  the 
Ohio  river.  For  this  heavy  work  the 
Conestoga  horse  was  produced  and  was 
at  one  time  famous  as  a  draft  horse  in 
Pennsylvania.  This  horse  was  a  prod- 
uct of  local  breeders,  based  on  imported 
heavy  horses  of  unknown  blood.  The 
Conestoga  horse  stood  16  to  18Y2  hands 
high  and  weighed  1,600  to  1,900  pounds. 
With  the  advent  of  railroads  the  breed 
was  allowed  to  become  extinct. 

The    Clydesdale    originated   in   Scot- 
land, being  first  referred  to  in  1715.  The 


Fig.  208 — MODERN  TYPE  OF  CLEVELAND  BAY 


continental  Europe.  In  northern  Europe 
the  conditions  seemed  to  be  favorable  to 
the  development  of  large  men  and  large 
horses.  By  skillful  breeding  and  an  oc- 
casional mixture  with  oriental  or  native 
blood,  several  heavy  breeds  have  been 
produced  from  the  black  horse  of  Eu- 
rope. Thus  from  England  we  have  ob- 
tained the  Clydesdale,  Shire  horse,  and 
Suffolk  Punch;  from  France  the  Per- 
cheron  and  French  draft  horse ;  and  from 
Belgium  the  Belgian  draft  horse,  or 
Flemish  horse. 

Before   the   days   of   railroads   much 
freighting  was  done  by  hox*ses  through 


black  Flemish  horse  and  other  heavy 
horses  were  crossed  with  the  early  form 
of  the  type.  At  present  the  type  is  well 
fixed  and  the  breed  is  very  true  and 
prepotent.  The  color  is  bay  or  brown 
with  white  markings  on  the  face  and 
legs.  Other  colors,  such  as  gray,  black 
and  chestnut  sometimes  appear.  The 
flanks  are  lighter  in  color,  fading  to  a 
dun  on  the  belly.  Mares  weigh  1,500  to 
2,000,  stallions,  1,800  to  2,200  and  the 
height  is  16  to  17  hands.  The  head  is 
long,  neck  medium,  leg  broad,  with  fint 
silky  feathering  below  the  knee  and  hock, 
shoulders      sloping.       The      Clydesdale 


I10ESES  AND  MULES 


297 


shows  a  fast,  elastic  walk  and  a  fairly 
good  trot.  The  waist  is  sometimes  too 
small,  the  back  too  long  and  the  feet  too 
flat  In  these  points  much  improve- 
ment has  been  made  of  late.  The  fore- 
head is  broad,  hindquarters  well  devel- 
oped, leg  joints  strong,  tail  well  carried. 
The  special  merits  of  the  Clydesdale  are 
the  smooth,  clean  legs,  and  the  long, 
graceful  strides.  This  breed  was  firs  I 
imported  into  Canada  in  1842,  into  the 
United    States    in    18S0    and    the    first 


but  rather  too  small,  with  a  tendency  to 
curb,  prepotency  marked,  disposition 
sluggish.  The  Suffolk  keeps  easily  and 
is  well  adapted  as  a  plow  horse  to  or- 
dinary farm  conditions.  He  is  not  popu- 
lar either  in  Canada  or  the  United 
States  and  there  are  only  about  20  regis- 
tered in  this  country.  (For  secretary, 
see  appendix.) 

The  Shire  horse—The  black  horse  of 
Flanders,  imported  to  England  and 
crossed  on  native  heavy  mares,  gave  rise 


Fig.   209 — MRS.   COURTLAND   H.    SMITH   ON    PRIZE   HUNTER 


American  stud  book  appeared  in  1882. 
There  are  11,000  Clydesdales  registered 
in  this  country.  (For  secretary,  see 
appendix.) 

The  Suffolk  Punch  comes  from  the 
county  of  Suffolk,  England,  where  he  has 
been  bred  in  his  present  form  for  more 
than  200  years.  Chestnut  or  sorrel  is 
the  only  color  allowed.  The  Suffolk 
stands  15  to  IGV2  hands  high, weighs  1,500 
to  1,900  and  is  rounder  in  conforma- 
tion than  the  Clydesdale  or  Shire  horse. 
The  back  is  broad  and  short,  less  clean 


to  the  old  war  horse  or  "great  horse," 
which  was  much  in  favor  as  a  charger  in 
the  days  of  knight  errantry.  Its  descend- 
ants appeared  as  the  black  Lincoln- 
shire horse  early  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, which  in  turn  became  the  pro- 
genitors of  the  modern  Shire  horse.  A 
modern  Shire  stallion  from  King  Ed- 
ward's stables  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  page  8. 
Gilbey  believes  that  this  horse  traces  his 
ancestry  back  to  the  horses  found  in 
England  by  Csesar, 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  Shire  horse  resembles  the  Clydes- 
dale, but  is  heavier  and  coarser.  The 
color  is  black,  bay,  brown  or  gray ;  height 
16  to  17.2  hands,  weight  1,600  to  2,300 
pounds,  neck  short,  nose  Roman,  shoulder 
straight,  body  short,  deep  and  round, 
back  broad,  legs  strong  with  heavy  bone 
and  "feather"  extending  around  on  the 
sides.  The  gait  is  slower  and  less  stylish 
than  in  the  Clydesdale,  but  the  animal 
is  stronger  and  less  likely  to  be  "weedy." 
The  shoulders  and  pasterns  are  more 
erect   than   in   the   Clydesdale   and   the 


cheron,  Percheron  or  French  Draft.  In 
that  year  the  name  Percheron  was 
adopted.  At  first  two  types,  the  light  and 
the  heavy,  were  recognized.  The  light 
Percheron  was  most  in  fpvor  and  was 
used  as  a  coach  horse.  He  weighed  1,400 
to  1,600  pounds,  stood  about  15.2  hands 
high  and  had  considerable  speed  as  well 
as  strength.  The  neck  was  trim,  the 
feet  well  formed  and  the  legs  only  slightly 
feathered.  In  1732,  many  of  the  orien- 
tal horses  were  captured  in  France  from 
the  invading  Saracens,  and  this  blood, 


•  flS^ffi 

: 
ft 

"^ 

]0fim 

^    ft;  '  Jem- 

**#-^*  *^_      m 

Wi 

HP    -  -  - i  ~~ 

i           .  -  JL                       \ 

V"^H  HBI^%  ~l 

^^r^mmfS" 

-     J»"^-;« 

u 

Iki       '-"HI  ^^         ^ 

Fig.  210 — SHETLAND  STALLION,  CHAMPION   AT  ST.  LOUIS   EXPOSITION 


hair  is  coarser.  Shire  and  Clydesdale 
have  been  crossed  to  produce  the  select. 
Clydesdale,  but  this  horse  is  no  longer 
in  favor.  The  early  importations  of 
Shires  to  this  country  included  many  in- 
ferior animals,  but  great  improvement 
in  this  respect  has  taken  place  in  recent 
years.  There  are  about  7,500  registered 
Shires  in  the  United  States.  (For  secre- 
tary, see  appendix.) 

The  Percheron  ;s  the  national  horse 
of  France  and  originated  in  the  dis- 
trict of  La  Perche.  Until  1883  all 
draft  horses  in  France  were  referred  to 
indifferently   as   Norman,   Norman-Per- 


mixed  with  that  of  the  European  black 
horse,  yielded  the  Percheron.  Shire 
horses  were  also  imported  from  England 
and  their  blood  added  to  the  existing 
mixture.  Du  Hays  in  his  treatise  on 
the  Percheron  claims  an  Arabian  ances- 
try for  this  horse. 

The  French  Kanuck  horse  of  Canada 
is  a  descendant  of  the  light  Percheron 
and  makes  a  good  cob  horse,  and  the 
"Morse  Gray,"  imported  into  New  York 
about  1825,  was  evidently  a  Percheron. 

The  color  of  the  modern  Percheron  is 
black,  gray,  or  white,  stands  16  to  17.2 
hands  high,  and  weighs  1,600  to  2,200 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


299 


pounds.  The  legs  are  short,  blocky  and 
without  feather,  the  hoof  is  good,  head 
small,  face  straight,  neck  arched,  should- 


Fig.     211 SHETLAND     PONY,    THE 

children's  pet 

ers  and  hips  sloping,  body  deep,  round 
and  broad.  The  Percheron  is  powerful, 
but  his  legs  and  feet  are  his  strong 
points.  He  shows  his  heel  in  walking 
and  his  action  is  good,  but  not  quite  so 
swinging  as  that  of  the  Clydesdale.  The 
percentage  of  blacks  has  been  greatly  in- 


creased by  the  Americans.  Roans,  bays, 
browns  and  chestnuts  are  occasionally 
observed,  but  probably  indicate  impure 
breeding.  The  weak  points  in  the 
Percheron  are  lightness  of  leg  below  the 
knee  and  hock,  rolling  gait  in  front  and 
wide  straddling  behind.  These  defects, 
however,  are  only  seen  in  a  certain 
percentage.  For  breeding,  stallions  with 
oblique  pasterns  should  be  selected. 

Alexander  rightly  calls  attention  to 
the  beneficial  effects  which  the  Percheron 
has  exercised  upon  our  native  horses. 
He  is  by  far  the  most  popular  of  all  the 
draft  horses,  and  breeds  fairly  true  to 
type.  He  is  docile,  easily  kept  in  con- 
dition, of  good  constitution  and  well 
adapted  to  all  sorts  of  draft  purposes. 
When  crossed  on  native  mares,  the 
Percheron  produces  excellent  express, 
farm,  draft  and  general  purpose  horses, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  mare. 
"Where  the  blood  of  this  breed  pre- 
dominates in  a  district,  no  other  breed 
should  be  used.  Continued  breeding  in  the 
right  line  is  highly  advisable  and  will  re- 
sult in  the  production  of  practically 
pure  bred  horses  of  great  usefulness  and 
value."     There  are    more    than    30,000 


Fig.  212 — champion  clydesdale  mare 


300 


PARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


registered    Percherons    in    the    United 
States.     (For  secretary,  see  appendix.) 

The  French  Draft,  also  known  as  the 
Boulounaise  horse,  had  the  same  ances- 
try as  the  Percheron  and  was  once  in- 
cluded with  the  latter.  In  fact,  the  breed 
is  now  in  process  of  differentiation  from 
the  Percheron  and  can  scarcely  be  dis- 
tinguished from  it.  The  prevailing  colors 
are  gray,  bay  and  black.  The  French 
Draft  is .  slightly  heavier  than  the 
Percheron  and  useful  for  fewer  pur- 
poses, being  purely  a  heavy  draft  horse. 
(For  secretary,  see  appendix.) 


preferred  colors  are  brown,  bay  and 
black  with  an  occasional  roan  or  chest- 
nut. They  are  closer  to  the  ground  than 
the  Percheron  and  less  trim  in  appear- 
ance. The  head  is  large,  ears  sometimes 
lopped,  neck  thick,  shoulders  straight, 
back  short  and  board,  chest  deep,  legs 
short  and  flat,  feet  large,  heel  low.  The 
defects  of  the  Belgian  are  clumsy  gait, 
coarse  neck,  sloping  croup  and  too  erect 
pasterns.  Attention  is  being  given  to 
the  correction  of  these  points.  Belgians 
are  slowly  gaining  in  favor  among 
American  breeders  on  account  of  their 


Fig.  213 — SUFFOLK  STALLION,  CHAMPION  AT  LONDON  ROYAL  SHOW,  1905 
(Courtesy  Suffolk  Horse  Society) 


The  Belgian  Draft  horse,  0r  Flemish 
horse,  stands  nearer  than  any  other  breed 
to  the  old  black  horse  of  Flanders.  His 
ancestors  were  first  used  as  war  chargers 
and  later  for  draft  purposes.  Until  re- 
cently the  Belgian  Draft  horses  imported 
into  the  United  States  have  lacked  qual- 
ity. The  Percheron  and  Clydesdale  pos- 
sess more  style  and  better  action  than  the 
Belgian,  and  are  therefore  more  in  fa- 
for  in  this  country.  The  Belgian  has 
less  feather  on  the  legs  than  the  Clydes- 
dale, shorter  neck,  wider  breast  and 
larger  body. 

The  Belgian  Draft  is  the  largest  of  all 
horses,  weighing  1,700  to  2,500  pounds, 
and  standing  15.3  to  17  hands  high.   The 


great  power  and  easy  keeping  qualities. 
There  are  about  2,000  registered  Bel- 
gians in  the  United  States.  (For  secre- 
tary, see  appendix.) 

In  southern  Belgium  there  is  a  light 
race  of  Belgian  drafters,  known  as  the 
Ardennes  horse.  Having  described  the 
various  breeds  of  light  and  draft  horses, 
we  may  now  turn  our  attention  to  the 
recognized  market  classes  of  the  hors.\ 

MARKET  CLASSES 

The  following  paragraphs  on  market 
classes  are  based  largely  on  the  accounts 
of  Davenport,  Alexander  and  Rommel. 
According  to  the  estimates  of  dealers, 
only   about  60   per   cent   of  the  horses 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


301 


which  are  brought  to  market  in  Chicago 
correspond  to  any  recognized  market 
class,  leaving  40  per  cent  as  nondescript 
or  unclassed.  "From  the  nature  of 
the  case  the  market  classes  repre- 
sent all  the  types  and  classes  for  which 
any  general  demand  has  asserted  itself, 
and  if  a  new  use  should  arise,  demand- 
ing a  new  type  of  horse,  the  attempt  to 
secure  it  would  immediately  give  rise  to 
a  new  market  class."  It  is  apparent 
therefore,  that  if  a  horse  is  to  be  sold 
promptly  and  at  a  profitable  figure,  he 


about  75  per  cent  of  cases.  From  a 
financial  standpoint  that  is  a  very  differ- 
ent thing  from  60  per  cent.  Buyers  can- 
not be  blamed  for  not  offering  good 
prices  for  unclassed  horses.  In  fact,  the 
farmer  is  himself  responsible  for  the 
existence  of  so  many  unclassed  horses. 
He  can  produce  the  horse  which  he  de- 
sires. In  other  words,  nondescript  horses 
are  the  result  of  breeding  without  any 
method  or  aim. 

Naturally,  if  a  good  price  is  expected 
for   horses,   they    must    be   sound,  free 


Fig.    214 CHAMPION    SJORE    STALLION 

(Rolleston  Wonder,  No.  7,931;  three  years  old) 


must  fill  the  requirements  of  one  of  these 
classes.  All  horses  are  classified  as  soon 
as  they  arrive  in  Chicago  and  the  price 
finally  paid  for  them  depends  upon  their 
individual  excellence  in  the  class  to 
which  they  are  assigned. 

Hundreds  of  stock  judges,  as  well  as 
buyers  have  told  us  that  there  are  alto- 
gether too  many  nondescript  horses  sent 
to  market,  and  still  more  on  farms. 
When  the  farmer  uses  the  same  care 
and  intelligence  in  breeding  horses 
which  he  devotes  to  the  breeding  of 
sheep,   cattle    and   pigs,   he  succeeds  in 


from  blemishes  and  defects.  They 
should  also  be  mature,  that  is,  five  years 
old  or  just  past  that  age.  It  pays  to 
have  the  horse  in  good  condition  or 
reasonably  fat.  A  fatness  in  heavy 
draft  horses  adds  greatly  to  their  market 
value.  In  fact  there  are  a  considerable 
number  of  feeders  who  have  developed 
the  special  industry  of  buying  promising 
horses  which  are  too  thin  for  market 
requirements  and  putting  them  in  an 
overfat  condition.  Such  animals  satisfy 
the  market  men  and  buyers,  but  they  are 
soft  and  must  be  .trained  down  before 


302 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


they  are  in  condition  for  work.  Never- 
theless, since  fat  horses  are  in  demand, 
the  farmer  may  as  well  get  the  extra 
price  paid  for  fat  horses,  by  using  the 
necessary   feed. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  commis- 
sion merchants  and  professional  horse 
buyers  are  very  shrewd  judges  of  horses 
and  instantly  note  any  good  point  or  de- 
fect. The  only  means  of  obtaining  good 
prices  is  to  bring  the  right  kind  of 
horse  to  market.    Color  is  also  a  matter 


class.      Geldings    bring    a   higher   price 
than  mares  of  the  same  quality. 

In  Chicago,  which  is  the  largest  horse 
market  in  tbe  world,  there  is  great  de- 
mand for  certain  types  of  horses,  which, 
according  to  Davenport,  may  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  5  classes:  (1) 
Road,  carriage  and  coach  horses,  (2) 
cab  horses,  (3)  bus  horses,  (4)  draft 
horses,  (5)  trotters.  The  first  class  are 
drivers;  they  are  used  for  private  pur- 
poses in  hauling  all  sorts  of  conveyances, 


m 


215 PERCHERON  STALLION.      FRANCOIS 


of  some  importance.  Gray  Percheron 
grades  bring  much  more  than  blacks. 
"Washed  out"  colors  are  very  undesir- 
able. As  a  rule,  however,  color  does  not 
interfere  with  the  sale  of  a  horse  if  he 
has  quality  and  the  proper  points. 

All  market  classes  have  standards 
which  are  nearly  as  strict  as  those  for 
breeds,  with  the  exception,  of  course,  of 
pedigree  requirements.  The  class  stand- 
ard requires  a  certain  form,  size,  height, 
style,  action,  color,  etc.  In  all  these  re- 
spects the  horse  must  be  adapted  to  do  a 
certain  line  of  work  in  a  certain  way, 
in  order  to  fall  within  the  limits  of  the 


from  a  light  runabout  to  a  heavy  coach. 
They  are  bougbt  for  country  and  city 
use,  but  chiefly  the  latter,  and  are  mainly 
seen  on  city  boulevards  and  driveways. 
If  they  are  to  be  driven  in  pairs,  they 
must  be  matched  in  size,  style  and  action. 
Uniformity  of  color  and  sex  are  some- 
what less  important.  The  weight  and 
height  of  horses  in  this  class  naturally 
varies  according  to  the  use  to  which 
they  are  to  be  put. 

The  Roadster  should  stand  15.1  to 
15.3  hands  high  and  weigh  950  to 
1,150  pounds.  The  conformation  is 
smooth.     Legs  must  be  sound,  pasterns 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


303 


sound  and  sloping.  A  low  gait  is  better 
than  high  knee  action,  for  speed  witn 
a  light  vehicle  is  the  point  aimed  at. 
This  class  of  horse  is  rangy  but  chest, 
abdomen  and  flank  are  deep. 

The  coach  horse  stands  15.2  to  16.2 
hands  high  and  weighs  1,100  to  1,250 
pounds.  He  must  carry  his  head  and 
tail  high,  and  must  possess  high  knee 
and  hock  action.  This  type  is  heavier, 
smoother,  rounder,  less  angular  than  the 
roadster,  but  must  be  graceful  and  sty- 
lish in  action.  The  front  feet  should 
describe  circles  in  their  motion.  Matched 
teams  of  this  type  bring  $475  or  more, 
while  roadsters  are  worth  $150  per  head. 
The  knee  action  can  be  induced  by  train- 
ing and  shoeing,  but  the  right  hock  ae- 


ward  in  straight  lines.  Style  and  action, 
however,  are  the  main  points. 

The  "cob"  also  belongs  to  this  class. 
He  stands  about  15.1  hands  high,  weighs 
1,000  to  1,100  pounds,  and  is  used  for 
light  coach  work,  especially  as  a  single 
driver  before  a  light  vehicle.  The 
cob  is  somewhat  smoother  and  more 
compact  than  the  coacher,  shorter  on  his 
legs,    but    with    a    higher    knee    action. 

Since,  as  already  indicated,  the  price 
obtained  for  horses  in  this  class  is  high — 
$150  to  $750 — it  is  a  profitable  business 
for  those  who  are  properly  equipped  with 
breeding  stock  and  experience.  In  rais- 
ing this  class  of  horses,  more  failures 
are  made  than  with  draft  horses.  If  the 
conformation  or  style  is  defective,  they 


Fig.  21G — THE  THREE  STANDARD  COLORS  OF  PERCHERONS 


tion  comes  only  by  breeding.  Not  much 
speed  can  be  expected  of  a  coach  horse — 
about  6  to  10  miles  per  hour.  Carriage 
horses  are  intermediate  between  the  road- 
ster and  coacher  in  size,  with  the  gait 
of  the  roadster. 

In  this  whole  class  there  is  little  choice 
of  color  between  blacks,  browns,  bays, 
chestnuts  or  sorrels,  but  grays  are  not 
wanted.  The  head  must  be  clean,  neck 
gracefully  carried,  forehead  broad,  eyes 
full,  nostrils  large,  shoulders  sloping, 
barrel  round,  tail  set  high.  "If  the  fore- 
arm be  too  long  the  result  will  be  a  knee- 
sprung  horse,  after  considerable  service; 
if  too  short,  he  will  be  calf -kneed."  The 
hair  is  fine  and  the  veins  prominent. 
There  must  be  neither  an  interfering  nor 
wobbling  gait;  the  legs  must  move  for- 


cannot  be  sold  except  at  a  loss.  The 
market  is  overloaded  with  average,  or 
ordinary  driving  horses,  and  they  must 
be  better  than  that  if  they  are  to  bring 
a  remunerative  price.  The  farmer 
should,  therefore,  go  at  the  business  very 
cautiously  and  on  a  small  scale  at  first. 
Cab  horses  constitute  an  ill  defined 
class,  made  up  largely  of  culls  from  the 
driving  class  and  the  bus  class.  Cab 
animals  are  used  on  cabs  and  other  light 
vehicles  in  the  public  service,  as  well  as 
for  the  light  delivery  work  of  mercantile 
houses.  The  height  of  the  cab  horse 
is  15  to  15.2  hands  and  his  weight  1,050 
to  1,100  pounds.  As  just  stated,  driv- 
ing horses,  defective  in  speed  and  bus 
horses  under  weight  make  up  the  cab 
horse  class.       They  must  be  strong  and 


304 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


useful,  but  need  not  show  much  speed. 
There  is  always  a  large  supply  of  theso 
horses,  and  the  market  price  seldom  ex- 
ceeds $100.  This  price  obviously  does 
not  justify  any  farmer  in  producing  such 
horses. 

The  bus  horse  Js  so-called  from  its 
use  in  Europe  as  omnibus  horses.  Here 
they  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  to 
a  much  less  extent  and  also  for  express 
and  heavy  delivery  work.  Tbe  bus 
horse  stands  15.1  to  15.3  hands  and 
weighs  1,200  to  1,400  pounds.  They 
must  have  strong  bone  and  sound  feet. 
The    bus   horse    is    low,    blocky    and   of 


tion  of  strength.  Several  other  points, 
however,  must  be  observed.  The  legs 
must  be  strong  with  good  bone  and  large 
hock,  the  hoof  dense  and  well  formed, 
loin  heavy,  back  short.  As  long  as  the 
strength  of  leg  bones  is  proportionate, 
the  weight  cannot  be  too  great;  i.  e.,  for 
city  use.  The  draft  horse  should  not 
weigh  under  1,500  pounds  in  good  con- 
dition, and  if  he  weighs  1,800  to  2,000 
pounds  or  more,  so  much  the  better. 
The  form  is  smooth  and  rounded,  leg 
bones  flat,  pasterns  rather  short, 
shoulder  straight,  breast  full,  forelegs 
rather  far  apart.       The  walk  and  trot 


Fig.    21 


I — THREE    PRIZE-  WIN  XIX  (!    PERC HERONS 


draft  form.  He  is  really  a  general  pur- 
pose horse  and  is  required  to  haul  a  con- 
siderable load  at  a  slow  trot,  but  with- 
out style.  He  must  have  a  faster  gait 
than  a  draft  horse  and  is  by  no  means 
merely  an  undersized  draft  horse.  There 
is  use  for  considerable  numbers  of  them 
in  our  cities  and  the  price  in  Chicago  is 
about  $140. 

The  tram  horse  of  England  is  the 
same  type,  but  slightly  lower  and  smaller. 

The  draft  horse  has  one  function— to 
pull  heavy  loads  at  a  walk,  on  the  farm 
or  in  the  city,  and  alone  or  in  two  to  ten- 
horse  teams.  Strength  is  the  chief  point 
and  within  the  limits  of  the  draft  type, 
weight    is   the   most   prominent   indica- 


should  be  easy,  and  the  legs  should  move 
straight  ahead.  A  rolling  or  waddling 
gait  is  objectionable.  The  height  varies 
from  15.3  to  17.2  hands. 

Other  things  being  equal,  every  100 
pounds  above  1,600  adds  $25  to  the  value 
of  the  horse.  A  well-fattened  condition 
also  increases  the  market  price  of  a  draft 
horse  more  than  is  the  case  of  any  other 
class  of  horses.  On  the  Chicago  market 
the  average  price  for  draft  horses  in 
1904  was  $177,  but  well-matched  teams 
of  good  drafters  brought  $1,000  and  ani- 
mals of  fine  quality,  $350  to  $600  per 
head. 

The  London  van  horse  js  chiefly  pur- 
chased in  America  and  is  simply  a  good 


BORSES  AND  MULES 


305 


quality  of  draft  horse,  16  to  16.2  hand* 
high  and  weighing  1,600  to  1,800  pounds, 
used  for  hauling  heavy  drays  and  vans. 

The  Scotch  van  horse  is  the  same 
type  as  the  English  vanner,  but  may  Le 
somewhat  lighter  and  on  longer  legs. 

The  English  cart  horse  is  merely  a 
very  heavy  draft  horse,  weighing  2,000 
pounds  or  more,  and  on  rather  long  legs, 
standing  16.2   to  17.2  hands  high. 

Loggers  are  heavy,  strong  draft  horses 
with  blemishes  or  defects,  which  render 
them  unsalable  on  the  city  market. 
This  type  of  horse  is  in  demand  by  lum- 


they  bring  $25  per  head  more  than  farm 
chunks. 

The  draft  horse  is  the  class  of  horse 
for  the  farmer  to  raise  for  sale.  Only 
pure  bred  draft  stallions  should  be  used, 
the  particular  breed  being  left  as  a  mat- 
ter of  choice  for  each  farmer.  The  mares 
should  be  of  good  form,  heavy  weight 
and  good  milkers,  and  the  colts  should 
be  forced  from  the  earliest  age.  Other- 
wise the  right  size  cannot  be  secured.  If 
the  mare  is  a  poor  milker,  the  colt  can- 
not get  the  requisite  strength  of  bone. 
The  milk  ration  may  be  increased  by 
feeding  the  colt  fresh,  warm,  skim  milk. 


Fig.  218 — GETTING  READY   FOR  THE   SHOW  RING 


bermen  for  use  in  the  woods.  They 
must  be  of  good  wind.  According  to 
Alexander,  the  very  best  draft  horses  of 
Wisconsin  are  taken  by  lumbermen,  so 
that  few  of  them  find  their  way  to  large 
market  centers.  In  Chicago,  loggers 
sell  at  $160  to  $250  per  head. 

The  farm  chunk  js  a  misfit,  light 
draft  horse  of  mixed  breed,  standing  15 
hands  or  more  high,  and  weighing  1,100 
to  1,500  pounds.  Their  usual  price  is 
$100  to  $175. 

The  express  horse  is  a  drafter,  weigh- 
ing 1,350  to  1,500  pounds  and  standing 
15.2  to  16  hands  high.  There  is  always 
good  demand  for  the  express  horse,  and 


Cracked  grain  (oats  and  barley),  help 
wonderfully.  Draft  horse  raising  is  es- 
sentially a  problem  of  meat  production. 

The  standard-bred  trotter  is  a  pure 
breed  and  has  been  described  above.  This 
horse  to  be  valuable  requires  a  training 
which  the  ordinary  farmer  cannot  give. 
None  but  professional  horsemen  can 
breed  this  horse  with  financial  success. 

There  are  several  other  classes  of 
horses  for  which  an  occasional  or  vari- 
able demand  arises.  In  the  following 
paragraphs,  mention  is  made  of  some 
cf  these  minor  classes. 

The  artillery  horse,  according  to  the 
United  States  army  regulations,  has  the 
following  points: 


106 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


"The  artillery  horse  is  required  for 
quick  draft  purpose,  and  should  move 
the  carriage  ordinarily  by  weight  thrown 
into  the  collar  rather  than  by  muscular 
exertion.  The  animal  must  be  sound, 
without  blemish  or  defect,  well  bred,  of  a 
kind  disposition,  and  free  from  vicious 
habits,  a  square  trotter;  well  broken  to 
harness,  and  gentle  under  the  saddle, 
with  easy  mouth  and  gait,  and  with  free, 
prompt  action  at  the  walk,  trot  and  gal- 
lop." The  price  paid  for  these  horses 
is  usually  not  sufficient  to  tempt  the 
farmer  to  raise  them. 

The  saddle  horse  ranges  from  15.1  to 
15.3  hands  in  height,  and  1,000  to  1,150 
pounds  in  weight.  The  light,  low  type 
is  called  ladies'  saddler  or  ladies'  hack. 
The  type  may  correspond  to  the  Ameri- 


sional  call  for  polo  ponies,  fire  horses, 
police  horses,  ponies,  broncos,  chunks, 
general  purpose  horses  and  southern  hor- 
ses. It  will  not  pay  the  farmer  to  raise 
horses  specifically  for  this  trade. 

American  carriage  horse — The  follow- 
ing proposed  classification  for  American 
carriage  horses,  was  drawn  up  by  the 
U.  S.  Deparment  of  Agriculture,  in  co- 
operation with  the  American  Association 
of  Trotting  Horse  Breeders.  The  object 
of  this  movement  is  to  further  the  work 
which  the  department  is  doing  in  breed- 
ing carriage  horses  from  an  American 
foundation,  and  the  interesting  of  state 
fair  associations  in  the  proposition  so 
that  farmers  may  be  educated  to  know 
the  type  desired. 

The    type    desired   for   the    American 


Fig.  219- 


:iH'IIKRON   STALLIONS   READY   FOR   THE   SHOW    RING 


can  Saddle  horse,  described  under  breeds, 
or  may  come  of  driving  stock.  To  bring 
good  prices  they  must  be  trained  in  the 
saddle  gaits. 

The  hunter  ig  in  considerable  demand. 
The  blood  utilized  in  the  production  of 
this  type  has  already  been  described. 

The  cavalry  horse  sometimes  comes 
in  demand  by  the  government.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  United  States  army  re- 
quirements regarding  this  horse. 

"The  cavalry  horse  must  be  sound 
and  well  bred;  gentle  under  the  saddle; 
free  from  vicious  habits;  with  free  and 
prompt  action  at  the  walk,  trot,  and 
gallop;  without  blemish  or  defect;  of  a 
kind  disposition;  with  easy  mouth  and 
gait."  This  and  various  other  demands 
may  be  met  by  the  ordinary  supply  of 
classed  horses.     Thus,  there  is  an  occa- 


carriago  horse  is  as  follows:  Not  under 
15  hands  for  mature  horses;  smooth, 
compact  and  symmetrical  conformation; 
neck  of  good  length,  inclined  naturally 
to  arch;  sloping  shoulders;  well  set  legs 
of  medium  length;  sloping  pasterns  and 
good  feet ;  short  strong  back ;  well  sprung 
ribs,  well  ribbed  up  to  coupling;  smooth 
loins;  full  flanks;  straight  croup  with 
well  set  tail;  full,  round  buttocks. 

Classes  open  only  to  horses  of  Ameri- 
can blood.  Stallions  in  classes  1  to  5  in- 
clusive must  be  registered  either  in  the 
American  Trotting  Register  as  standard ; 
in  the  American  Morgan  Register  or  the 
American  Saddle  Horse  Register,  and 
certificate  of  such  registry  must  be 
shown  in  the  ring  if  required. 

Entries  in  all  classes  for  mares,  entries 
as  get  of  sire  in  Class  5  and  produce 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


307 


of  mare  in  Class  10,  and  entries  in  Class 
11  must  be  sired  by  a  stallion  registered 
as  above,  but  the  dams  of  such  entries 
need  not  be  registered  mares;  the  breed- 
ing of  dams,  however,  as  far  as  known, 
must  be  given  when  entry  is  made. 

No  mare  having  any  draft  cross  will 
be  eligible.  Any  exhibitor  falsifying  the 
breeding  of  entries  will  be  barred.  En- 
tries in  all  classes  must  be  practically 
sound. 

Entries  in  all  classes  to  be  judged  on 
conformation,  style,  action  and  manners 
as  a  suitable  type  of  carriage  horse.  Spe 
cial  attention  will  be  given  to  trueness 
of  action.  Good  knee  and  hock  action 
are  desirable.  Entries  in  all  classes 
should  trot  and  walk  straight  and  true, 


dam  as  a  brood  mare  of  the  carriage 
type,  50  per  cent;  general  conformation, 
style,  action  and  manners  of  the  foal,  50 
per  cent. 

The  following  percentages  will  govern 
in  Class  11:  General  conformation  of 
entry  as  a  carriage  type,  70  per  cent; 
style,  action  and  manners,  30  per  cent. 

Entries  in  Classes  1,  2,  6  and  7,  to  be 
shown  in  harness  hitched  to  any  suitable 
vehicle.  Entries  in  all  other  classes  to 
be  shown  in  hand  to  bridle.  Excessive 
weight  in  shoeing  in  any  class  is  forbid- 
den. 

CLASSES    AS    FOLLOWS 

Class  1.     Stallion  4  years  old  or  over. 


Eig.   220 — PERCHERONS  AT  OHIO   STATE  FAIR,  1905 


and  judges  will  especially  avoid  horses 
showing  any  tendency  to  mix  gaits,  pad- 
dle in  front  or  sprawl  behind. 

The  following  percentages  will  govern 
judges  in  Classes  1,  2,  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  9 : 
General  conformation  and  all  round  suit- 
ability as  a  carriage  type,  60  per  cent; 
style,  action  and  manners,  40  per  cent. 

The  following  percentages  will  govern 
in  Class  5 :  General  conformation  and 
all  round  suitability  of  sire  as  a  carriage 
type,  30  per  cent;  style,  action  and  man- 
ners of  sire,  20  per  cent;  general  con- 
formation and  all  round  suitability  of 
get  as  a  carriage  type,  taken  as  a  whole, 
30  per  cent;  style,  action,  manners  and 
uniformity  of  type  in  get,  20  per  cent. 

The  following  percentages  will  govern 
in  Class  10:     General  conformation  of 


Class  2.  Stallion  3  years  old  and  un- 
der 4. 

Class  3.  Stallion  2  years  old  and  un- 
der 3. 

Class  4.  Stallion  1  year  old  and  un- 
der 2. 

Class  5.  Stallion  with  three  of  his 
get  of  either  sex;  get  need  not  be  owned 
by  exhibitor. 

Class  6.     Mare  4  years  old  or  over. 

Class  7.  Mare  3  years  old  and  un- 
der 4. 

Class  8.  Mare  2  years  old  and  un- 
der 3. 

Class  9.     Mare  1  year  old  and  under  2. 

Class  10.  Mare  with  foal  of  either 
sex. 

Class  11.  Foal  under  1  year  old, 
either  sex, 


308 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


HORSE  BREEDING 

The  successful  breeding  of  any  kind 
of  live  stock  is  an  art  which  may  be 
learned  only  by  the  closest  and  most 
conscientious  attention  to  all  details. 
The  principles  of  breeding  have  been 
discussed  in  a  previous  chapter.  The 
practical  side  must  be  learned  in  actual 
contact  with  animals.  A  few  general 
facts  worth  while  may  be  mentioned  for 
the  guidance  of  the  horse  breeder. 

Points  of  the  horse — In  the  first  place, 
the  points  of  the  horse  must  be  thorough- 
ly understood,  otherwise  it  is  impossible 
to  breed  with  intelligence  or  with  a  defi- 


that  it  is  generally  neglected  in  farm 
practice.  As  soon  as  the  farmer  has  de- 
cided on  the  type  of  horse  which  he 
wishes  to  raise  he  must  keep  that  type 
constantly  in  mind  in  his  breeding.  No 
cross-bred  or  grade  sire  should  be  used, 
and  no  change  of  breed  should  be  permit- 
ted. By  following  this  plan  persistently, 
and  using  tbe  same  breed  of  stallion 
from  year  to  year,  the  herd  of  horses 
will  gradually  approach  the  pure,  fixed 
type.  There  will  also  be  a  greater  uni- 
formity of  conformation,  size  and  color 
among  all  the  horses  on  the  farm.  Such 
uniformity   is   a  great   point   in   selling 


Fig.    221 — BELGIAN    STALLION 


nite  purpose.  In  other  words,  the  horse 
breeder  must  be  a  judge  of  horses  and 
must  know  the  points  of  the  horse.  The 
score  card  serves  merely  as  a  guide  and 
help  to  the  beginner.  The  experienced 
horse  man  does  not  carry  a  score  card 
about  with  him.  He  has  the  points  in 
his  eye  and  fingers,  and  also  much  more 
information,  which  cannot  be  set  down 
in  a  score  card,  but  which  comes  from 
experience  only. 

Importance  of  sire_In  the  general 
discussion  of  breeding  in  Part  I.  it  was 
pointed  out  that  the  selection  of  a  sire 
is  an  important  matter  in  the  case  of  all 
domestic  animals.  With  horses  it  is  par- 
ticularly important,  partly  for  the  reason 


horses  for  a  remunerative  price.  It  is 
only  by  adopting  a  rational  system  of 
breeding  and  following  it  without  waver- 
ing, that  the  farmer  can  build  up  a 
reputation  for  having  horses  which  are 
worth  the  buyer's  time  in  looking  at 
them. 

The  stallion  must  not  only  have  the 
right  breeding  in  him,  but  he  must  be 
free  from  defects,  blemishes,  all  forms  of 
unsoundness  or  disease.  Of  course  acci- 
dental wounds,  barb-wire  cuts  and  simi- 
lar injuries  have  nothing  to  do  with  he- 
reditary characters,  but  spavins,  splints, 
ringbone,  sidebones,  any  form  of  lame- 
ness, incorrect  position  of  the  leg  should 
not  be  tolerated  in  the  stallion  or  the , 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


309 


breeding  mare.  These  defects  or  the 
tendency  to  develop  them,  may  be  inher- 
ited in  the  progeny.  The  farmer  should, 
therefore,  take  every  possible  precaution 
in  order  to  reduce  the  number  of  de- 
fective and  misfit  colts  to  a  minimum. 
Besides  the  defects  just  mentioned,  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  periodic 
ophthalmia,  cataract,  "glass  eye,"  St. 
Vitus's  dance,  heaves,  string  halt,  broken 
wind,  roaring,  navicular  disease,  skin 
tumors,  curb,  sprung  knee  or  hock,  calf 
knee,  flat  hoof,  and  too  upright  pasterns. 
No  aborting  mare  should  be  bred  nor 
stallion  with  maladie  du  coit  or  venereal 
disease. 

Coarse  hair  on  the  sides  of  the  legs 
indicates  spongy  bone  and  a  pre-disposi- 
tion  to  grease  heel  and  lymphangitis. 
The  hoof  is  a  very  important  point  in 
breeding  horses.  The  horse  can't  work 
without  good  hoofs,  and,  in  general,  his 


and  the  right  kind  of  food,  but  is  to  be 
protected  so  far  as  possible  against  flies, 
severe  storms  and  other  conditions  which 
may  affect  the  animal  unfavorably. 
While  the  adequate  nutrition  of  breed- 
ing animals  is  a  necessary  prerequisite 
to  the  best  results,  all  breeders  know, 
that  neither  the  mare  nor  the  stallion 
should  be  too  fat.  It  is  unfortunate  thai 
the  exhibition  standard  seems  to  require 
the  overfat  condition.  Fat  develops 
around  the  reproductive  organs  in  both 
sexes  and  tends  to  sterility  or  at  least  to 
weakness  of  progeny.  Over-feeding  con- 
stitutes a  drain  on  the  vital  powers  and 
particularly  on  digestion. 

Unlike  steers  and  swine,  horses  are 
not  fed  simply  to  get  increase  of  weight. 
Horses  must  produce  energy.  The  feeds 
which  cause  a  large  accumulation  of  fat 
do  not  contribute  sufficiently  to  the  vigor 
of   the   animal.      The   excess    of   fat   13 


Fig.   222 BROOD   MARES  AND  COLTS  AT  IOWA    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE 


wearing  qualities  and  period  of  useful- 
ness depend  directly  and  primarily  upon 
the  quality  of  his  hoofs.  The  quality 
of  the  hoof  is  a  matter  which  is  largely 
determined  by  breeding.  The  character 
of  the  feed  and  soil  also  exert  an  in- 
fluence. Bran,  oats,  barley  and  other 
nitrogenous  feeds  are  necessary  to  the 
best  development  of  hoofs.  For  this 
reason,  corn  should  not  constitute  the 
chief  grain  feed  for  the  young  and  grow- 
ing colt.  Geological  conditions  may  also 
exercise  some  influence  upon  the  growth 
and  soundness  of  the  hoof.  Swampy 
land,  with  succulent  vegetation  and 
"flat,"  mineral-free  water  is  unfavorable 
to  the  production  of  dense,  tough,  good- 
wearing  hoof  horn. 

"The  well-born  but  incompletely  nour- 
ished colt  fails  to  develop  and  at  ma- 
turity is  no  less  a  weed  than  the  ordinary 
scrub  or  native  animal."  The  develop- 
ing colt  is  not   only  to  be   fed  enough 


merely  a  burden  and  must  be  trained  off 
before  the  stallion  loses  the  flabbiness  of 
muscle  and  gets  into  good  condition. 
Neither  brood  mares  nor  stallions  should 
be  underfed  or  in  a  half-starved  condi- 
tion at  the  time  of  breeding.  Exercise 
or  a  reasonable  amount  of  work  is  good 
for  both  sire  and  dam.  On  the  farm 
they  may  be  worked  without  unfavor- 
ably affecting  their  fecundity. 

The  mixed  breeding  indulged  in  by 
many  farmers  is  by  no  means  always  due 
to  carelessness  or  indifference  on  their 
part.  In  some  neighborhoods  it  is  prac- 
tically impossible  to  obtain  the  same 
breed  of  stallion  for  service  year  after 
year.  Alexander  calls  attention  to  the 
fact  that  often  after  a  good  start  has 
been  made  in  the  process  of  grading  up 
in  a  given  neighborhood,  the  stallions 
used  up  to  that  time  may  be  taken  away. 
In  such  an  emergency,  some  farmers  use 
a  grade  stallion  or  one  of  a  different 


310 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


breed,  with  the  result  that  all  the  ad- 
vance thus  far  made  is  lost 

If  a  farmer  has  been  using  one  breed 
of  stallion  for  several  years,  that  breed 
is  better  than  any  other  for  him.  Under 
such  circumstances  it  is  not  a  question 
of  the  relative  merits  of  different  breeds. 
If  difficulty  is  experienced  in  getting  the 
right  stallion  of  the  right  breed  re- 
course may  be  had  to  some  of  the  meth- 
ods suggested  by  Alexander  and  others. 
The  farmers  of  a  particular  neighbor- 
hood may  raise  a  joint  fund  for  the 
purchase  and  maintenance  of  a  stallion 


By  this  means,  improvement  would  be 
made  in  the  type  of  horse;  the  horses 
of  the  association  could  be  brought  to 
the  attention  of  buyers  by  legitimate  ad- 
vertising, exhibition  at  local  and  state 
fairs  and  otherwise.  "Were  such  asso- 
ciations formed  in  each  horse-breeding 
center,  and  were  each  of  them  to  preach 
and  practice  the  same  sound  doctrines 
of  breeding,  the  use  of  scrub,  grade, 
cross-bred  and  unsound  stallions  would 
soon  be  a  thing  of  the  past,  while  better 
mares  would  be  used  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, with  the  inevitable  result  of  gen- 


Fig.  223 — FARM  WORK  HORSE,  THREE-FOURTHS    PERCHERON 


or  a  stallion  may  be  rented  of  the  owner 
for  the  season  by  guaranteeing  a  certain 
amount  of  service  fees  and  maintain- 
ing the  stallion  and  groom. 

Associations  of  breeders — The  forma- 
tion of  local  horse-breeding  associations 
also  helps  materially  to  secure  the  de- 
sired result.  Such  organizations  could 
agree  to  raise  only  one  breed  of  horse  and 
grades  of  that  breed  and  could  make  ar- 
rangements to  have  the  proper  stallion 
service  for  all  members.  All  problems 
connected  with  horse-breeding  and  local 
conditions  of  the  horse  market  could  he 
discussed  at  meetings  of  the  association. 


eral  improvement  in  the  quality  of  our 
horses  and  the  profits  to  be  reaped  from 
the  business." 

As  already  indicated,  it  is  quite  inad- 
visable to  prescribe  to  farmers  the  breed 
or  type  of  horse  which  they  shall  raise. 
Each  farmer  knows  better  than  anyone 
can  tell  him  his  own  likings  and  pe- 
culiar fitness  for  the  work.  There  is 
a  constant  demand  for  all  the  recognized 
market  classes  of  horse.  Soil,  feed  and 
other  local  conditions  are  factors  in 
determining  a  choice  for  one  or  an- 
other breed.  Some  men  will,  therefore, 
decide    on    raising    draft   horses,    others 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


311 


roadsters,  saddlers,  hunters,  polo  ponies, 
expressers  or  some  other  type,  as  cir- 
cumstances may  dictate. 

Thus  far  we  have  spoken  of  breeding 
horses  for  market.  Farmers  must  al- 
so raise  horses  for  their  own  use.  On 
the  farm  horses  are  needed  for  work, 
driving  and  riding.  The  draft  type  will 
usually  be  chosen  for  work  horses.  Most 
farmers,  however,  prefer  the  light  draft 


Points  in  the  structure  and  physi- 
ology of  the  horse—The  weight  borne  bv 
the  front  feet  of  the  horse  as  compared 
with  that  on  the  hind  feet  is  expressed 
by  the  ratio,  5-4.  The  center  of  gravity 
is,  therefore,  at  the  base  of  a  line  which 
falls  through  the  withers,  just  behind 
the  shoulder  blade  and  front  feet.  The 
proportions  of  the  body  vary  somewhac 
in  different  types.     Thus  the  Thorough- 


Fig.   224 — EXPRESS   HORSE.      FROM   U.  S.  DEPT.   AGRIC.   BUR.  ANIM.  IND. 


type.  For  most  farm  work,  1,300  pounds 
is  heavy  enough  for  the  draft  horse. 
The  1,700  to  1,800-pound  horse  is  less 
active  and  a  larger  feeder.  The  1,300- 
pound  horse,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be 
worked,  driven  or  ridden  as  occasion 
may  require.  Most  farmers  cannot  keep 
distinct  types  of  horses  for  all  different 
lines  of  work.  The  general  purpose  horse 
with  good  strength  and  considerable 
speed  is,  therefore,  the  horse  for  the  av- 
erage farmer. 


bred  is  3  or  4  inches  higher  than  long, 
while  the  Shire  horse  is  about  9  inches 
longer  than  high. 

In  general,  a  wide  forehead  indicates 
a  large  brain  power.  In  the  speed  horse, 
the  shoulder  is  more  oblique  than  in  ths 
draft  horse.  Pink  skin  produces  white 
hair,  and  most  white  and  gray  horses 
have  black  skin.  The  carrying  of  weight 
upon  the  back  requires  long,  oblique 
shoulders,  with  strong  shoulder  and  loin 


312 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


muscles  and  oblique  pasterns.  Endur- 
ance in  the  horse  is  indicated  by  good 
room  for  breathing  and  digestive  func- 
tions. The  temperature  of  the  horse  in 
health  is  100  to  101°  F.,  and  the  pulse 
varies  from  35  per  minute  in  drafters, 
to  45  in  ponies.  The  pulse  may  be  felt 
at  the  jaw,  inner  side  of  the  forearm  or 
fetlock  joint.  The  most  convenient  point 
is  at  the  jaw.  The  external  maxillary 
artery  runs  from  between  the  jaws  along 
the  lower  edge  of  the  jawbone,  and 
thence  on  the  outside  of  the  jawbone  to 
the  face.  It  is  located  most  easily  just 
in  front  of  the  thick  muscles  of  the 
cheek.  If  the  fingers  are  placed  against 
the  artery  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
jaw  at  this  point,  the  pulse  can  readily 
be  felt.  The  normal  rate  of  respiration 
in  the  adult  horse  is  10  to  12  per  minute. 
The  usual  period  of  pregnancy  in  the 
mare  is  11  months,  but  the  first  preg- 
nancy may  last  a  whole  year.  Cases  are 
known  where  colts  were  carried  400  days. 
Some  observers  believe  that  in  long 
pregnancies,  the  colt  is  likely  to  be  male. 

FEEDING  HORSES 

Feeding  experiments  have  been  car- 
ried out  on  an  extensive  scale  with  all 
kinds  of  farm  animals  by  experts  in 
animal  industry,  as  well  as  by  thou- 
sands of  feeders.  It  is  often  said  that 
less  is  known  about  the  scientific  feeding 
of  horses  than  about  other  animals. 
Such,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  all 
feeding  stuffs  which  are  available  for 
use  on  the  farm  have  been  tested  in  a 
manner  so  that  their  feeding  value  is 
known.  We  may  best  discuss  the  va- 
rious feeding  stuffs  under  the  heads, 
grains,  coarse  fodders,  roots  or  succulent 
feeds,  and  miscellaneous  feeds. 

Oats — It  is  perhaps  best  to  begin  with 
oats,  not  because  it  is  universally  con- 
ceded to  be  the  best  horse  feed,  but  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  considered  the  stand- 
ard grain  for  the  horse,  and  because  it 
is  customary  to  compare  other  grains 
with  oats.  It  has  long  been  considered 
dangerous  to  feed  oats  in  a  fresh  condi- 
tion, and  most  feeders  recommend  that 
oats  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
granary  for  at  least  two  months.  This 
matter  has  been  carefully  investigated, 
especially  in  France,  with  the  result  that 
no  objection  can  be  found  in  using  oats 
in  a  perfectly  fresh  condition.  The 
common  belief  is  that  fresh  oats  are 
heating  and  cause  inflammatory  condi- 
tions of  the  skin,  digestive  derangements, 


nervousness  and  vertigo.  A  thorough 
test  by  the  French  war  department,  how- 
ever, showed  conclusively  that  no  harm 
resulted  from  using  fresh  oats;  on  the 
other  hand,  there  seemed  to  be  some  ad- 
vantage in  the  fresh  oats  over  oats  which 
had  been  kept  for  two  months  or  longer. 

In  keeping  oats  for  long  periods,  a 
more  or  less  pronounced  change  of  color 
takes  place,  white  oats  becoming  yellow- 
ish, and  the  natural  lustre  of  all  varie- 
ties of  oats  gradually  disappearing  so 
that  they  look  dull  and  dead.  In  order 
to  make  old  oats  look  fresh,  machines 
have  been  devised  for  polishing  them 
with  the  aid  of  oils  and  camphor.  As  a 
rule,  oats  over  two  years  old  should  be 
rejected  for  feeding  purposes,  for  the 
reason  that  they  may  have  undergone 
changes  which  reduce  their  nutritive 
value.  Oats  which  come  from  localities 
with  epizootic  diseases  are  sometimes 
put  through  a  heating  process  in  order 
to  disinfect  them.  They  will  stand  a 
temperature  of  150°  F.  without  being 
greatly  harmed.  Too  high  temperatures, 
however,  will  brown  the  hulls,  render 
them  harder  than  in  fresh  oats  and 
somewhat  less  digestible. 

As  already  indicated,  many  feeders,  es- 
pecially in  the  northern  states,  believe 
that  oats  are  the  only  grain  which  can  be 
fed  in  long  periods  to  horses  with  good 
results.  Oats  are  readily  digested  by 
horses  and  furnish  a  comparatively  large 
amount  of  protein.  The  idea,  however, 
that  oats  must  be  used  as  the  exclusive 
grain  for  horses  must  be  abandoned,  for 
Arabian  horses  and  many  other  Asiatic 
horses  receive  no  other  grain  than  barley. 
Moreover,  barley  is  extensively  used  as  a 
horse  feed  in  California  and  in  some 
other  western  states.  Again,  in  the 
southern  states,  and  in  fact  almost 
throughout  the  corn  belt,  corn  is  fed  in 
much  larger  quantities  than  oats.  Thou- 
sands of  horses  in  the  United  States 
never  get  oats  from  one  year's  end  to 
another. 

It  should  be  apparent,  therefore,  that 
while  oats  may  well  be  considered  the 
standard  grain  for  horses,  they  may, 
nevertheless,  be  replaced  in  the  daily 
ration  with  various  other  grains.  In 
making  the  substitutions,  no  check  takes 
place  in  the  growth  of  the  horses,  no 
diseased  condition  is  likely  to  appear 
and  a  great  saving  in  feed  bills  is  made 
possible.  Many  writers  have  insisted 
upon  the  presence  of  a  peculiar  princi- 
ple in  oats  and  have  referred  to  it  under 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


313 


the  name  of  avenine.  Careful  chemical 
analyses  have  failed  to  show  the  pres- 
ence of  avenine  or  any  other  peculiar 
chemical  body  in  oats,  which  is  noL 
found  in  other  grains  as  well.  Ap- 
parently as  good  results  are  obtained  in 
spirit  and  action  from  other  grains  as 
from  oats. 

When  oats  become  too  expensive,  they 
may  be  replaced  in  the  ration  with 
corn,  barley,  kafir  corn,  dried  brewers' 
grains,  beans,  peas,  bran,  cottonseed 
meal,  or  even  with  highly  nitrogenous 
coarse  fodders.  In  Maine  it  was  found 
that  when  mixed  grains  were  compared 
with  oats  the  mixed  grains  proved  more 
effective  for  colts  and  cost  less.  In 
another  test  oats  produced  less  growth  iu 
colts  than  an  equal  weight  of  a  mixture 
of  peas  and  middlings,  the  ratio  being 
100  to  111.  When  colts  were  fed  a  mix- 
ture of  middlings,  gluten  meal,  and  lin- 
seed meal  in  the  ratio  of  60 :35 :15  and 
hay,  the  daily  ration  cost  12  cents,  and 
14  cents  when  oats  were  substituted  for 
the  mixed  grains.  The  daily  gains  in 
the  colts  were  1.3  pounds  on  mixed  grains 
and  2-3  pound  on  oats.  In  nearly  ail 
experiments  greater  gains  have  been  se- 
cured from  mixed  grains  than  with  the 
use  of  an  exclusive  oat  ration. 

As  suggested  by  Stewart,  one  of  the 
chief  reasons  for  the  general  preference 
of  oats,  rests  upon  the  fact  that  approx- 
imately one-half  of  the  oat  substance 
consists  of  hulls.  The  hulls  must  be 
eaten  with  the  rest  of  the  grain,  and  as  a 
consequence,  the  masticated  mass  is 
comparatively  loose  and  easily  digested. 
There  is  hence  no  grain  which  can  be 
fed  ad  libitum  with  such  safety  as  oats. 
Apparently  the  stomach  of  the  horse  can- 
not hold  enough  oats  at  one  time  to  cause 
serious  digestive  troubles.  No  time  or 
energy  need  be  spent  in  preparing  oats, 
since  in  all  horses  with  good  teeth,  oats 
are  about  equally  digestible  whether  fed 
whole,  cracked,  ground,  steamed  or  in  a 
natural  condition.  In  Utah  it  has  been 
found  that  bran  and  shorts  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  oats.  Usually  a  considerable 
saving  can  be  made  by  using  bran  or 
shorts.  In  North  Carolina,  oats  were 
compared  with  cowpeas  in  rations  of  4 
pounds  together  with  ground  wheat, 
corn  and  meadow  hay.  Both  rations 
were  satisfactory  in  energy  production, 
but  since  the  oats  cost  2  cents  per  pound 
and  the  cowpeas  only  1  cent,  it  is  evident 
that  the  cowpeas  are  much  more  econom- 
ical as  a  horse  ration. 


In  the  same  state  it  was  found  that 
oat  hay,  cut  in  the  milk  stage  was  about 
equal  to  clover  or  cowpea  hay.  The 
Maryland  experiment  station  compared 
the  digestibility  of  whole  and  ground 
oats  for  horses.  It  appeared  that  the 
horses  did  not  relish  an  exclusive  ration 
of  whole  oats  and  lost  weight  consider- 
ably. In  order  to  keep  the  horses  in  good 
appetite,  it  became  necessary  to  add  hay 
to  the  ration.  The  oats  were  then  fed 
three  times  a  day.  Much  diversity  of 
opinion  prevails  regarding  the  relative 
value  of  whole,  bruised,  crushed  and 
ground  oats.  The  test  was,  therefore, 
made  between  whole  and  ground  oats. 
The  results  were  slightly  in  favor  of 
ground  oats.  For  old  horses  the  ground 
oats  were  more  digestible,  while  for 
young  horses  whole  oats  seemed  the  bet- 
ter. This  slight  advantage  of  grinding, 
however,  will  not  be  a  paying  proposi- 
tion unless  grinding  can  be  done  very 
cheaply.  Horses  may  be  fed  a  ration  of 
10  to  16  or  even  20  pounds  a  day.  At 
the  usual  price  of  oats  it  will  produce 
quite  a  saving  to  give  a  ration  of  2-3 
oats  and  1-3  corn.  Moreover,  bran  should 
almost  always  be  fed  along  with  oats. 

Barley — As  already  indicated,  barley 
is  an  excellent  horse  feed.  It  is  exten- 
sively fed  in  various  parts  of  the  Orient, 
Africa,  Europe,  California  and  other 
western  states.  It  is  a  very  hard  grain 
and  should  be  crushed  or  ground  before 
feeding.  It  is  still  better  to  boil  or 
steam  barley  and  mix  it  with  bran  or  a 
little  molasses.  In  horse  rations,  4 
pounds  of  barley  equals  6  pounds  of  oats. 
Boiled  barley  is  perhaps  the  best  pos- 
sible grain  for  colts.  It  gives  a  most 
rapid  growth,  great  strength  of  bone  and 
muscle  and  a  sleek  coat.  Barley  may, 
therefore,  be  used  to  replace  oats  in 
horse  rations  under  all  circumstances. 
This  matter  was  tested  in  Germany  on 
two  sets  of  horses  of  60  each. 

One  lot  of  the  horses  received  8  pounds 
of  oats  and  the  other  received  the  same 
amount  of  barley.  The  effectiveness  of 
both  rations  seemed  to  be  about  the  same. 
As  a  result  of  this  test  it  was  concluded 
that  the  best  ration  for  horses  contains 
1-3  oats,  1-3  barley  and  1-3  beans.  In 
substituting  barley  for  oats,  French  in- 
vestigators have  found  it  desirable  to 
feed  slightly  more  barley  than  would  be 
given  in  the  oat  ration.  For  the  heavy 
French  draft  horses,  barley  constitutes 
about  i/4  of  the  grain  ration,  while  for 
speed  horses  the  proportion  may  be 
much    larger.       In    the    French    army, 


314 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


barley  is  substituted  pound  for  pound 
for  oats.  The  regulations  of  the  Ger- 
man army  prescribe  that  barley  may  be 
used  to  replace  oats  for  indefinite  pe- 
riods to  the  extent  of  1-3  to  1-2,  or  all 
of  the  usual  oat  ration.  In  general, 
barley  is  substituted  pound  for  pound 
for  oats.  In  North  Dakota,  barley  was 
found  not  quite  equal  to  oats.  Malted 
barley  appeared  to  be  inferior  to  whole 
barley.  According  to  the  extensive  ex- 
periments of  Lavalard,  barley  may  en- 
tirely replace  oats  in  the  ration  of  all 
kinds  of  horses,  whether  used  for  driv- 
ing or  draft  purposes.  Apparently,  how- 
ever, it  is  necessary  to  give  the  barley 
in  slightly  larger  rations. 

Corn — As  already  stated,  corn  may  be 
substituted  for  oats  in  part  or  even  en- 
tirely. It  is  used  in  this  way  at  present 
to  a  large  extent  throughout  the  corn  belt 
and  especially  in  the  southern  states. 
In  Germany  and  various  other  European 
countries  it  has  been  found  that  corn 
may  be  used  in  the  place  of  oats  without 
injury  to  health.  Old  horses  are  some- 
times not  able  to  eat  corn  without  pre- 
vious grinding.  In  Germany  a  mixture 
has  been  recommended  containing  50 
per  cent  cracked  corn,  15  to  20  per  cent 
cracked  beans,  10  to  20  per  cent  bran, 
and  10  to  15  per  cent  malt  dust.  The 
daily  ration  then  consists  of  10  to  15 
pounds  of  this  mixture.  In  England,  ten 
street  car  companies  have  adopted  a  ra- 
tion, consisting  of  about  9  pounds  corn,  5 
pounds  oats,  2  pounds  beans  and  peas, 
1-3  pound  bran.  In  Leipsic  a  generally 
adopted  ration  for  horses  contains  11 
pounds  corn  and  3  pounds  oats.  Blin  in 
his  experiments  with  corn  found  it  to  be 
inferior  to  oats.  Corn  is  especially  suited 
for  the  production  of  energy  in  work 
horses.  Kloepfer  substituted  5  pounds 
of  corn  for  6  pounds  of  oats  in  rations 
for  farm  horses.  As  a  result  of  his  ex- 
periments he  recommends  that  oats  be 
fed  during  the  day  and  corn  in  the  even- 
ing, after  being  soaked  for  24  hours. 

For  many  years  Lavalard  conducted 
experiments  in  feeding  horses  for  the 
Paris  omnibus  company,  particularly 
with  reference  to  the  grains  which  may 
be  economically  substituted  for  oats. 
The  first  tests  with  corn  were  under- 
taken with  all  kinds  of  horses  and  gave 
most  satisfactory  results.  The  total 
number  of  horses  involved  in  these  ex- 
periments was  about  30,000,  so  that  the 
results  are  of  unusual  value.  By  replac- 
ing a  part  of  the  oats  with  corn  one  com- 
pany using  16,000  horses  effected  a  sav- 


ing of  more  than  $250,000  a  year,  thus 
showing  the  great  economy  of  corn  feed- 
ing. Recent  experiments  with  cavalry 
and  artillery  horses  have  shown  that  corn 
may  generally  replace  oats  without  in 
any  way  causing  the  horses  to  deterio- 
rate. The  horses  fed  the  corn  ration 
were  worked  the  same  number  of  hours 
in  the  military  drill  and  in  the  maneu- 
vers and  were  ridden  at  the  same  gait 
as  those  fed  exclusively  on  oats.  It  was 
impossible  to  notice  any  difference  in 
the  condition  of  the  two  lots  of  horses. 

Again,  oats  contain  on  an  average  70 
to  75  per  cent  of  kernel  and  25  to  30  per 
cent  of  indigestible  hulls,  while  the  hull 
of  corn  amounts  to  practically  nothing. 
According  to  Lavalard  these  facts  fur- 
nish an  explanation  why  horses  on  corn 
thrive  better  and  are  more  able  to  main- 
tain their  weight,  than  on  oats. 
Lavalard's  experiments  demonstrated 
that  corn  may  be  used  to  replace  oats  in 
the  ration  for  both  cavalry  and  artillery 
horses.  In  fact,  if  substituted  pound 
for  pound  it  increases  the  nutritive  value 
of  the  ration.  From  an  economic  stand- 
point this  is  ample  justification  for  the 
practice  of  feeding  corn. 

In  Utah,  a  feeding  experiment  was  car- 
ried out  on  two  teams  of  horses,  one  of 
which  was  fed  corn  and  timothy  and  the 
other  clover,  oats  and  wheat.  The  corn 
and  timothy  lot  made  the  poorer  show- 
ing, as  was  to  be  expected  from  the  fact 
that  the  ration  was  very  poorly  balanced. 
In  a  subsequent  experiment,  in  which 
both  rations  contained  wheat  and  bran, 
corn  and  oats  were  fed  for  the  purpose  of 
a  direct  comparison.  The  horses  on 
corn  made  the  greatest  gains  on  the 
same  amount  of  work.  As  a  result  of  ex- 
periments continued  along  this  line  for 
three  years,  Mills  concludes  that  during 
the  summer,  corn  and  timothy  are  not 
as  good  as  oats,  clover  and  wheat;  that 
in  winter  the  corn  and  timothy  ra- 
tion is  as  good  as  the  other;  and  that 
during  spring  and  summer,  corn,  wheat 
or  bran  will  produce  more  gain  than 
oats,  wheat  or  bran. 

In  North  Dakota,  oats  were  compared 
with  corn  for  mules.  The  corn  was 
fed  on  the  cob  and  the  test  lasted  84 
days.  The  corn  was  greatly  relished  and 
it  was  noticed  that  on  a  ration  of  corn 
and  oats  less  grain  was  needed  than  on 
an  exclusive  oat  ration.  Stated  in  an- 
other form,  88.5  pounds  of  the  mixture 
of  corn  and  oats  equaled  100  pounds  of 
oats  unmixed.  From  a  computation  of 
these   results   it   is   concluded   that  77.5 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


315 


pounds  of  corn  is  equal  in  feeding  value 
to  100  pounds  of  oats.  On  this  basis, 
when  oats  are  worth  50  cents  per  bushel, 
corn  would  be  worth  87  cents.  Burkett 
in  North  Carolina  found  that  for  horses 
and  mules,  corn  and  cob  meal  was  just 
as  valuable  as  shelled  corn.  All  of  these 
tests  showed  a  slight  difference  in  favor 
of  ground  corn  as  compared  with  whole 
corn.  Stewart  accumulated  some  inter- 
esting data  regarding  corn  as  a  horse 
feed,  which  may  be  summarized  in  the 
following  paragraph. 

Corn  meal  has  long  been  fed  to  horses 
in  the  United  States  and  is  now  pur- 
chased in  increasing  quantities  in  Eng- 
land and  continental  Europe  for  the 
same  purpose.  Finely  ground  corn  meal, 
when  masticated  by  the  horse,  forms  a 
somewhat  pasty  mass,  which  does  not 
allow  the  ready  penetration  of  the  di- 
gestive juices.  If,  therefore,  corn  is  fed 
in  large  quantities,  it  may  occasionally 
cause  colic.  For  this  reason  the  use 
of  whole  or  coarsely  ground  corn  helps 
to  avoid  the  possible  danger  of  colic. 
But  if  the  corn  meal  is  mixed  with 
cut  hay,  the  digestive  juices  readily 
come  in  contact  with  all  parts  of  it, 
and  the  hay  is  more  thoroughly  masti- 
cated. Street  car  companies  have  found 
it  desirable  to  mix  the  corn  with  some 
coarse  fodder.  Stewart  reports  the 
death  of  12  or  more  horses  from  eating 
corn  meal.  In  these  cases  the  meal  was 
fed  sometimes  wet  and  sometimes  dry. 
Corn  meal  fed  alone  is,  in  Stewart's  opin- 
ion, the  cause  of  more  cases  of  colic 
than  any  other  feed.  But  on  the 
basis  of  30  years'  experience  he  consid- 
ers corn  meal  perfectly  safe  if  fed  mixed 
with  cut  hay  or  straw.  The  same  prac- 
tice is  recommended  in  feeding  all 
meals  to  all  horses  of  whatever  age. 

The  following  rations  containing  corn 
are  recommended  on  account  of  the 
good  results  from  them  in  practical  ex- 
perience :  Timothy  hay,  12  pounds ;  corn 
meal,  11  pounds ;  malt  sprouts,  5  pounds ; 
Red  clover,  8  pounds;  oat  straw,  6 
pounds;  corn  meal,  12  pounds;  wheat 
middlings,  6  pounds;  Alsike  clover,  8 
pounds;  corn  fodder,  6  pounds;  corn 
meal,  10  pounds ;  rye  bran,  6  pounds ; 
linseed  meal,  2  pounds.  Blue  grass  hay, 
12  pounds;  corn  meal,  8  pounds;  linseed 
meal,  3  pounds;  wheat  middlings,  6 
pounds.  Meadow  hay,  6  pounds;  wheat 
straw,  8  pounds ;  corn  meal,  8  pounds ;  pea 
meal,  6  pounds  ;cottonseed  meal,  2  pounds. 
A  common  and  very  effective  horse 
ration  contains  16  pounds  of  a  mixture 


of  equal  parts  corn  and  oats  ground  to- 
gether. "A  still  better  ration  is  950 
pounds  of  oats,  950  pounds  of  corn  and 
100  pounds  of  flaxseed,  all  ground  to- 
gether. We  have  fed  this  for  long  pe- 
riods— sometimes  two  years  continuously 
— and  have  found  no  ration  that  sur- 
passes it.  It  is  well  balanced  as  a  working 
ration,  and  just  laxative  enough  for 
health  "  A  good  ration  for  stage  horses 
has  been  found  in  a  mixture  of  1  pound 
corn  meal  and  2  pounds  of  hay.  Horses 
at  such  work  keep  in  good  condition 
when  fed  on  cut  hay  and  corn  meal 
alone,  but  leguminous  hays  give  the 
best  results. 

Dechambre  and  Curot,  as  the  result  of 
long  continued  observations  on  corn  feed- 
ing, came  to  the  conclusion  that  corn  is 
the  only  grain  which  can  be  used  to  re- 
place oats  without  necessitating  a  more 
or  less  complicated  mixture  in  the  ra- 
tion. According  to  the  calculations  of 
these  authors,  corn  furnishes  9.08  per 
cent  of  digestive  protein,  while  oats  yield 
9.48  per  cent.  Attention  is  also  called 
to  the  fact  that  when  4  pounds  of  oats 
were  replaced  by  an  equal  weight  of  corn 
for  cavalry  horses,  the  horses  which  re- 
ceived corn  maintained  their  weight 
better  and  withstood  fatigue  better  than 
those  which  were  fed  oats.  Corn  is 
easily  preserved  for  long  periods,  but 
also  undergoes  various  changes  as  a  re- 
sult of  moisture  and  molds.  Fermented 
corn  may  produce  a  disease  similar  to 
pellagra  in  man.  The  nutritive  value 
of  corn  may  also  be  somewhat  affected 
by  smut,  ergot,  and  by  various  insects. 
Maize  cake  has  been  thoroughly  tested 
by  Grandeau  and  others.  It  was  found 
that  from  maize  cake  horses  digest 
about  the  same  amount  of  carbohydrates 
and  two  or  three  times  as  much  protein 
as  from  oats  and  rather  less  protein  than 
from  a  ration  of  horse  beans.  Maize 
cake,  however,  does  not  produce  gains 
like  a  ration  of  corn  and  beans. 

In  Maryland,  a  comparison  was  made 
between  shelled  corn  and  corn  meal. 
The  whole  corn  was  aW  fed  on 
the  cob,  as  well  as  shelled.  The 
results  obtained  from  this  test  show  a 
decided  advantage  in  favor  of  the  corn 
meal.  The  horses  had  a  better  appetite 
when  fed  meal  and  digested  the  material 
more  completely;  this  was  especially  true 
of  old  horses.  A  comparison  of  the  di- 
gestibility of  corn  by  horses  and  cattle 
showed  that  cattle  digest  both  the  corn 
and  corn  meal  more  completely  than  do 
horses. 


316 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


While,  as  will  appear  from  the  above 
discussion,  corn  has  given  favorable  re- 
sults in  nearly  all  cases  where  it  has 
been  fed  to  horses,  a  few  unfavorable  re- 
ports have  been  made.  Thus,  the  Lon- 
don omnibus  company  objected  to  feed- 
ing corn  too  extensively,  for  the  reason 
that  the  percentage  of  disease  increased 
when  the  ration  consisted  largely  of 
corn.  The  horses  kept  fat  on  corn,  but 
the  muscular  system  was  apparently  not 
in  as  good  condition  and  veterinarians 
had  to  be  consulted  more  frequently. 
Some  of  the  Berlin  street  car  companies 
have  had  similar  results.  These  unfav- 
orable reports,  however,  come  from  feed- 
ing corn  too  exclusively.  Where  it  is 
properly  balanced  with  some  more  ni- 
trogenous grain,  no  bad  results  are  ob- 
served. Moreover,  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  thousands  of  mature  horses 
and  mules  are  fed  corn  as  the  only  grain, 
without  bad  effect,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  corn  is  not  only  safe,  but  a 
very  efficient  feed  when  used  with  the 
precautions  which  have  been  mentioned 
in  the  above  discussion. 

Cottonseed  meal — This  grain  is  not 
fed  as  extensively  to  horses  as  to  cat- 
tle; nevertheless,  it  is  universally  recog- 
nized as  a  valuable  horse  feed  and  is 
added  to  some  extent  to  nearly  all  ra- 
tions for  horses  in  the  southern  states 
and  in  other  localities  where  the  price 
is  not  too  high.  In  North  Carolina,  But- 
ler has  recommended  as  a  ration  for  a 
horse  at  light  work,  12  pounds  corn  fod- 
der, 2  pounds  cowpea  hay,  5  pounds  of 
corn,  and  1  pound  of  cottonseed  meal. 
For  horses  at  severe  work,  the  amount 
of  cowpea  hay  and  corn  is  to  be  doubled, 
while  the  cottonseed  meal  is  fed  in  ra- 
tions of  2  pounds.  Any  difficulty  ex- 
perienced in  getting  a  horse  to  eat  cot- 
tonseed meal,  when  he  is  not  accustomed 
to  it,  may  ordinarily  be  overcome  by 
mixing  corn  meal  and  cottonseed  meal. 
Cottonseed  meal  is  used  in  these  ra- 
tions to  supply  the  protein  for  repair  of 
worn  out  muscles  and  may  be  considered 
as  replacing  cowpea  hay  for  this  pur- 
pose. Tn  the  southern  states,  cottonseed 
meal  must  be  preferred  to  oats  and  bran, 
for  the  reason  that  it  is  considerably 
cheaper.  As  a  result  of  some  experience 
with  cottonseed  meal  in  feeding  brood- 
mares, Craig  advises  against  its  use  for 
this  purpose.  In  North  Carolina,  Emery 
found  cottonseed  meal  to  be  an  excel- 
lent feed  with  which  to  balance  rations. 

A  test  of  cottonseed  meal  for  horses 
in  New  Hampshire  gave  rather  unfavor- 


able results.  The  horses  were  not  well 
disposed  towards  the  cottonseed  meal 
and  sometimes  refused  to  eat  grain  mix- 
tures containing  it.  The  effect  on  the 
weight  of  the  horses,  however,  was  very 
satisfactory  in  all  cases  in  which  it  was 
eaten.  Good  results  have  also  been  re- 
ported from  the  use  of  cottonseed  meal 
for  horses  in  England,  Germany  and 
elsewhere  in  Europe.  In  North  Dakota, 
it  was  readily  eaten  by  horses  and  caused 
no  digestive  disturbances  or  loss  of  appe- 
tite. In  Louisiana,  it  is  fed  in  rations 
of  from  1  to  6  pounds,  with  an  average 
of  about  3  to  4  pounds.  The  maximum 
safe  ration  is  probably  6  pounds. 

Horse  chestnuts—According  to  Schil- 
ler, horse  chestnuts  are  extensively  fed  to 
borses  by  the  Turks,  without  any  inju- 
rious effects.  In  this  country,  they  are 
commonly  considered  poisonous  if  fed  in 
large  quantities,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
are  rarely  fed  to  any  farm  animals. 

Lupines — In  Europe,  the  seeds  of  va- 
rious kinds  of  lupines  are  fed  to  horses 
with  satisfactory  results  after  being  dis- 
embittered.  Nearly  all  lupines  contain 
a  poisonous  principle  which  must  first  be 
removed  in  order  to  make  them  a  safe 
feed.  In  the  western  states,  lupines 
cover  large  areas  and  are  cut  for  hay  to 
the  extent  of  thousands  of  tons.  This 
material,  even  when  it  contains  ripe 
seeds,  may  be  safely  fed  to  horses,  but  it 
is  probable  that  they  do  not  get  much 
of  the  seed  in  eating  the  hay;  at  any 
rate,  no  serious  losses  are  reported  in- 
horses  when  feeding  on  lupines. 

Rye  may  replace  one-third  of  the  oats 
in  the  grain  ration.  It  should  previously 
be  cooked  or  moistened.  If  infested  with 
ergot  it  may  cause  serious  disease  and 
therefore  shoidd  be  fed  sparingly  until 
it  is  demonstrated  that  the  grain  is  clean. 
Rye  weighs  more  per  bushel  than  oats, 
as  it  has  60  per  cent  less  husks,  but  also 
a  smaller  percentage  of  protein  than  oats. 
It  is,  therefore,  lower  in  nutritive  value, 
but  when  mixed  with  cut  hay  makes  a 
suitable  ration  for  horses.  In  France, 
the  cab  companies  have  always  fed  some 
rye,  especially  when  this  grain  was  cheap. 
Lavalard  tested  rye  in  experiments  with 
army  horses.  Rye  was  substituted  for 
oats  pound  for  pound  and  the  amount 
was  gradually  increased  until  the  horses 
maintained  a  constant  weight.  Lava- 
lard believes,  as  a  result  of  his  experi- 
ments, that  rye  varies  in  composition 
more  than  other  grains.  This  is  offered 
as  an  explanation  of  the  contradictory 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


317 


results  obtained  from  the  use  of  rye  as 
a  horse  feed  in  the  hands  of  different 
feeders.  As  a  rule,  when  rye  is  cooked 
before  feeding  it  gives  satisfactory  re- 
sults. It  may  be  fed  to  horses  with  oats 
in  the  proportion  of  1  to  2,  or  1  to  4.  In 
feeding  rye,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  it  has  a  constipating  effect  and,  for 
this  reason,  it  may  be  mixed  with  new 
corn  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
scouring  in  horses.  In  Germany,  rye 
screenings  containing  much  cockle  seed 
were  fed  to  horses  for  long  periods,  in 
rations  of  2  pounds  per  day,  without 
causing  any  bad  effect. 

Wheat — In  North  Dakota,  whole,  hard 
wheat  was  fed  to  horses  for  one  month, 
for  the  purpose  of  noting  its  effect.  The 
horses  easily  got  off  feed  and  in  some 
cases  the  digestion  was  much  deranged 
when  wheat  was  fed  as  the  only  grain 
ration.  A  considerable  percentage  of 
the  kernels  passed  through  the  digestive 
tract  unbroken,  and,  of  course,  undi- 
gested. The  wheat  appeared  to  exercise 
a  strongly  laxative  effect  upon  mules 
fed  at  the  same  time.  The  animals 
maintained  their  weight,  however,  on  a 
comparatively  small  amount  of  wheat. 
This  test  demonstrates  clearly,  however, 
that  it  is  not  advisable  to  feed  wheat 
alone  to  horses.  "Wheat  mixed  with  bran 
appeared  to  be  more  effective  for  horses 
than  whole  oats.  In  fact,  horses  kept 
on  a  ration  of  two  parts  ground  wheat 
and  one  part  bran,  did  hard  work  with- 
out losing  weight. 

"Wheat  is  ordinarily  too  expensive  for 
use  as  a  horse  feed,  but  fortunately,  dam- 
aged wheat  if  not  moldy,  is  as  good 
for  horses  as  high-grade  wheat,  as  it 
usually  contains  more  protein.  It  of- 
ten happens  that  frosted  wheat  can  be 
obtained  in  large  quantities  at  a  very 
small  price,  and  also  wheat  slightly 
scorched  in  elevator  fires.  As  is  well 
known,  many  horse  raisers  use  a  mix- 
ture of  oats  and  wheat  for  stallions, 
when  umisual  service  is  required  of 
them.  Wheat  has  been  found,  however, 
in  many  cases,  to  produce  an  irritation 
or  itching  of  the  skin,  somewhat  similar 
to  the  effect  caused  by  buckwheat, 

In  Sweden,  experiments  have  shown 
that  wheat  is  considerably  superior  to 
rye.  During  a  period  of  hard  work,  10 
pounds  a  day  may  be  given  with  oats. 
It  has  been  found  to  have  a  beneficial 
effect  in  building  up  the  muscles  of 
horses.  When  fed  in  large  quantities, 
however,  it  may  cause  digestive  disturb- 
ances and  other  troubles,  as  already  in- 


dicated. Experiments  with  wheat  in 
Denmark  have  also  shown  that  it  is  pref- 
erable to  rye  as  a  horse  feed,  when 
mixed  with  oats. 

Bran — Bran  nearly  always  constitutes 
a  part  of  horse  rations,  being  fed  in 
regular  quantities  daily,  or  at  short 
intervals  in  the  form  of  a  mash.  Not 
infrequently,  oats  are  high  priced  when 
bran  is  cheap.  Thus  the  Canadian  ex- 
periment station  reports  that  oats  are 
sometimes  as  high  as  $26  a  ton,  when 
bran  is  only  $15.  Under  such  condition 
there  is  an  evident  economy  in  sub- 
stituting bran  for  at  least  a  part  of  the 
oats.  A  number  of  experiments  were 
made  in  Canada  in  which  various  mix- 
tures of  oats  and  bran  were  fed  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  relative  cost 
of  different  rations.  It  was  found  that 
when  the  grain  ration  consisted  of  two 
parts  bran  and  one  part  oats,  a  sav- 
ing of  $19.50  was  made  in  the  ration  of 
each  horse  per  year;  while  when  linseed 
meal  was  fed  at  the  rate  of  one  part  to 
ten  parts  of  oats,  the  cost  was  greater 
than  on  an  exclusive  ration  of  oats. 

In  New  Hampshire,  a  ration,  contain- 
ing 7  pounds  of  bran  was  most  relished 
by  the  horses.  Feeding  too  large  a  quan- 
tity of  bran,  however,  seemed  to  make 
the  animals  soft  and  inclined  to  perspire 
freely.  The  weight  of  the  horses  was 
maintained  uniformly  on  rations  con- 
taining bran,  and  these  rations  proved 
wholesome,  palatable,  and  moderate  in 
cost.  As  a  result  of  numerous  experi- 
ments with  bran,  it  has  been  conclusively 
shown  that  bran  may  be  substituted  for 
oats  in  the  horses'  rations,  either  in  sum- 
mer or  winter.  Some  of  the  most  exten- 
sive experiments  with  bran  have  been 
made  in  North  Dakota. 

In  a  test  in  which  oats  were  compared 
with  bran,  prairie  hay  was  fed  as  a  rough 
forage.  The  horses  which  received  bran 
and  shorts  worked  longer  hours  than 
those  which  were  fed  on  oats.  The  oat- 
fed  lot  consumed  420  pounds  of  grain 
per  head,  while  the  horses  maintained  on 
bran  and  shorts  received  only  372  pounds 
of  grain  per  head,  in  a  feeding  period  of 
one  month.  The  comparison  of  these 
grain  feeds  was  continued,  reversing  the 
rations  in  the  two  lots  of  horses.  The 
summary  of  the  results  obtained  from 
these  experiments  shows  little  difference 
in  the  two  rations. 

Horse  bread—Bread  is  fed  to  horses 
prepared  from  rye,  wheat  and  buck- 
wheat flour,   and  corn  meal  and  other 


318 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


meals.  Horse  bread,  however,  is  us- 
ually not  prepared  simply  from  a  flour 
or  meal,  but  is  mixed  with  other  ma- 
terials. A  horse  bread,  which  is  ex- 
tensively fed  in  Norway,  is  prepared 
from  skim  milk  and  ground  oats.  The 
bread  was  relished  by  the  horses  and  did 
not  cause  constipation,  even  when  fed  m 
large  quantities.  It  is  lighter  than  oats 
bulk  for  bulk  and  owing  to  its  mechani- 
cal condition,  it  is  eaten  up  perfectly 
clean.  Horse  bread  made  in  a  similar 
manner  has  been  endorsed  by  Swedish 
authorities  as  a  nutritious  and  palatable 
horse  feed,  capable  of  entirely  replacing 
oats. 

Brewers'  grains — The  most  extensive 
work  on  brewers'  grains  for  horses  has 
been  done  at  the  New  Jersey  experiment 
station.  This  work  was  undertaken 
partly  to  learn  whether  brewers'  grains 
could  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  oats. 
Since  oats  are  frequently  too  expensive, 
the  importance  of  determining  the  avail- 
ability of  other  materials  in  the  place  of 
oats  is  sufficiently  apparent.  In  the 
experiments  in  question,  brewers'  grains 
were  fed  dry  to  a  large  number  of  horses, 
on  the  basis  of  a  substitution  for  oats, 
pound  for  pound.  The  material  was 
eaten  with  relish  by  the  horses,  except 
in  a  very  few  cases.  The  horses  varied 
in  age  from  six  to  10  years,  and  the 
brewers'  grains  were  fed  in  rations  of 
8  pounds  a  day,  as  compared  with  the" 
same  quantity  of  oats  for  three  months. 
The  oats  appeared  to  be  more  satisfac- 
tory than  dried  brewers'  grains.  In  a 
second  feeding  test  the  horse  on  brew- 
ers' grains  gained  considerably  more 
than  those  on  the  oats  ration. 

It  appears  from  these  experiments  that 
both  dried  brewers'  grains  and  oats,  when 
fed  in  rations  of  8  pounds  together  with 
6  pounds  of  hay,  2  pounds  of  bran  and 
4  pounds  of  corn,  furnished  more  nutri- 
ment than  was  sufficient  to  maintain  tho 
weight  of  horses  under  an  average 
amount  of  work.  On  the  whole,  it  seems 
that  dried  brewers'  grains  are  equally  as 
efficient  as  oats  in  a  ration  for  work 
horses.  A  careful  study  of  the  composi- 
tion and  digestibility  of  brewers'  grains 
showed  that  they  furnish  more  valuable 
digestible  nutriment  than  oats.  The 
only  practical  question  remaining  for 
the  feeder,  therefore,  is  whether  it  will 
pay,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  to 
substitute  brewers'  grains  for  oats.  Dur- 
ing the  time  of  the  experiment,  bran  cost 
$22  per  ton;   corn  $22;   oats  $30;   and 


dried  brewers'  grains  $18.  On  the  oat 
ration  the  cost  per  horse  per  day  was  24 
cents  and  on  the  ration  of  dried  brewers' 
grains  19  cents,  thus  showing  a  saving 
of  5  cents  a  day  in  favor  of  the  brewers' 
grains. 

The  cost  of  brewers'  grains  in  carload 
lots  is  about  $16  in  the  summer  and 
$18  in  the  winter  and  spring  months, 
and  the  freightage  need  not  be  more  than 
$2  in  excess  of  this  sum  On  the  basis 
of  the  experiment  just  recorded,  brewers' 
grains,  even  at  $24  per  ton,  would  be 
as  cheap  as  oats  at  36  cents  per  bushel, 
and,  as  stated  by  Voorhees  in  his  sum 
mary  of  the  experiment,  an  increase  of 
$1  per  ton  on  the  brewers'  grains  would 
be  balanced  by  an  increase  of  IV2  cents 
per  bushel  for  oats.  If  the  farmer  is  lo- 
cated conveniently  to  a  brewery,  the 
grains  may  be  purchased  wet  and  fed  in 
that  condition.  Wet  brewers'  grains, 
however,  are  not  as  desirable  for  horses 
as  for  milch  cows.  As  a  rule,  4  pounds 
of  wet  brewers'  grains  are  equal  to  1 
pound  after  drying. 

Distillery  dried  grains — The  Indiana 
experiment  station  carried  on  an  ex- 
periment with  distillery  dried  grains, 
known  as  "Biles  Fourex,"  with  a  manu- 
facturer's guarantee  of  33  per  cent  pro- 
tein. They  were  tested  on  four  mares 
of  medium  size  on  the  station  farm, 
maintained  at  work  of  varied  severity. 
One  team  received  dried  distillery  grains 
for  four  weeks  and  at  the  end  of  this 
period  the  other  team  was  given  the 
grains  and  oats  were  substituted  in  the 
ration  of  the  first  team.  Two  of  the  mares 
did  not  eat  the  grain  with  relish  at  any 
part  of  the  experiment,  and  on  some  days 
absolutely  refused  to  eat  it  at  all;  the 
other  two  ate  the  distillery  grains  with 
less  aversion,  but  only  in  moderate 
amounts.  The  two  animals  which  evi- 
dently did  not  like  the  distillery  grains 
ate  not  more  than  10  pounds  a  week, 
while  the  other  two  consumed  from  42 
to  50  pounds  per  week.  As  a  result  of 
this  experiment,  it  is  obvious  that  dried 
distillery  grains  do  not  furnish  a  satis- 
factory addition  to  the  list  of  concen- 
trated feeds  for  horses. 

Linseed  meal — Linseed  meal  may  be 
fed  to  horses  to  the  extent  of  4  pounds 
per  day  without  any  injurious  effects. 
In  New  Hampshire,  it  was  found  that  a 
ration  containing  4  pounds  of  linseed 
meal,  together  with  10  pounds  of  hay  and 
8  pounds  of  corn  was  of  great  effective- 
ness.   As  a  ride,  however,  horses  will  not 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


319 


eat  4  pounds  of  linseed  meal  per  day, 
for  long  periods  with  relish.  It  is,  per- 
haps, best  to  begin  the  linseed  meal  ration 
in  smaller  quantities  and  gradually  work 
up  to  the  maximum  amount.  In  ordi- 
nary cases  2  pounds  of  linseed  meal  and 
2  pounds  of  bran  is  perhaps  better  than 
4  pounds  of  linseed  meal.  Burkett  found 
that  horses  suddenly  changed  from  a 
linseed  meal  ration  to  quite  different  ra- 
tions, containing  no  linseed  meal,  did  not 
lose  in  weight. 

Stewart  used  flaxseed  in  small  rations 
in  feeding  colts  intended  for  fast  work, 
and  obtained  satisfactory  results.  The 
colt  was  kept  in  a  fine  condition;  the 
skin  was  clean,  the  bowels  free  and  an 
even  development  of  the  muscles  of  the 
limbs  and  of  the  whole  body  was  ob- 
tained. Flaxseed  has  a  laxative  effect 
and  mixed  with  oats  is  a  most  desirable 
supplemental  feed  in  derangements  of 
the  digestion.  It  should  be  cooked  into 
a  pasty  mass  and  then  mixed  with  other 
feed. 

Whole  vs.  ground  grain_On  account 
of  the  small  size  of  the  horse's  stomach, 
and  on  account  of  the  further  fact  that 
horses  sometimes  fail  to  digest  their  feed 
as  thoroughly  as  ruminants  do,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  know  the  value  of  any  pre- 
liminary treatment  of  feed  before  giving 
it  to  horses.  In  general,  it  is  stated  that 
the  horse's  stomach  will  hold  about  S1/^ 
gallons,  and  on  this  basis  many  recom- 
mendations have  been  made  regarding  a 
feed  of  small  rations  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, rather  than  large  amounts  in  the 
morning  and  evening  only. 

One  of  the  most  common  ways  in 
which  grain  can  be  changed  before  feed- 
ing it  is  grinding,  and  the  question  is 
frequently  asked  whether  grinding  pays. 
It  may  be  stated  that  for  nearly  all 
animals,  the  grinding  of  grains  has  been 
found  to  increase  their  digestibility 
somewhat.  The  increased  effectiveness 
of  ground  grains,  however,  may  not  be 
enough  to  pay  for  grinding  unless  the 
farmer  is  conveniently  located  near  a 
mill,  or  has  a  feed  grinder  on  his  place. 

In  a  test  of  grinding,  carried  on  at  the 
Utah  experiment  station  by  Sanborn,  it 
was  found  that  whole  grain  was  as  ef- 
fective for  horses  as  ground  grain,  and 
since  in  his  experiments  it  was  found  that 
ground  grain  would  have  to  be  15  to  20 
per  cent  more  effective  than  whole  grain 
to  pay  for  the  cost  of  grinding,  it  must 
obviously  be  considered  of  doubtful  pro- 
priety to  incur  this  extra  expense. 

Whole  grain  was  also  compared  with 


ground  grain  by  Wilson  and  Curtiss  at 
the  Iowa  experiment  station.  The  grain 
throughout  the  feeding  experiment  was 
mixed  in  a  proportion  of  150  pounds  of 
oats,  50  pounds  of  shelled  corn,  25 
pounds  of  barley  bran,  and  25  pounds  of 
linseed  meal.  One  lot  of  colts  received 
ground  grain  and  oats  while  the  other 
received  their  grain  whole.  The  greater 
gains  in  weight  were  made  from  the 
ground  grain.  The  difference,  however, 
was  not  sufficiently  decided  to  form  a 
basis  for  a  recommendation  in  favor  of 
grinding  grain. 

In  the  Iowa  experiments  it  was  found 
that  colts  required  T1^  pounds  of  grain 
and  13  pounds  of  hay  to  make  1  pound 
of  gain;  and  while  the  effectiveness  of 
feed  is  based  on  a  consideration  of  gain 
in  weight  produced  in  the  colts,  as  is 
done  in  the  case  of  other  animals,  the 
value  of  grinding  grain  may  be  some- 
what larger  than  is  usually  stated. 
Throughout  the  corn  belt,  this  grain  is 
almost  universally  fed  to  horses  without 
previous  grinding,  either  in  the  form  of 
shelled  corn  or  on  the  cob.  The  amount 
of  corn  which  passes  through  the  intes- 
tines undigested  is  very  small  in  the 
case  of  animals  with  good  teeth.  In  old 
age,  or  during  the  period  when  the  per- 
manent teeth  are  replacing  the  milk 
teeth,  just  before  the  animals  reach  ma- 
turity, it  is  obviously  desirable  to  grind 
or  otherwise  soften  the  grain  in  order  to 
increase  its  digestibility.  In  general 
barley  and  wheat  appear  to  be  improved 
by  grinding,  and  the  same  may  be  said 
for  screenings  and  kafir  corn.  In  the 
latter  case,  however,  this  is  obviously  dur 
in  part,  to  the  small  size  of  the  seed. 

Buckwheat—This  grain  is  not  ex- 
tensively used  for  a  horse  feed.  Accord- 
ing to  the  experiments  of  Girard,  about 
27  per  cent  of  the  kernels  of  buckwheat 
pass  through  horses  without  being  di- 
gested. This  indicates  the  desirability  of 
cracking  or  grinding  buckwheat  before 
feeding.  There  is  an  objection  to  the 
use  of  buckwheat  on  an  extensive  scale 
in  feeding  horses  or  other  animals,  in 
that  it  contains  an  active  principle, 
which  produces  more  or  less  poisonous 
effects.  These  bad  effects  are  avoided, 
according  to  Russian  experience,  by 
roasting  the  grain  before  feeding. 

The  injurious  effects  of  buckwheat  ap- 
pear when  it  is  fed  for  long  periods.  The 
symptoms  of  poisoning  which  are  ob- 
served    include     congestion     about    the 


320 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


head,  some  delirium,  and  finally  consid- 
erable swelling  of  the  head,  with  erup- 
tions on  the  skin.  The  maximum  safe 
ration  of  buckwheat  for  horses  and  mules 
ranges  from  4  to  6  pounds.  It  may  be 
substituted  to  this  extent,  pound  for 
pound,  for  oats.  Buckwheat  is  very  use- 
ful for  fattening  horses  for  sale  and  in 
England  is  extensively  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, since  it  makes  very  rapid  gains.  In 
the  French  army  buckwheat  is  allowed  as 
a  substitute  for  oats,  pound  for  pound, 
to  the  extent  of  one-quarter  of  the  grain 
ration.  The  regulations  of  the  German 
army  permit  the  use  of  buckwheat  as  a 
horse  feed  in  small  quantities. 

Rice — This  grain  has  recently  assumed 
considerable  importance  in  this  country 
on  account  of  its  extensive  cultivation  in 
Texas,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  and  else- 
where. Rice  bran,  rice  polish  and  other 
milling  products  have  been  fed  to  farm 
animals,  including  horses.  The  experi- 
ments thus  far  conducted  with  horses, 
however,  are  not  sufficient  to  permit  of  a 
general  conclusion  regarding  the  value 
of  this  material.  Rice  hulls  are  some- 
what objectionable  on  account  of  their 
irritating  effect,  due  to  their  sharp 
points.  The  milling  products  of  rice 
have  been  found  useful  in  mixtures  of 
other  meals  for  the  production  of  horse 
bread,  in  France  and  other  European 
countries. 

Beans — Lavalard  carried  on  quite  ex- 
tensive experiments  with  beans  in  con- 
nection with  horses  owned  by  cab  com- 
panies, and  with  army  horses.  It  was 
found  that  when  beans  were  used  to  re- 
place oats  in  the  horse  ration,  only  one- 
half  the  quantity  should  be  used.  Beans 
may  be  advantageously  fed  to  horses 
when  required  to  perform  long-contin- 
ued, sudden  or  severe  labor.  In  Eng- 
land the  idea  prevails  that  the  feeding 
of  beans  adds  greatly  to  the  endurance 
of  hunting  horses.  Moreover,  in  the  chief 
racing  stables,  a  moderate  sized  ration 
of  beans  is  usually  added.  As  a  rule, 
beans  should  not  be  fed  in  larger  quan- 
tities than  1  to  2  pounds,  and  then  for 
the  purpose  or  replacing  from  2  to  4 
pounds  of  oats  in  a  ration. 

All  varieties  of  beans  are  fed  to  horses 
in  common  practice  and  good  results 
have  been  obtained  in  nearly  all  cases. 
Beans  may  prove  injurious  to  horses 
with  thick  wind  or  in  animals  which  arc 
especially  susceptible  to  founder.  Fresh 
horse  beans  sometimes  cause  colic.  On 
this  account,  they  should  be  fed  cracked 


and  it  is  usually  recommended  that  they 
be  held  over  for  a  year  or  so  before  feed- 
ing. Girard  found  that  horse  beans  are 
very  readily  digested.  French  experi- 
ments, carried  on  for  a  period  of  six 
years,  and  based  on  more  than  1,600 
horses,  show  that  beans  constitute  a  very 
effective  means  of  increasing  the  energy 
and  capacity  of  work  horses.  No  special 
precautions  seem  to  be  necessary  in  feed- 
ing beans  except  those  which  have  al- 
ready been  mentioned,  namely,  that  the 
daily  ration  should  be  small  and  that  the 
beans  should  be  cracked,  ground  or 
soaked  before  feeding. 

Vetches — Vetches  may  also  be  used  as 
a  horse  feed  in  replacing  oats,  at  a  rate 
of  four  parts  by  weight  for  10  parts  of 
oats.  Vetch  seed  should  not  be  added  to 
horse  rations  in  larger  quantities  than 
about  2  pounds. 

Lentils — These  are  often  fed  to  horses 
in  Europe,  especially  if  the  seed  has 
been  injured  in  any  way  so  as  to  ren- 
der it  unfit  for  human  food.  Along  the 
Mediterranean,  lentils  are  often  fed  to 
mules.  This  grain,  however,  frequently 
causes  colic  if  fed  in  large  quantities. 
On  this  account,  horses  and  mules  should 
gradually  be  accustomed  to  it,  and  the 
ration  should  not  be  larger  than  2 
pounds. 

Peas — Peas  constitute  an  excellent 
horse  feed.  They  are  practically  equal 
to  beans  in  feeding  value.  Peas  some- 
times exercise  a  slightly  constipating  ef- 
fect. Stewart  found  that  a  ration  con- 
taining eight  parts  of  peas,  eight  parts 
grain  and  one  part  of  flaxseed,  the  whole 
being  ground  together  gave  excellent 
results  with  work  horses.  Peas  are  ex- 
tensively fed  to  the  street  car  horses  in 
Europe  and  in  Canada.  Stewart  fed 
pea  meal  to  the  extent  of  16  pounds  a 
day,  mixed  with  1  bushel  of  cut  hay. 

Soy  beans — This  bean  is  gradually  at- 
tracting much  attention  in  the  South, 
on  account  of  its  high  feeding  value. 
The  beans,  as  well  as  the  hay,  have  been 
fed  more  extensively  to  cattle  and  hogs 
than  to  horses,  but  they  may  be  fed  to 
horses  in  rations  similar  to  those  rec- 
ommended for  horse  beans  and  other  va- 
rieties of  beans,  namely  about  2  pounds. 
A  black  variety  of  soy  bean  has  been 
found  most  useful  for  horses  in  experi- 
ments in  France.  This  bean  has  also 
been  used  as  a  horse  feed  in  Japan  and 
elsewhere. 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


321 


Cowpeas — The  cowpea  is  another  legu- 
minous grain,  which  may  be  used  in 
horse  rations  in  the  same  way  as  soy 
beans  and  other  beans.  The  size  of  the 
ration,  like  that  of  beans,  should  not  ex- 
ceed about  2  pounds. 

Flat  pea — This  legume,  while  showing 
a  high  protein  content,  according  to  its 
chemical  analysis,  must  generally  be  re- 
jected as  a  horse  feed  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  it  is  somewhat  poisonous.  Its 
poisonous  principle  exercises  its  effect 
whether  the  pea  is  fed  whole  or  ground, 
and  mixed  with  oats  or  other  grain  feeds. 

Carob  bean — The  carob  bean  at  pres 
ent  has  but  little  consequence  as  a  horse 
feed  in  this  country,  for  the  reason 
that  it  is  scarcely  available  in  quantities 
worthy  of  mention.  Wherever  it  has 
been  used,  however,  it  has  been  found  to 
be  a  valuable  horse  feed  on  account  o± 
the  large  amount  of  sugar  and  other  car- 
bohydrates it  contains.  When  carob 
beans  have  been  substituted  for  oats, 
pound  for  pound,  to  the  extent  of  2 
pounds  in  the  daily  ration,  considerable 
economy  in  the  cost  of  feeding  has  been 
accomplished. 

A  number  of  rations  containing  this 
bean  have  been  suggested  by  French  in- 
vestigators as  suitable  for  horses  and 
mules  at  hard  work.  Two  or  three  of 
these  rations  may  be  here  cited :  Oats,  4  to 
6  pounds;  carob  beans,  10  to  15  pounds; 
barley  meal,  2  to  4  pounds;  clover  hay, 
12  to  14  pounds.  Carob  beans,  10  to  12 
pounds ;  hay,  20  pounds ;  bran,  10  pounds. 
Carob  beans,  12  pounds;  bran  or  barley 
meal,  8  pounds;  clover  hay,  14  pounds. 
The  continued  use  of  carob  beans  some- 
times causes  an  irritation  or  obstruction 
of  the  esophagus  and,  for  this  reason, 
it  is  best  that  they  should  be  cracked, 
ground  or  moistened  with  hot  water  be- 
fore feeding. 

Millet — According  to  the  experience 
of  Stewart,  millet  is  a  highly  nutritious 
food  for  colts  or  mature  horses.  It  ap- 
pears to  contain  a  larger  amount  of  nu- 
triment than  oats,  but  somewhat  less  oil. 
It  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  develop- 
ment of  muscular  strength,  when  well 
ground ;  but  it  is  recommended  by  Stew- 
art that  it  never  be  fed  without  grind- 
ing. A  number  of  varieties  of  millet 
have  been  fed  to  horses  in  small  quan- 
tities and  usually  with  good  results.  On 
the  basis  of  these  experiments,  it  is  con- 
sidered as  about  equal  to  kafir  corn.  Mil- 
let hay  is  also  recommended  by  French 


feeders  who  have  used  it.  This  ma- 
terial has  also  been  used  quite  exten- 
sively in  the  Soudan  and  in  various 
English  colonies. 

Kafir  corn — Kafir  corn  is  about  equal 
to  corn  in  composition.  Naturally  it 
has  not  been  fed  extensively  to  farm 
animals,  except  in  the  Southwest,  where 
it  is  grown  on  a  large  scale.  In  Okla- 
homa, kafir  corn  has  been  fed  to  horses 
and  mules  with  good  results.  It  appears 
not  to  be  quite  so  well  relished  by  horses 
as  corn,  but  it  is  considered  to  be  a  safe, 
economical  and  valuable  feed.  It  may 
be  used  to  occupy  the  same  place  in  a 
ration  as  corn,  or  in  other  words,  may  be 
fed  in  rations  of  6  to  10  pounds  to  bal- 
ance an  equal  amount  of  oats  or  other 
more  nitrogenous  grains. 

HAY  AND  COARSE  FORAGE 

Alfalfa  has  been  extensively  tested  as 
a  horse  feed  in  the  United  States  and  in 
nearly  all  foreign  countries.  In  addition 
to  the  many  careful  experiments  which 
we  have  on  record  with  reference  to  it, 
we  should  also  remember  the  vast  ex- 
perience which  has  been  had  by  farmers 
who  use  it  as  the  chief  hay  or  coarse 
forage  for  horses  and  mules.  At  the 
present  time,  this,  of  course,  is  particu- 
larly true  for  the  western  states,  where 
alfalfa  is  the  most  important  hay.  When 
fed  to  brood  mares  it  produces  fine  re- 
sults and  shows  no  bad  effects  on  either 
the  mares  or  foals.  In  Oklahoma,  al- 
falfa is  considered  the  best  hay  for 
horses,  although  other  common  legumes 
are  frequently  used  for  this  purpose  with 
good  results.  It  is  sometimes  accused  of 
causing  heaves  and  bloody  urine.  Alfalfa 
may  cause  heaves,  as  is  true  of  clover, 
when  the  hay  is  moldy  or  otherwise  im- 
properly cured. 

As  to  the  possibility  of  alfalfa  causing 
bloody  urine,  such  an  effect  is  exceeding 
rare,  if  indeed  it  ever  occurs.  This 
statement  is  based  on  the  experience  of 
hundreds  of  farmers  who  use  alfalfa  as 
the  almost  exclusive  feed  of  young 
horses.  For  instance,  in  Utah,  many 
horses  are  reared  to  maturity  with  prac- 
tically no  oth&*  feed  than  alfalfa.  If 
this  plant  had  the  effect  of  irritating  the 
kidneys  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause 
bloody  urine,  it  is  quite  impossible  that 
such  horses  should  reach  maturity  in  a 
good  condition.  A  careful  experiment 
was  instituted  by  Merrill,  in  which  the 
relative  feeding  value  of  alfalfa  and 
timothy  was  tested,  together  with  various 


322 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


points  on  the  practicability  and  economy 
of  reducing  the  amount  of  fodder  fed  to 
horses,  the  use  of  alfalfa  alone  as  a 
maintenance  ration  for  horses  at  rest  and 
at  work,  and  the  effect  upon  the  kidneys, 
of  alfalfa,  cut  at  early,  medium  and  late 
stages. 

The  experiments  showed  clearly  that  it 
is  easier  to  maintain  the  weights  of 
horses  on  alfalfa  than  on  timothy;  the 
cost  of  maintenance  also  appears  to  be 
less.  The  general  appearance  of  the 
horses  was,  in  every  case,  somewhat  in 
favor  of  the  alfalfa.  When  alfalfa  and 
timothy  were  fed  ad  libitum,  a  larger 
quantity  of  the  alfalfa  was  eaten,  appar- 
ently for  the  reason  that  it  was  better 
relished  by  the  horses.  It  was  found,  in 
these  experiments,  that  attacks  of  colic 
may  be  easily  prevented  by  a  suitable 
system  of  feeding.  It  was  suggested,  for 
example,  that  the  amount  of  alfalfa  hay 
commonly  fed  may  be  reduced  to  the  ex- 
tent of  one-half  and  grain  substituted 
for  this  hay.  That  colic  may  be  caused 
by  the  use  of  too  much  coarse  hay  has 
been  shown  in  innumerable  instances,  es- 
pecially where  horses  have  been  allowed 
to  eat  large  quantities  of  hay  immedi- 
ately before  going  to  work.  If  alfalfa 
hay  is  fed  ad  libitum,  horses  will  eat  as 
much  as  45  pounds  per  day;  but  20 
pounds  give  far  better  results,"  if  a  small 
amount  of  grain  is  added  to  the  ration. 

The  use  of  alfalfa  hay  appears  to  cause 
a  greater  consumption  of  water  by  the 
horses  and  consequently  an  increased 
amount  of  urine.  No  evidence  has  been 
obtained,  however,  that  this  increased 
excretion  of  urine  is  in  any  way  detri- 
mental to  the  health  of  the  horse.  At 
the  Utah  experiment  station,  alfalfa  has 
formed  the  only  coarse  forage  in  a  ra- 
tion for  all  horses  for  the  past  15  years. 
During  this  time  no  horse  has  died  from 
the  direct  or  indirect  effects  of  feeding 
alfalfa.  Moreover,  no  injurious  effects 
have  been  noted,  as  a  result  of  excessive 
urination. 

On  account  of  the  fact  that  through- 
out many  of  the  far  western  states,  al- 
falfa hay,  with  perhaps  indefinite  quan- 
tities of  straw,  constitutes  the  mainten- 
ance ration  of  horses  during  the  winter 
or  at  periods  when  they  are  not  at  work, 
it  is  desirable  to  determine  the  amount 
of  alfalfa  hay  required  for  maintenance 
ration  at  rest  and  for  light  work.  Ac- 
cording to  experiments  at  the  Wyoming 
station,  it  was  found  that  14.3  pounds  of 
alfalfa  hay  per  day  was  enough  for 
maintenance   when   the   horses   were   at 


liberty  to  eat  straw  at  a  stack.  In  other 
cases,  only  13.5  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay 
were  required,  together  with  2.5  pounds 
of  oat  straw.  Estimated  on  a  basis  of 
1.000  pounds  live  weight,  horses  ap- 
pear to  require  about  121/2  pounds  of  al- 
falfa hay  and  2  pounds  of  oat  straw  for 
maintenance.  As  already  indicated, 
similar  experiments  were  made  in  Utah, 
with  the  result  that  32  pounds  of  alfalfa 
hay  were  found  to  be  sufficient  for  a 
team  at  light  work. 

Brome  hay  in  tests  at  the  North  Da- 
kota experiment  station  proved  to  be 
equal,  or  in  some  cases  slightly  superior 
to  timothy.  It  starts  early  in  the  spring 
and  therefore  forms  a  pasture  which  is 
greatly  relished  by  horses  as  well  as 
other  animals.  It  also  stands  dry 
weather  better  than  timothy,  and  for 
this  reason  is  adapted  for  use  in  the 
western  states,  where  the  rainfall  is 
comparatively  low.  In  experiments  with 
brome  grass  in  North  Dakota,  this  hay 
was  fed  for  a  period  of  42  days.  The 
horses  ate  the  brome  grass  with  appar- 
ently greater  relish  than  they  did  the 
timothy. 

Beggar  weed  hay — In  some  parts  of 
the  South,  particularly  in  Florida,  beg- 
gar weed  hay  is  used  as  a  coarse  forage 
for  horses  and  other  animals.  In  a  se- 
ries of  feeding  experiments,  carried  on 
in  Florida,  beggar  weed  hay  gave  excel- 
lent results.  It  apparently  has  about 
the  same  feeding  value  as  cowpea  hay 
and  should  preferably  be  run  through  a 
shredder  before  feeding. 

Clover  hay  throughout  the  eastern 
states,  and  wherever  clover  is  raised  on 
a  large  scale,  constitutes  one  of  the  im- 
portant coarse  fodders  for  horses.  Clover 
hay  has  been  found  to  be  more  nutritious 
than  timothy,  nearly  equaling  alfalfa 
in  this  respect.  It  is  objected  to,  how- 
ever, by  many  horsemen,  particularly  for 
feeding  roadsters,  on  account  of  its  tend- 
ency to  produce  heaves  and  other  res- 
piratory troubles,  when  fed  in  a  dusty 
or  otherwise  unclean  condition.  These 
objections  do  not  apply  to  clean,  properly 
cured  clover  hay  and  there  seems  to  be 
no  good  reason  why  it  should  not  be  fed 
extensively,  if  preserved  in  good  condi- 
tion. Moldy  clover  hay  may  cause 
acute  indigestion  or  even  death.  The 
cause  of  death  in  such  cases  is  the  path- 
ogenic mold,  which  may  attack  the  intes- 
tines and  also  the  lungs,  if  carried  into 
those     organs    with    the     inspired     air. 


HOBSES  AND  MULES 


323 


Moldy  clover  may  also  affect  the  kid- 
neys and  liver  in  an  injurious  manner, 
according  to  the  investigations  of 
Bansse.  The  second  crop  of  clover  is 
frequently  accused  of  a  tendency  to 
cause  horses  to  slobber.  The  reason  for 
this  is  not  known.  Some  horse  raisers 
have  found  that  the  addition  of  bran  or 
apples  to  the  ration  has  a  tendency  to 
prevent  slobbering  when  it  is  caused  by 
eating  clover  hay. 

Cutting  hay — The  practice  of  cutting 
hay  for  horses  has  long  been  recom- 
mended, and  is  quite  generally  adopted 
by  farmers.  The  use  of  cut  hay  on  the 
farm  has  followed  its  successful  use  by 
companies  which  use  large  numbers  of 
horses.  The  ordinary  reason  offered  for 
the  practice  of  cutting  hay  is  that  the 
work  of  mastication  is  somewhat  light- 
ened and  that  digestion  takes  place  more 
rapidly,  with  less  likelihood  of  the  devel- 
opment of  colic.  The  last  point  has  been 
found  to  be  an  important  one  in  con- 
nection with  the  morning  and  noon 
meals  of  the  horse,  or  in  feeding  at  any 
time  just  previous  to  putting  the  horse 
to  work.  At  such  times,  the  use  of  un- 
cut hay,  especially  if  fed  in  large  quan- 
tities, appears  to  be  more  likely  to  cause 
colic  than  if  cut  hay  is  fed. 

In  a  comparison  of  cut  and  uncut 
clover  hay  in  Utah,  it  was  found  that 
the  process  of  cutting  was  to  be  recom- 
mended, from  an  economic  standpoint, 
s:nce  the  nutritive  value  of  the  clover 
was  thereby  decidedly  increased.  If  the 
stems  are  too  dry  and  brittle,  they  may 
irritate  the  horse's  mouth  and  this  is 
about  the  only  objection  which  can  bf 
raised  to  cutting  the  hay.  Such  troubles, 
however,  very  rarely  occur,  and  may  be 
obviated  by  moistening  the  hay  before 
feeding.  The  practice  of  moistening 
clover  hay  may  also  be  advantageous,  for 
the  reason  that  the  dust  will  thus  be 
prevented  from  entering  the  lungs  and 
exercising  any  irritating  effect  upon 
them.  The  supposition  that  clover  hay 
causes  horses  to  sweat  more  freely  than 
timothy  and  that  it  produces  softer  flesh 
seems  to  be  without  good  foundation.  On 
account  of  the  greater  protein  content  in 
clover  hay,  as  compared  with  timothy,  it 
forms  a  well  balanced  ration  with  corn, 
and  thus  we  may  prepare  a  very  simple 
ration  for  horses  on  the  farm. 

According  to  French  experience,  the 
greatest  amount  of  nutriment,  in  the 
best  condition,  is  obtained  from  clover 
hay,  when  it  is  cut  just  at  the  beginning 
of  the  flowering  period.    The  digestibility 


of  the  protein,  however,  may  be  at  the 
maximum,  during  the  period  of  full 
flower.  Statistics  furnished  by  the  Paris 
cab  companies  indicate  that  the  extensive 
use  of  clover  increases  the  percentage  of 
colic  among  horses.  Clover  in  the  form 
of  silage,  prepared  in  regular  silos,  or  in 
stacks,  may  also  be  fed  to  horses  under 
the  same  precautions  that  are  desirable 
in  feeding  hay. 

Corn  silage  has  not  been  fed  to  horses 
as  extensively  as  to  cows  and  sheep,  but 
when  preserved  in  good  condition  may 
be  used  for  the  purpose  of  adding  succu- 
lence to  the  ration.  Tne  desirability  of 
keeping  a  close  watch  on  the  condition  of 
the  silage  for  feeding  to  horses  is  evident 
from  the  fact  that,  in  Pennsylvania,  sev- 
eral cases  of  poisoning  of  horses  from 
eating  moldy  silage  have  been  noted. 
These  cases  occurred,  however,  from 
feeding  the  spoiled  silage  from  the  top  of 
the  silo;  and  this  material  should  not 
be  fed  to  any  farm  animal.  In  the  cases 
in  question,  a  paralysis  occurred,  begin- 
ning with  the  throat  and  gradually  ex- 
tending over  the  rest  of  the  body.  Ex- 
periments with  the  poisonous  silage 
showed  that  half  a  bushel  would  cause 
well  marked  symptoms,  or  death. 

In  Ohio,  as  high  as  30  pounds  per  day 
of  silage  have  been  fed,  with  good  re- 
sults; but  in  winter  some  difficulty  was 
experienced  in  using  this  material  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  it  easily  becomes 
frozen.  In  Canada,  rations  of  10  pounds 
per  day  of  silage  were  fed  to  horses.  It 
was  eaten  with  apparent  relish  and  no 
bad  effects  were  observed.  The  silage, 
however,  did  not  appear  to  replace  any 
appreciable  quantity  of  the  grain  ration, 
and  was  for  the  most  part  an  added 
expense  rather  than  an  economy.  In 
fattening  horses,  however,  good  results 
were  obtained  from  feeding  5  to  8  pounds 
of  silage  per  day,  in  that  it  seemed  to 
prevent  digestive  troubles.  Silage  in 
good  condition,  not  musty  nor  improp- 
erly fermented,  may  be  safely  and  ad- 
vantageously fed  in  rations  of  from  10 
to  15  pounds.  Fletcher  fed  a  bushel  a  day 
without,  harm,  and  with  excellent  re- 
sults. Stewart  found  that  roots  in 
horses'  rations  may  be  replaced  by  silage. 
ISTot  only  corn  may  be  ensiled  and  fed  in 
this  form  to  horses,  but  good  results  are 
also  obtained  from  the  use  of  ensiled 
grasses  and  clover  which  may  properly 
form  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of 
the  ration  for  horses  at  light  work. 

Tn  Virginia,  it  was  found  that  silage 
could  be  advantageously  fed  to 


324 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LITE  STOCK 


As  a  rule  it  is  best  to  begin  witb  small 
rations  until  tbe  palatability  and  whole- 
someness  of  the  feed  are  thoroughly  es 
tablished.  Silage  makes  a  good  coarse 
forage  for  horses,  when  used  in  connec- 
tion with  hay,  corn  stover,  or  grain.  Af- 
ter horses  have  gradually  been  accus- 
tomed to  silage,  they  may  be  fed  all  they 
will  eat,  but  the  amount  is  always 
smaller   than   that   consumed   by   cattle. 

In  North  Carolina,  corn  silage,  when 
fed  in  rations  of  30  pounds  per  day,  as 
compared  with  15  pounds  of  oat  hay,  was 
found  to  produce  a  saving  of  4y2  cents 
daily  in  the  ration.  When  the  same 
amount  of  silage  was  compared  with  15 
pounds  of  cowpea  hay,  good  results  were 
also  obtained.  It  was  found  possible  to 
prepare  suitable  rations  for  horses,  con- 
taining from  20  to  30  pounds  of  silage, 
with  ear  corn,  shelled  corn  or  corn  and 
cob  meal,  with  or  without  the  addition  of 
bran,  dried  blood  or  other  nitrogenous 
grains.  Similar  favorable  results  were 
obtained  with  mules,  and  it  is  concluded 
from  the  experiments  in  North  Carolina, 
that,  all  things  considered,  the  addition 
of  corn  silage  to  a  ration  improves  it. 

Corn  stover  was  carefully  tested  at  the 
New  Hampshire  experiment  station  in 
comparison  with  a  high  grade  of  timothy 
hay.  The  corn  stover  was  first  run 
through  a  silage  cutter,  after  which  it 
was  given  in  rations  of  from  6  to  12 
pounds.  The  corn  stover  proved  to  be  of 
equal  value  to  timothy  hay  and  was  ob- 
tained at  about  one-third  of  the  cost. 
There  was  a  slight  margin  in  favor  of 
corn  stover,  when  compared  with  timo- 
thy hay  in  tests  in  which  two  kinds  of 
grain  rations  were  used.  Considering  the 
fact  that  from  3  to  5  tons  of  dry  matter 
can  be  produced  per  acre  in  the  form  of 
corn  stover  and  only  about  two  tons  in 
the  form  of  timothy  hay,  the  great  econ- 
omy in  using  corn  stover  is  apparent. 
During  the  winter  season,  when  the 
work  is  light,  corn  stover  may  be  util- 
ized as  the  only  roughage  and  a  great 
saving  thereby  effected. 

New  corn  product  js  the  term  used  for 
the  ground  stalks  and  leaves  of  the  corn 
plant  minus  the  pith.  This  material  is 
also  called  corn  shives.  A  test  was  made 
of  the  new  corn  product  at  the  Mary- 
land station.  The  new  corn  product, 
with  ground  oats,  was  compared  with 
timothy  hay  and  the  same  grain  ration, 
the  horses  being  fed  for  two  weeks  dur- 
ing the  first  test.  During  a  fourteen- 
day  period,   the  horses  on  timothy  hay 


consumed  118  pounds  of  timothy  and  106 
pounds  of  ground  oats.  During  the  same 
period,  the  other  horses  consumed  95 
pounds  of  new  corn  product  and  90 
pounds  of  oats.  It  appears  from  the 
records  of  this  test  that  the  only  diffi- 
culty experienced  in  feeding  the  new 
corn  product  was  in  the  case  of  two 
horses,  which  did  not  at  first  take  kindly 
to  this  forage.  They  soon,  however, 
learned  to  relish  it  and  gradually  became 
accustomed  to  mixed  feed.  The  horses 
ate  the  mixture  of  ground  oats  and  new 
corn  product  continuously  for  five 
months  and  relished  it  more  keenly  at 
the  end  of  this  period  than  at  the  be- 
ginning. 

Cowpea  hay— At  the  North  Carolina 
experiment  station  cowpea  hay  has  been 
compared  with  bran  in  rations  for  horses, 
both  the  bran  and  cowpea  hay  being  fed 
to  the  extent  of  10  pounds  per  day,  to- 
gether with  corn  and  cob  meal,  gluten 
meal  and  corn  stover.  The  cost  of  the  ra- 
tion was  diminished  5  cents  per  day  for 
each  horse  by  the  substitution  of  cowpea 
hay  for  bran ;  and  the  hay  appeared  to  be 
equal  in  feeding  value  to  the  bran.  Since 
cowpea  hay  may  be  easily  grown  through 
out  the  southern  states  and  since  it  has 
the  effect  of  improving  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  like  other  legumes,  it  is  ob- 
viously desirable  to  use  this  home-grown 
protein  whenever  possible,  in  place  of  tht> 
much  more  expensive  bran.  Further 
tests  of  cowpea  hay  in  North  Carolina 
showed  that  a  suitable  ration  may  be 
compounded  for  horses  and  mules  by  us- 
ing 15  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal,  lx/2 
pounds  cottonseed  meal  and  10  pounds 
of  cowpea  hay  per  day.  The  cost  of  this 
ration  was  only  lO1/^  cents  daily. 

Grama  grass  is  one  of  the  native 
grasses,  which  grows  abundantly  over 
large  areas  of  the  western  ranges  and 
frequently  passes  under  the  name  of 
buffalo  grass.  In  fact,  in  Montana,  Wy- 
oming, Idaho  and  elsewhere,  grama  grass 
is  the  most  common  species  referred 
to  as  buffalo  grass.  Horses  are  very  fond 
of  this  material,  either  in  the  green  state 
or  when  standing  in  the  cured  form,  on 
the  range  in  winter.  At  the  Oklahoma 
station  it  has  been  found  that  when  the 
seed  is  affected  by  smut,  this  grass  may 
be  dangerous  or  even  fatal  to  horses.  In 
the  case  in  question,  however,  the  grass 
was  so  badly  affected  with  smut  that 
after  rains  the  stems  of  the  grass  were 
entirely  covered  with  black  spores. 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


325 


Hay  is  a  term  used  to  denote  various 
coarse  fodders  in  a  dry  condition.  It  or- 
dinarily includes  the  dry  cured  grasses, 
cereals  and  legumes.  Many  of  these 
forms  of  hay  have  already  been  referred 
to  and  the  others  will  be  discussed  below. 
Thus,  we  have  not  only  timothy  and 
clover  hay,  but  wheat  hay,  rye  hay,  oat 
hay,  etc,  as  well  as  hay  formed  from  va- 
rious other  grasses  of  less  importance. 
The  amount  of  hay  fed  to  horses  will 
vary  according  to  the  kind  of  hay,  but 
as  a  rule  it  will  be  found  desirable  to 
feed  hay  mostly  at  night,  in  small  quan- 
tities in  the  morning  and  none  at  all 
at  noon.  By  following  such  a  plan,  the 
percentage  of  colic  will  be  considerably 
reduced  among  horses.  The  beneficial 
effect  of  this  plan  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  stomach  of  the  horse  is  small  and 
best  adapted  to  caring  for  small  feeds 
at  frequent  intervals.  On  this  account, 
hay  can  best  be  fed  in  the  evening,  at  a 
time  when  the  horse  is  at  leisure  to  con- 
sume considerable  quantities  of  hay  at 
ease  and  digest  it  before  going  to  work. 
Hay  may  be  cut  and  fed  mixed  with  the 
grain,  or  the  two  parts  of  the  ration  may 
be  fed  separately. 

The  horse,  at  the  close  of  a  day's  worn, 
demands  his  grain  before  receiving  the 
hay  and  remains  somewhat  uneasy  until 
the  grain  is  given.  On  this  account,  it 
is  practically  impossible  to  get  the  hay 
eaten  at  once  unless  it  be  mixed  with 
grain.  The  experiments  thus  far  carriec 
out  in  testing  the  comparative  merits  oi 
mixing  hay  and  grain  and  feeding  them 
separately  do  not  show  any  great  advan- 
tage in  favor  of  either  method  and  this 
matter  may,  therefore,  be  well  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  individual  farmer. 

Millet  hay  is  raised  quite  extensively, 
particularly  in  the  western  states,  where 
it  is  fed  to  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  pigs. 
As  a  rule,  no  injurious  effects  are  re- 
ported from  its  use  and  it  seems  to  be 
an  efficient  ration.  In  North  Dakota, 
quite  serious  poisoning  and  death  in 
horses,  was  observed  from  eating  millet 
hay  about  half  headed  out.  The  first 
symptoms  consisted  in  violent  trembling 
and  struggles,  followed  by  extreme  lame- 
ness and  tenderness  of  the  hock  join  Is. 
The  hocks  became  swollen,  the  appetite 
disappeared  and  the  action  of  the  kidneys 
was  soon  almost  entirely  stopped.  The 
bone  was  rendered  spongy  and  easily 
broken.  Not  only  the  hock  joint  was 
thus  affected,  but  also  the  pastern,  fet- 
lock, knee,  elbow  and  shoulder  joints. 


Straw  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for 
hay  in  almost  any  kind  of  a  horse  ration. 
Straw,  however,  is  not  equal  to  the  best 
grades  of  hay  in  feeding  value.  The 
different  kinds  of  straw  are  usually 
placed  in  the  order:  Oat,  barley,  wheat 
and  rye,  in  relative  feeding  value.  A 
certain  amount  of  straw  may  always  be 
fed  to  horses,  the  quantity  varying  with 
the  amount  of  work  and  the  other  con- 
stituents of  the  ration.  It  is  customary 
on  the  farm  to  allow  horses  access  to 
the  straw  stacks,  where  they  may  eat 
straw  ad  libitum  between  the  regulai 
meals  of  hay  and  grain.  Horses  at 
rest  may  find  nearly  a  maintenance  ra- 
tion in  a  good  quality  of  oat  straw.  At 
any  rate,  straw  may  be  used  even  more 
extensively  than  at  present,  in  reducing 
the  cost  of  the  ration.  Thus  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  expensive  hay  may  be 
replaced  by  a  somewhat  larger  amount 
of  straw  with  quite  decided  economy. 
Horses  usually  require  about  one-fourth 
more  grain  when  fed  straw  than  when  re- 
ceiving hay. 

In  France  and  other  European  coun- 
tries more  attention  is  given  to  feeding 
barley  and  wheat  straw  than  in  thi3 
country,  for  the  reason  that  these  grains 
are  relatively  more  important  in  Europe 
than  oats.  The  nutriment  in  straws  is 
not  as  completely  digested  as  in  hay. 
In  Erance,  wheat  straw  is  the  most 
abundant  form  of  straw  fed  to  horses, 
while  oat  straw  is  recognized  as  su- 
perior to  it,  but  cannot  be  obtained  in 
large  quantities.  Eye  straw  is  consid- 
ered of  little  value  and  is  mostly  used 
for  bedding  and  other  purposes.  It  is 
too  tough  and  difficult  to  digest.  Straws 
may  be  fed  whole  or  cut,  as  in  the  case 
of  hay.  The  straws  of  cereals  may  be 
clean  or  without  dust,  or  may  be  greatly 
contaminated  by  the  presence  of  rust, 
smut  or  mold. 

In  addition  to  cereal  straws,  mention 
should  also  be  made  of  the  straws  of 
legumes,  which  are  fed  quite  extensively 
to  horses.  Thus,  in  many  localities,  the 
straw  of  field  peas  is  fed  as  the  only 
coarse  forage.  This  material,  if  har- 
vested and  preserved  in  good  condition, 
constitutes  more  than  a  maintenance 
ration,  and  may  keep  horses  in  fairly 
good  condition  at  hard  work,  for  short 
periods.  It  may  be  fed  ad  libitum,  with- 
out serious  effects,  except  that  in  an 
occasional  horse  it  causes  some  irri- 
tation of  the  kidneys.  Similarly,  the 
other  legumes,  raised  for  the  seed,  and, 
therefore,  threshed,  should  be  carefully 


326 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


preserved  for  feed.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  straws  of  legumes  have 
a  higher  feeding  value  than  those  of 
cereals. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country,  and 
particularly  in  the  western  states,  the 
cereals  are  cut  when  the  grain  is  in 
the  dough  stage,  and  preserved  as  hay. 
Thus,  we  have  oat,  wheat,  barley  and 
rye  hay.  The  use  of  barley  hay  is  most 
extensive  in  California,  while  oat  hav 
is  a  much  liked  feed  and  is  widely  used 
in  the  Rocky  mountain  region.  It  has 
been  found  that  occasionally  two  crop1 
of  oat  hay  may  be  obtained  if  the  first 
crop  is  not  cut  too  close  to  the  ground 
and  before  the  grain  has  passed  the 
dough  stage.  Either  oat  hay  or  barley 
hay  is  a  very  satisfactory  feed  for 
horses  in  winter,  or  at  any  time  of  the 
year.  Some  precaution  is  necessary  in 
the  use  of  cereal  hays,  in  avoiding  too 
great  contamination  with  smuts.  If 
grain  becomes  badly  infested  with  smut, 
and  is  allowed  to  ripen,  and  is  then 
threshed,  the  smut  spores  are  largely 
blown  away,  so  that  the  cleaned  grain 
is  not  badly  affected.  "Where,  however, 
these  cereals  are  cut  before  becoming 
ripe,  the  smut,  if  present,  is  preserved 
with  the  hay,  and,  therefore,  renders  the 
material  a  questionable  feeding  stuff. 

Lavalard  found  that  pea  straw  and 
pea  pods,  when  cut  fine,  were  about 
equal  to  timothy  hay  in  feeding  value, 
and  more  easily  digested.  In  the  west- 
ern states,  where  cereals  are  raised  in 
large  areas,  many  horses  stand  prac- 
tically idle  during  the  winter  and  straw 
is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  stack,  or  is 
burned  in  order  to  get  it  out  of  the 
way.  In  such  cases  the  straw  can  bet- 
ter be  utilized  as  a  part  of  the  main- 
tenance ration  for  horses. 

Cowpea  hay  may  be  fed  to  work 
horses  or  mules  for  months  at  a  time 
without  any  harm.  According  to  Scule, 
cowpea  hay  puts  a  fine  coat  on  horses 
and  mules,  which  cannot  be  obtained 
with  any  other  feed.  Cowpea  hay  may 
be  fed  in  rations  of  10  pounds  a  day, 
mixed  with  corn  stover,  sorghum,  fod- 
der or  other  coarse  materials. 

Pasture  without  grain  is  not  suffi- 
cient for  horses  which  are  accustomed 
to  heavy  grain  feeds.  Such  horses  may 
also  be  worried  by  the  flies  in  the  pas- 
ture, the  absence  of  shelter  and  no 
grooming.  The  value  of  pasture  de- 
pends directly  upon  the  quality  of  the 
grass.  Cultivated  pastures,  with  al- 
falfa, clover  and  tame  grasses,  furnish 


a  complete  maintenance  ration  for  horses 
at  rest,  similarly  with  the  famous  blue 
grass  pastures,  and  also  the  bunch  grass 
and  grama  grass  of  the  western  ranges. 
On  the  range,  as  is  well  known,  horses 
maintain  themselves  in  a  practically 
wild  condition,  eating  nothing  but  na- 
tive grasses  and  keeping  in  good  condi- 
tion. Pasture  is  often  resorted  to  for 
horses,  not  alone  on  account  of  the 
slightly  laxative  effect  of  green  material, 
but  also  to  give  the  feet  a  chance  to  re- 
cover from  hard  usage  on  pavements  and 
cobble  stones. 

Sorghum  hay  1S  equal  to  corn  fod- 
der in  a  dry  condition,  and  somewhat 
superior  in  a  green  state.  Sorghum  hay, 
however,  loses  much  in  careless  curing. 
It  may  Le  mixed  with  alfalfa  hay  and 
is  not  dangerous  if  fed  with  other  feeds. 
Occasionally,  as  is  well  known,  green 
sorghum  develops  prussic  acid  and  may 
then  cause  death  very  promptly.  The 
danger  from  prussic  acid  poisoning  is 
much  less,  or  almost  entirely  absent,  in 
the  case  of  sorghum  hay. 

Sweet  clover  has  also  been  found  to 
be  a  valuable  feed  for  horses.  They 
must  first  be  accustomed  to  it,  since  it 
has  a  peculiar  odor  and  flavor  which 
most  horses  do  not  relish  at  first. 
Sweet  clover  should  be  cut  early,  be- 
fore it  is  in  full  bloom  and  should  be 
cured  and  handled  like  alfalfa. 

Timothy  hay  is  leSs  completely  di- 
gested by  horses  than  by  cattle  and 
sheep.  It  is,  however,  eaten  with  great 
relish,  and  is  preferred  by  nearly  all 
horse  raisers.  Chemical  analysis  shows 
that  timothy  hay  is  not  especially  rich 
in  digestible  nutriment.  The  reasons 
for  its  continued  preference  by  horse- 
men are  various.  It  differs  decidedly 
from  other  hays  in  appearance  and  no 
doubt  need  be  felt,  therefore,  regard- 
ing the  character  of  the  hay  in  buying 
it.  Then,  too,  it  is  less  likely  to  be 
dusty  than  clover  hay  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  preferred,  especially  in  the 
case  of  roadsters.  In  Utah,  it  was 
found  that  timothy  hay  when  cut  into 
short  lengths  gave  the  horses  sore 
mouths,  and  was,  therefore,  somewhat 
objectionable. 

Roots  and  fruits_On  account  of  the 
relatively  small  size  of  the  horse's 
stomach,  it  is  not  desirable  to  feed 
either  roots  or  fruits  in  large  quantities. 
The  chief  object  of  feeding  roots  and 
fruits,  is  to  add  palatability  to  the 
ration,   assist   in   the   digestion   of  the. 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


327 


other  parts  of  the  ration  and  to  keep 
the  bowels  in  good  order.  Many  ex- 
periments have  been  made  to  test  the 
feeding  value  of  different  roots  in  horse 
rations,  but  as  a  rule,  these  feeds  are 
used,  as  already  stated,  not  for  nutri- 
tive value,  but  for  the  medicinal  effect 
which  they  may  exercise  upon  the  di- 
gestive organs  or  upon  the  kidneys. 

Almond  hulls — In  the  preparation  of 
almonds  for  market,  it  is  customary  to 
hull  and  sort  them,  the  hulls  being  ordi- 
narily discarded.  It  has  been  observed 
that  horses  eat  the  dry  almond  hulls, 
and  an  analysis  of  them  has  shown 
this  material  to  be  rich  in  sugar  and 
starch.  The  material,  however,  con- 
tains about  7  per  cent  of  tannin,  and, 
therefore,  should  not  be  fed  except  in 
small  quantities. 

Fruit — The  use  of  fruits  in  feeding 
horses  is  well  known  throughout  the 
country.  Nearly  all  horses  are  fond 
of  fresh  fruits,  and  will  eat  them 
readily  in  rations  of  moderate  size.  On 
account  of  the  high  percentage  of  water 
in  fruits,  they  are  usually  considered  as 
having  little  feeding  value.  It  re- 
quires 100  pounds  of  apples  to  equal  15 
pounds  of  corn  or  6  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal.  Apples  and  oranges  are 
practically  equal  in  feeding  value, 
standing  considerably  above  melons. 
Prunes,  figs  and  grapes  are  somewhat 
more  nutritious.  On  the  basis  of  their 
relative  feeding  value,  when  bran  is 
worth  $15  a  ton,  fresh  prunes  are 
worth  $3.  Dried  fruits  are  much  more 
nutritious  than  fresh  fruits.  In  food 
value,  raisins  stand  at  the  head  of  the 
list  of  dried  fruits,  followed  by  apricots, 
both  of  these  fruits,  in  a  dried  condi- 
tion, being  about  equal  to  bran.  These 
facts  should  be  borne  in  mind,  for  at 
times  dried  fruits  may  become  slightly 
injured,  and  instead  of  throwing  them 
away,  they  may  be  used  as  feed  for 
farm  animals,  particularly  hogs  and 
horses. 

Artichokes  are  readily  eaten  by 
horses.  They  may  be  substituted  for 
about  half  of  the  hay  ration.  For  this 
purpose  about  30  pounds  per  day  are 
required,  but  this  is  too  large  an 
amount  for  hard  working  horses,  and  it 
is  better,  therefore,  to  feed  them  only  in 
small  quantities. 

Carrots  exercise  a  well  known  laxa- 
tive effect  upon  the  bowels  and  stimu- 
late the  stomach   and  kidneys  slightly. 


They  are  commonly  recommended  in 
the  case  of  colds  and  digestive  disturb- 
ances, but  may  cause  sweating,  and 
should  not,  therefore,  be  fed  to  hard 
working  horses,  except  sparingly.  Some 
feeders  recommend  that  they  should  be 
cut  into  thin  slices  in  feeding,  while 
others  have  found  that  this  was  not 
necessary.  About  4  or  5  pounds  for 
colts,  and  8  to  10  pounds  for  adult 
horses,  is  a  suitable  ration  of  carrots. 
In  Canada,  carrots  were  fed  in  rations 
of  10  pounds  per  day. 

Cassava  is  a  very  starchy  root,  being 
used  quite  extensively  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  starch.  Cassava  has  been  tested 
as  a  horse  feed  in  Florida,  during  a  pe- 
riod of  six  weeks.  The  horses  did  not 
take  kindly  to  cassava  and  appeared  to 
relish  it  much  less  than  they  did  sweet 
potatoes.  The  cassava  was  not  con- 
sumed in  uniform  rations,  so  that  it 
was  difficult  to  estimate  accurately  its 
feeding  value.  Cassava  is  slightly  more 
effective  as  a  feeding  stuff  than  sweet 
potatoes. 

Mangels  were  fed  to  horses  in  Can- 
ada in  rations  of-  6  pounds  per  day, 
but  were  not  much  relished  by  horses. 
They  were  eaten  in  smaller  quantities 
than  any  other  of  the  roots  tested  for 
this  purpose. 

Potatoes  have  not  proved  very  suit- 
able as  a  feed  for  thoroughbred  horses. 
In  a  raw  state  they  are  not  readily  di- 
gested, and  may,  therefore,  cause  colic. 
They  should  always  be  cooked  and  may 
then  be  fed  to  farm  horses  in  the  pro- 
portion of  12  pounds  to  each  5  pounds 
of  hay.  According  to  German  experi- 
ments, 12  pounds  of  raw,  wholesome, 
ripe,  unsprouted  potatoes  may  be  fed 
to  horses  with  good  results.  They 
should  be  fed  whole,  if  small,  and 
sliced  if  large,  and  should  preferably  be 
mixed  with  straw  or  hay.  The  de- 
velopment of  colic  as  the  result  of  feed- 
ing horses  potatoes  may  often  be  avoid- 
ed by  not  watering  the  horse  too 
soon  after  feeding.  In  the  same  set 
of  experiments,  old,  moldy  or  decayed 
potatoes  caused  death  in  eleven  cases  even 
when  the  potatoes  were  fed  steamed.  Po- 
tatoes may  be  substituted  for  a  part  of 
the  corn  ration,  and,  according  to 
Wodarg,  should  be  steamed. 

Pumpkins  are  often  fed  to  horses  in 
small  quantities  on  farms,  but  no  ex- 
periments are  on  record  regarding  their 
feeding  value,  or  other  effects  on  horses. 


328 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  Queensland,  pumpkins  are  recom- 
mended as  useful  in  the  cure  of  heaves 
and  asthma  in  horses.  In  South  Africa, 
pumpkins  are  considered  an  excellent 
feed  for  both  horses  and  mules,  in  ra- 
tions of  8  to  10  pounds  daily. 

Rutabagas  have  been  fed  to  horses  in 
rations  as  high  as  31  pounds  to  replace 
a  part  of  the  hay.  The  feeding  value 
of  these  roots,  however,  is  not  particularly 
high,  and  they  should  be  used  merely 
as  appetizers.  No  injurious  effects  have 
been  noted  from  feeding  them. 

Sugar  beets  have  a  slightly  laxative 
effect  and  in  some  cases  cause  horses  to 
scour,  while  in  many  other  instances 
they  have  been  found  quite  beneficial  in 
their  effect  upon  the  digestive  organs. 
In  cases  where  horses  are  made  to  scour 
by  eating  sugar  beets,  once  a  week  may 
be  often  enough  to  feed  them.  If  horses 
are  receiving  alfalfa  or  other  laxative 
feed,  it  is  not  desirable  to  use  sugar 
beets  at  all.  Sugar  beet  pulp  is  of 
about  the  same  feeding  value  for  horses, 
pound  for  pound,  as  sugar  beets,  and 
helps  to  digest  grain  and  hay  more  per- 
fectly than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 
In  Utah,  it  has  been  found  that  horses 
may  safely  eat  as  much  as  40  pounds 
per  day  of  sugar  beet  pulp.  This,  how- 
ever, is  somewhat  too  high  a  ration  for 
work  horses,  since  the  pulp  is  too  bulky 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  nutriment 
contained  in  it.  Where  the  pulp  can- 
not be  obtained  in  a  fresh  condition,  it 
may  be  dried  and  safely  shipped  long 
distances.  In  such  cases  it  may  be 
moistened  before  feeding  and  furnishes 
a  palatable  addition  to  the  horse's  ra- 
tion. Dried  beets  contain  large  quanti- 
ties of  sugar  and  are,  therefore,  recom- 
mended for  use  in  the  horse  ration  by 
certain  German  investigators,  particu- 
larly Muntz. 

Sweet  potatoes  have  been  successfully 
substituted  for  a  part  of  the  grain  in 
horse's  rations.  In  Florida,  sweet  pota- 
toes were  fed  in  rations  of  from  11  to 
15  pounds.  Sweet  potatoes  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  at  least  one-half  of  the 
grain  ration,  this  substitution  being 
made  at  the  rate  of  3  pounds  of  sweet 
potatoes  for  1  pound  of  corn.  On  this 
basis,  an  acre  of  sweet  potatoes  yield- 
ing 150  bushels  is  equal  to  an  acre 
of  corn  with  a  yield  of  50  bushels,  so  far 
as  feeding  horses  is  concerned.  The 
addition   of   sweet   potatoes   to   the   ra- 


tion caused  some  economy  in  the  ex- 
pense of  feeding. 

Turnips,  as  already  indicated,  have 
been  fed  extensively  throughout  the 
country  in  small  rations.  In  Canada,  it 
was  found  that  horses  relished  turnips 
in  rations  of  10  pounds  per  day.  From 
the  above  discussion  of  various  roots 
and  fruits  used  in  feeding  horses,  it  is 
apparent  that  these  materials,  while  not 
containing  a  great  amount  of  nutriment, 
are  useful  in  increasing  the  palatability 
of  the  ration,  regulating  the  digestive  or- 
gans and  improving  the  condition  of  the 
coat.  As  a  rule,  the  use  of  5  to  8 
pounds  of  roots  per  day  helps  in  pre- 
venting indigestion  and  colic. 

Miscellaneous  feeds_It  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  present  account  of 
horse  feeding  does  not  contain  a  dis- 
cussion of  all  the  feeds  which  have  been 
given  to  horses.  This  is  obviously  im- 
possible, for  the  reason,  that  under  va- 
rious circumstances,  nearly  all  edible 
materials  have  been  fed  to  horses  in 
smaller  or  larger  quantities.  Many  of 
these  materials,  however,  have  not  been 
fed  under  experimental  conditions,  and 
nothing  definite  can,  therefore,  be  said 
regarding  their  feeding  value.  Under 
such  circumstances,  it  is  thought  best 
to  omit  even  the  mention  of  them. 
Among  the  miscellaneous  materials 
which  have  been  fed  to  horses,  an  ex- 
periment was  made  with  Kola  nut,  in 
Germany,  in  which  it  appeared  that, 
when  added  to  the  ration,  this  nut  in- 
creased the  working  power  of  horses, 
and  also  their  endurance. 

Milk — The  value  of  whole  or  skim 
milk  in  feeding  colts,  has  long  been 
recognized.  In  Iowa,  it  was  found  that 
the  rate  of  gain  was  considerably  greater 
when  skim  mill?:  was  added  to  the 
ration.  It  appears  that  for  colts,  10 
pounds  of  skim  milk  has  about  the 
same  feeding  value  as  1  pound  of  a 
ground  grain  mixture,  and  since  in  the 
experiment  the  milk  was  fed  during  the 
severest  months  of  winter,  it  is  probable 
that  the  milk  had  even  a  higher  feeding 
value  than  is  indicated  by  the  results 
obtained.  As  is  well  known  to  farmers, 
cow's  milk  may  be  used  to  supplement 
the  milk  of  the  mare  in  forcing  colts 
after  they  reach  a  size  where  they  can 
consume  more  milk  than  the  mare 
yields.  Colts  may  easily  be  taught  to 
drink  milk,  and  may  be  forced  on  a 
milk  and  grain  ration  in  much  the  same 
manner   as   calves    are   forced   to   yield 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


baby  beef.  When  the  mare's  milk  is 
too  scanty  in  quantity,  new  cow's  milk 
may  be  given  to  the  extent  of  2  quarts 
per  day  and  later  may  be  gradually  re- 
placed with  skim  milk  in  the  same 
manner  as  to  be  recommended  for  calves. 
The  skim  milk  may  be  increased  in 
quantity  to  from  4  to  6  quarts  per  day, 
and  may  be  continued  in  the  ration  un- 
til the  colts  are  one  year  old. 

According  to  observations,  made  by 
many  feeders,  milk  produces  rapid 
gains  and  good  quality  in  colts,  and  may 
be  fed  to  them  with  as  profitable  returns 
as  when  given  to  calves  or  other  animals. 
Another  point  in  favor  of  skim  milk  is 
that  it  adds  protein  to  the  ration  in 
much  cheaper  form  than  can  be  obtained 
from  oats.  In  some  experiments,  10 
pounds  of  skim  milk  have  given  re- 
sults about  equal  to  5  pounds  of  oats 
and  on  this  basis  the  feeding  value  of 
skim  milk  would  be  much  higher  than 
the  price  usually  charged  for  it.  For  a 
short  time  after  the  colts  are  weaned, 
Stewart  recommends  that  a  tablespoon- 
ful  of  boiled  flaxseed  be  mixed  with 
milk,  in  order  to  prevent  constipation. 
Colts,  however,  are  susceptible  to  scour- 
ing, and  some  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  quality  of  skim  milk  as  fed  to 
them.  It  should  preferably  be  fed 
warm  and  in  a  fresh  condition.  In 
feeding  cow's  milk  to  colts,  it  should 
also  be  remembered  that  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  cow's  milk  is  nearly  three 
times  that  in  mare's  milk.  Cow's  whole 
milk,  therefore,  contains  relatively  too 
much  fat  and  the  skim  milk  is  in  com- 
position nearer  that  of  the  mare's  milk. 

Molasses — Within  recent  years,  mo- 
lasses, sugar,  sirup  and  various  mixtures 
of  molasses  with  ground  grain,  ground 
alfalfa,  blood  meal  and  other  substances 
have  been  extensively  fed  to  horses  in 
the  tropics,  in  Europe  and  throughout 
this  country,  particularly  in  the  south- 
ern states.  The  reports  thus  far  made 
on  molasses  feeding  have  been  favorable, 
for  the  most  part.  It  appears  from 
French  experiments  that  molasses  has 
a  tendency  to  hasten  the  passage  of 
food  through  the  alimentary  tract.  Oc- 
casionally, moreover,  molasses  causes 
more  or  less  poisonous  effects  in  the 
form  of  acute  indigestion  or  inflamma- 
tion of  the  kidneys.  In  the  latter  form 
of  the  trouble,  there  is  an  abundant  uri- 
nation and  the  urine  contains  an  ex- 
cess of  the  salts  of  potash  and  soda,  to- 
gether with  some  albumen  and  sugar. 


According  to  French  investigations, 
the  irritating  effect  of  crude  molasses, 
as  fed  to  horses,  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  potash  salt  in  this  material.  The  ra- 
tions of  molasses  which  are  required  to 
cause  digestive  disturbances  are  much 
larger  than  the  usual  size  of  ration,  and 
also  much  larger  than  those  which  pro- 
duce an  excess  of  urine.  While  good 
molasses  is  a  highly  nutritive  food  ma- 
terial, easily  digested  and  assimilated, 
and  in  many  cases  corrects  faulty  diges- 
tion, it  may  occasionally  cause  diabetes. 
One  quart  of  molasses,  at  a  value  of 
3  cents,  was  found  equal  to  4  quarts 
of  oats,  at  a  value  of  about  6  cents. 
When  horses  were  fed  molasses,  they 
were  found  to  do  as  much  work  and 
remained  generally  in  a  better  condition 
than  when  molasses  was  left  out  of  the 
ration.  The  cost  of  feeding  is  almost 
always  somewhat  reduced  by  the  use  of 


When  molasses  was  fed  experimen- 
tally to  three  horses  at  Cornell,  it  was 
found  that  sugar  appeared  in  the  urine 
soon  after  the  molasses  was  given  and 
albumen  in  two  cases.  It  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  the  sugar  always  appears 
in  the  urine  when  molasses  is  fed,  but 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  molasses 
may  cause  diabetes,  it  is  perhaps  well 
to  observe  carefully  the  effect  of  molas- 
ses in  the  ration  for  any  particular  horse 
before  feeding  it  in  large  quantities  or 
for  long  periods.  In  experiments  by 
Grandeau,  the  use  of  sugar,  molasses 
and  other  sweet  feeding  stuffs  did  not 
appear  to  affect  materially  the  digesti- 
bility of  other  constituents  of  the  ra- 
tion. 

In  Copenhagen,  a  feeding  experiment 
was  carried  on  with  blood  molasses.  The 
result   of   this   experiment   showed   that 

3  pounds  of  the  molasses  feed  mixture 
had   about   the   same   feeding   value   as 

4  pounds  of  grain,  consisting  of  a  mix- 
ture of  barley  and  oats.  At  the  pre- 
vailing prices,  the  molasses  feed  was 
somewhat  cheaper  than  corn,  and  il 
was  estimated  that  by  replacing  one- 
fourth  of  the  grain  with  this  feed,  an 
annual  saving  of  about  $5.50  per  horse 
would  be  effected.  One  of  the  chief  ad- 
vantages claimed  for  molasses  in  a  ra 
tion  for  horses,  is  that  it  renders  in- 
ferior hay  more  palatable.  It  also  has 
a  slightly  beneficial  medicinal  effect  in 
cases  of  colds,  keeps  horses  fat  and  is. 
a  cheap  ration, 


330 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


On  the  basis  of  data  gathered  from  a 
large  number  of  Louisiana  planters 
Dalrymple  states  that  molasses  is  widely 
used  as  a  feeding  stuff  for  plantation 
horses  and  mules.  The  average  con- 
sumption, as  observed  by  him  on  42 
plantations  in  the  sugar  belt,  being  9V2 
pounds  per  head  per  day,  and  ranging 
from  2  to  22  pounds.  According  to  this 
investigator,  the  opinion  that  molasses 
constitutes  a  wholesome,  easily  digested 
and  economical  constituent  of  a  ration 
for  draft  animals,  is  confirmed.  The 
southern  planters  have  found  that  mo- 
lasses may  advantageously  be  mixed  with 
grain  or  cut  hay.  In  Sweden,  molasses 
has  been  fed  during  long  periods  in  ra- 
tions of  3  pounds  per  day  without 
causing  injurious  effects  upon  the 
horses.  In  Massachusetts,  a  much  ad- 
vertised material,  known  as  blomo  feed, 
was  tested  in  feeding  horses.  This  feed 
is  apparently  a  mixture  of  ground  corn 
stalks,  or  similar  material,  with  dried 
blood  and  refuse  molasses.  It  is  nearly 
black  in  color,  sticky  and  of  a  bulky, 
fibrous  nature.  As  sold  at  the  present 
time,  it  is  guaranteed  to  contain  15 
per  cent  of  protein.  A  digestion  ex- 
periment with  blomo  feed  showed  that  it 
is  quite  inferior  to  corn  or  oats  in  this 
respect.  At  the  ordinary  market  price, 
the  proprietary  feed  is  much  more  ex- 
pensive than  oats  or  corn  meal,  cost- 
ing at  least  twice  as  much  as  corn  meal 
and  one-third  more  than  oats.  Most 
horses  were  found  to  eat  it  readily,  and 
it  may  be  fed  in  daily  rations  of  6 
quarts.  It  is  not  injurious,  so  far  as 
has  been  observed,  but  it  is  very  ex- 
pensive and  does  not  keep  well. 

In  Florida,  Conner  tried  cane  sirup  as 
a  feed  for  horses,  mixed  with  corn.  The 
sirup  was  somewhat  thin  and  for  this 
reason  5  pounds  of  it  was  substituted 
for  4  pounds  of  corn.  Both  mules  and 
horses  remained  in  good  condition  on  the 
sirup,  although  they  were  kept  at  hard 
work.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  low 
grade  sirup  may  be  fed  to  work  horse3 
and  mules,  provided  it  is  mixed  with 
chopped  hay  or  grain.  One  serious  ob- 
jection to  this  feed,  from  a  practical 
standpoint,  is  that  molasses,  unless  care- 
fully mixed  with  straw,  hay  or  grain 
makes  the  mangers  very  gummy.  Even 
under  the  best  of  conditions,  it  is  a 
nasty  feed,  and  attracts  flies.  If  mo- 
lasses is  to  be  fed  regularly,  it  would 
seem  best  to  have  a  metallic  lining  to 
the  feed  box  so  that  it  can  be  thorough- 


ly cleaned  at  frequent  intervals,  partic- 
ularly in  hot  weather. 

A  blood-molasses  feed  used  in  horse 
rations  in  Copenhagen,  proved  very  val- 
uable for  horses  and  appeared  to  be  suit- 
able for  substitution  in  the  place  of  a 
part  of  the  grain  ration,  at  the  rate  of 
3  pounds  of  the  molasses  feed  to  1 
pounds  of  grain.  At  the  prevailing 
prices,  the  molasses  feed  was  cheaper 
than  a  whole  ration  of  grain  and  pro 
duced  a  considerable  annual  saving  in 
the  expense  of  feed.  Molasses  has  also 
proved  a  successful  feed  for  horses  in 
the  Fiji  islands.  As  much  as  30  pound3 
of  molasses  a  day  were  fed  to  each 
working  horse,  but  the  ration  finally 
adopted  as  most  suitable  was  15  pounds 
of  molasses,  3  pounds  of  bran  and  1 
pounds  of  corn.  Green  cane  tops  were 
also  fed  in  addition  to  this  ration.  The 
health  of  the  horses  remained  excellent 
and  no  diarrhea  resulted.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  molasses  appeared  to  have  a 
constipating  effect,  which  was  partly 
counteracted  by  the  bran.  The  use  of 
molasses  and  cane  tops,  which  would 
otherwise  have  been  a  waste  material, 
effected  a  saving  of  over  $45  per  head 
per  year.  The  managers  of  sugar  plan- 
tations have  decided,  therefore,  that  mo- 
lasses is  a  satisfactory  substitute  foi 
starchy  food,  and  recommended  rations 
of  15  pounds  per  day  to  horses  weighing 
1.250  pounds.  The  molasses  produces  no 
undue  fatness  or  softness,  nor  does  it 
lower  the  endurance  of  the  horse. 

Berns  found  in  his  experiments  with 
molasses,  that  horses  gain  from  2  to  3 
pounds  a  day,  when  fed  1  quan 
of  molasses  diluted  with  5  pounds  of 
cut  hay.  The  rapid  gain  was  made 
during  a  period  of  rest,  but  at  the  end 
of  six  weeks  the  horses  appeared  to  be 
in  fine  .working  condition,  and  were 
not  softened  as  a  result  of  eating  mo- 
lasses. Further  experiments  were  then 
carried  on  with  100  heavy  truck 
horses  for  a  period,  of  14  months.  Each 
horse  received  morning  and  night,  1 
quart  of  molasses  diluted  in  3  quarts 
of  water,  thoroughly  mixed  with  6 
pounds  of  cut  hay,  2V2  quarts  of  bran 
and  IV2  quarts  of  corn  meal.  The 
noon  ration  consisted  of  5  quarts  of 
dry  oats,  and  long  hay  was  fed  at  night. 
The  animals  gradually  improved  in  con- 
dition and  gained  in  weight,  their  coat 
becoming  sleek  and  glossy. 

Molasses  has  also  been  tested  with 
army  horses  in  Porto  Rico,  being  mixed 


HOUSES  AND  MULES 


331 


with  chopped  grass.  The  horses  received 
35  pounds  of  grass  and  14  pounds  ol' 
molasses  daily.  Some  of  the  molasses 
was  given  as  a  drink  diluted  in  water. 
This  ration  was  continued  for  5  months, 
and  it  was  observed  that  at  first  the 
horses  lost  weight,  but  later  gained  in  a 
satisfactory  manner.  The  grass  and  mo- 
lasses ration  cost  15  cents  a  day  as  com- 
pared with  a  hay  and  oat  ration  at  27 
cents.  In  Porto  Rico,  as  in  various  other 
countries,  the  use  of  molasses  appeared 
to  improve  the  appearance  of  the  coat, 
and  any  tendency  to  constipation  was 
readily  checked  by  the  use  of  bran. 

In  Louisiana,  Godchaux  reports  that 
plantation  owners  have  gradually 
learned  the  value  of  black  strap  molas- 
ses as  a  feed  stuff  for  horses.  This  ma- 
terial was  previously  of  no  value,  but 
at  present  it  brings  5  cents  a  gallon  as 
a  horse  feed.  The  use  of  molasses  with 
a  properly  balanced  ration,  has  gradual- 
ly diminished  the  cost  of  feeding.  Thus, 
on  a  series  of  plantations,  which  used 
240  horses  and  mules,  the  feed  bill  was 
formerly  $10,000,  whereas  it  has  now 
been  brought  down  to  $2,500  per  year. 
Formerly  as  much  as  18  pounds  of  oats 
per  day  were  used,  where  now  the  ra- 
tion consists  of  8  pounds  of  corn  meal, 
2  pounds  cottonseed  meal,  11  pounds  of 
molasses  and  15  pounds  of  cowpea  hay. 

Animal  feeds_It  has  been  found  by 
many  feeders  that  animals  which  are 
naturally  herbivorous  may  not  only  take 
kindly  to  considerable  quantities  of  ani- 
mal feed  in  their  ration,  but  actually  give 
fine  returns  for  it.  Thus  it  has  been 
found  that  horses  will,  eat  considerable 
quantities  of  meat.  In  the  siege  of 
Paris  and  under  other  similar  circum- 
stances, it  is  reported  that  horses  ate 
as  high  as  6  pounds  of  horse  meat  daily, 
either  cooked  or  raw,  chopped  fine  and 
mixed  with  other  material.  No  bad  ef- 
fects were  produced  by  such  a  ration 
and  the  horses  seemed  to  thrive  well  on 
it. 

In  addition  to  the  miscellaneous  feeds 
already  mentioned,  a  large  number  of 
other  materials  are  occasionally  fed  to 
horses.  Thus,  the  by-products  obtained 
in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of 
vegetable  oils  are  used  as  feed  for  the 
horse.  The  oil  cakes,  which  have  been 
fed  to  horses,  include  linseed  meal,  cot- 
tonseed meal,  palm  cake,  sesame  cake, 
cocoanut  oake  and  other  materials"  of 
the  same  sort  of  less  importance.  Like- 
wise in  the  manufacture  of  starch,  va- 


rious by-products  are  obtained,  nearly 
all  of  which  have  been  fed  to  horses. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  the  va- 
rious gluten  meals,  and  gluten  feeds, 
which  are  well  known  as  having  a  high 
feeding  value. 

Similarly,  all  of  the  residues  obtained 
in  brewing  and  distilling,  have  been 
used.  Attention  has  already  been  called 
to  the  value  of  ordinary  milling  by- 
products, such  as  bran,  middlings  and 
shorts  of  various  kinds  of  cereals,  as 
well  as  meal  obtained  from  grinding 
cottonseed  cakes,  linseed  cakes,  the  by- 
products obtained  in  the  preparation  of 
rice  for  market,  etc.  Some  of  these 
feeding  stuffs  are  mentioned  merely  to 
indicate  that  they  may  be  used  as  horse 
feed,  but  not  to  insist  on  their  value 
or  importance.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
many  of  the  products  just  mentioned  in 
the  list  of  miscellaneous  feeds  are  of 
quite  subordinate  importance  on  account 
of  the  limited  extent  to  which  they  are 
produced  or  are  available  for  horse  feed. 
With  regard  to  condimental  feeds  for 
horses,  it  may  be  said  that  the  farmer 
would  do  best  to  buy  his  drugs  and 
other  substances,  used  as  tonics,  at 
regular  dealers  and  prepare  his  own 
condimental  feeds  from  them.  The  pro- 
prietary feeds  are  altogether  too  expen- 
sive. 

FATTENING  HORSES 

In  feeding  horses  for  work  or  for 
the  market,  the  farmer  often  loses  sight 
of  the  fact  that  one  of  the  primary  pur- 
poses of  his  feeding  is  to  produce  gain 
in  weight.  Horse  flesh  is  just  as 
valuable  an  asset  to  the  farmer  as  beef. 
It  is  a  common  practice  in  fattening 
horses  to  give  them  hay  in  self-feeders 
and  grain  four  or  five  times  a  day.  One 
scheme  which  has  been  recommended  as 
very  effective,  consists  in  the  following 
practice :  Ear  corn  at  5  A.  M. ;  water  at 
7  A.  M. ;  at  9  A.  M.  hay  in  the  racks  and 
3  quarts  of  a  mixture  of  one-third  oats 
and  two-thirds  bran;  at  noon,  corn;  at 
3  P.  M.,  oats,  bran  and  hay;  at  4  P.  M., 
water  and  at  6  P.  M.,  corn.  In  this 
scheme  of  feeding,  15  ears  of  corn  are 
fed  to  each  horse  during  the  day.  The 
preferred  hay  is  a  fine  quality  of  clover, 
free  from  dust. 

Another  system  of  fattening  horses 
for  market  or  putting  flesh  on  old  horses, 
consists  in  feeding  boiled  barley,  ground 
corn  and  molasses.  Each  feed  of  this 
mixture  contains  3  pounds  of  boiled  bar- 
ley, 2  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  linseed 


332 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


meal,  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  a  day,  in 
addition  to  a  ration  of  molasses,  say  10 
to  15  pounds  daily.  In  fattening  draft 
horses,  Coverdale  recommends  bran  for 
foals  and  mares,  and  in  putting  on  the 
proper  market  finish  for  mature  horses, 
10  to  12  pounds  of  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  bran,  oats  and  corn;  or  of  three 
parts  oats  and  two  parts  bran;  or  equal 
parts  of  bran,  wheat  and  shorts.  An- 
other effective  fattening  ration  consists 
of  18  ears  of  corn,  twice  a  day,  15 
quarts  of  oats  and  bran  mixed,  and  10 
pounds  of  hay. 

While  it  has  come  to  be  a  recognized 
market  requirement,  that  horses  must  be 
fat  in  order  to  obtain  the  top  price,  it 
is  also  well  known  among  people  who 
are  familiar  with  horses,  that  animals 
treated  in  this  manner  are  exceedingly 
soft,  short-winded  and  sweat  profusely. 
In  fact,  when  an  animal  is  bought  with 
a  layer  of  soft  fat  underneath  the  skin, 
as  required  by  modern  markets,  it  is 
well  understood  that  at  first  he  is  of 
little  use  as  a  work  animal  and  must 
be  trained  down  to  a  proper  form  be- 
fore he  can  render  the  best  service  of 
which  he  is  capable. 

Narrow  versus  wide  ration — The 
question  is  often  asked  whether  the 
proper  ration  for  horses  is  balanced  in 
the  same  manner  as  that  recommended 
for  beef  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs,  or 
whether  a  considerably  wider  ration 
may  not  yield  satisfactory  results.  In 
Utah,  it  was  found  in  one  set  of  ex- 
periments, that  horses  on  corn  and 
timothy  did  as  well  as  those  on  oats, 
clover  and  timothy.  In  this  experiment, 
it  appeared  that  the  value  of  food  for 
the  horse  sometimes  depends  upon  the 
heat  units  which  it  furnishes.  The 
amount  of  protein  in  the  corn  and 
timothy  ration  which  proved  successful 
in  the  experiment  thus  mentioned 
was  considerably  lower  than  that  which 
is  ordinarily  recommended.  In  subse- 
quent experiments  in  Utah,  corn  meal 
and  timothy  did  not  sustain  work  horses 
as  well  as  oats,  wheat  and  clover  hay 
and  the  narrow  ration  appeared  to  be 
much  more  effective  and  desirable  for 
horses  in  summer  than  a  wide  nutritive 
ratio.  In  winter  it  is  believed  that  a 
somewhat  wider  ration  should  be  used 
than  in  summer. 

Exclusive  grain  ration — No  farmer 
would  think  of  trying  to  keep  his  horse 
on  a  grain  ration  without  any  coarse 
forage  or  other  feed.    As  it  is  a  matter 


of  some  interest,  however,  to  determine 
whether  such  a  thing  be  possible  or  not, 
the  question  has  been  tested  in  a  num- 
ber of  places  with  negative  results. 

Maintenance  ration — The  use  of  a 
maintenance  ration  is  perhaps  more 
common  with  horses  than  with  other 
farm  animals,  since  there  are  often  pe- 
riods when  there  is  no  work  for  farm 
horses  to  do  and  during  this  time  they 
need  not  receive  any  more  feed  than  is 
necessary  to  keep  them  in  good 
condition.  In  Wyoming,  from  13V2 
to  15  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  in  addition 
to  the  straw  has  been  found  a 
good  maintenance  ration.  It  is  gen- 
erally known  among  farmers  that  horses 
may  be  kept  in  fairly  good  condition 
during  a  period  of  rest,  without  the  use 
of  grain.  If  the  coarse  forage  is  not 
good,  however,  a  small  grain  feed  should 
always  be  added;  otherwise  the  horses 
will  lose  in  weight  and  condition. 
Where  horses  have  access  to  straw 
stacks,  as  is  frequently  the  case  on  the 
farm,  from  12  to  14  pounds  of  good  al- 
falfa, clover  or  cowpea  hay  is  sufficient 
to  maintain  them  without  the  addition 
of  grain  to  the  ration. 

Loss  of  appetite— It  is  a  quite  se- 
rious matter  with  any  domestic  animal 
when  he  gets  off  feed  or  loses  his  appe- 
tite. Such  occurrences,  however,  are 
quite  common,  especially  where  a  care- 
less system  of  feeding  prevails.  The 
cause  of  the  loss  of  the  appetite  may  be 
overwork  or  the  opposite  condition  of  too 
little  exercise.  Loss  of  appetite  may  also 
be  due  to  improper  food,  unbalanced  ra- 
tions or  faulty  management  in  general. 
In  order  to  prevent  horses  from  getting 
off  feed,  it  is  desirable  not  only  to  give 
considerable  variety  in  the  daily  ration, 
but  to  change  the  ration  from  time  to 
time,  as  decidedly  as  can  be  done  with 
convenience  and  with  available  feeds. 
As  already  indicated,  many  companies 
which  employ  large  numbers  of  horses 
have  found  that  the  percentage  of  loss 
of  appetite  and  other  diseases  among 
horses  have  decreased  greatly  when  a 
good  system  of  feeding  has  been  adopted. 
This  will  be  found  to  be  true  on  the  or- 
dinary farm. 

At  times,  however,  the  horse  refuses 
his  food  for  no  apparent  reason,  and 
the  average  feeder,  if  he  does  not  think 
of  any  cause  which  seems  to  fit  the  case, 
usually  resorts  to  some  form  of  condi- 
mental  feed  or  tonic.  In  cases  where 
the  appetite  becomes  faulty  without  the 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


neglect  of  the  feeder,  it  may  be  well 
to  give  some  form  of  so-called  condition 
powder  or  condimental  feed.  A  feed  of 
this  sort,  which  has  given  excellent  re- 
sults, wherever  tried,  and  which  may  be 
compounded  by  any  farmer,  contains  a 
mixture  of  linseed  meal,  flaxseed,  mo- 
lasses and  corn  meal,  in  the  proportion 
25,  10,  20,  40,  with  small  amounts  of 
turmeric  root,  ginger,  caraway  seed,  gen- 
tian, cream  of  tartar,  sulphur,  coriander 
seed  and  common  salt.  This  condimental 
feed  contains  about  20  per  cent  of  mo- 
lasses, and  according  to  nearly  all  feed- 
ers, who  have  tested  molasses,  this  ma- 
terial has,  among  other  effects,  that  of 
improving  the  appetite  and  digestion  of 
horses. 

Horses  may  not  only  get  off  feed  or 
lose  appetite  to  some  extent  as  the  re- 
sult of  careless  feeding,  but  more  se- 
rious diseases  may  be  due  to  the  same 
cause.  Thus,  irrational  feeding  may 
cause  abortion,  heaves,  swelled  legs, 
founder,  scratches,  urticaria,  sore  mouth, 
choking,  bloat,  colic,  constipation,  dysen- 
tery, azoturia,  diabetes,  bloody  urine,  etc. 

It  should  be  remembered  in  this  con- 
nection, that  boiled  grains  are  somewhat 
harder  to  digest  than  when  raw.  Colic 
may  also  be  caused  by  watering  the 
horses  heavily  at  too  long  intervals.  A 
safe  and  easy  rule  to  remember  is,  that 
horses  should  be  watered  about  half  an 
hour  before  or  after  feeding.  It  may 
be  laid  down,  therefore,  as  a  general 
proposition,  established  beyond  doubt, 
that  by  means  of  a  systematic  course  of 
feeding  work  horses  and  mules,  the  best 
prevention  of  various  diseases  is  se- 
cured. 

Water — The  amount  of  water  re- 
quired by  horses  appears  to  be  affected 
in  a  quite  pronounced  manner  by  the 
kind  of  feed  which  they  receive.  In 
Utah,  it  was  found  that  horses  fed  al- 
falfa hay  drank  about  4  pounds  of  water 
per  day  more  than  those  which  received 
timothy.  This  test  was  made  in  April. 
In  February,  horses  on  timothy  drank 
621/2  pounds  of  water  per  day,  while 
those  on  alfalfa  required  70  pounds  per 
day.  The  extra  amount  of  water  taken 
when  the  coarse  part  of  the  ration  con- 
sisted of  alfalfa,  was  excreted  in  the 
urine.  In  Florida,  a  number  of  tests 
of  this  matter  has  shown  that  the  aver- 
age horse  or  mule  varies  greatly  in  his 
water  requirement,  drinking  from  50  to 
110  pounds  of  water  per  day.     On  most 


farms  it  is  customary  to  water  the 
horses  after  feeding  in  the  morning,  be- 
fore and  after  feeding  at  noon  and  be- 
fore feeding  at  night.  This  practice  is 
perfectly  safe  and  satisfactory  if  the 
water  is  not  given  in  large  quantities 
too  soon  before  or  after  receiving  grain 
or  hay  rations.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
caution  just  expressed  in  this  matter  is 
often  not  necessary,  since  it  is  well 
known  that  many  horses  may  be  watered 
immediately  before  or  after  feeding 
without  any  serious  results. 

In  New  Hampshire,  also,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  feed  exercises  an  influ- 
ence on  the  amount  of  water  consumed 
by  horses.  A  ration  of  corn  and  bran 
seemed  to  cause  the  horses  to  drink 
most  water,  while  a  ration  containing 
corn,  linseed  meal  and  hay  had  the  ef- 
fect of  causing  the  horses  to  drink  the 
least  water,  which  was  observed  in  any 
of  the  rations  tested  at  the  New  Hamp- 
shire station.  During  a  period  of  17 
days,  the  amount  of  water  consumed 
by  the  horses  varied  from  3,625  to  4,000 
pounds,  showing  a  great  difference  in  the 
individuality  of  horses.  While  the  kind 
and  quality  of  feed  may  exercise  a  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  amount  of 
water  taken  by  horses,  the  amount  of 
Water  appears  not  to  influence  the  di- 
gestibility of  different  elements  in  the 
feed,  particularly  the  mineral  matters. 

Cost  of  rations— The  cost  of  horse  ra- 
tions is  as  important  a  matter  as  the 
cost  of  rations  of  other  farm  animals 
and  recent  experiments  have  shown  that 
many  of  the  rations  fed  to  horses  on 
farms,  in  the  stables  of  transportation 
companies  and  elsewhere,  are  altogether 
too  expensive  for  the  amount  of  energy 
which  they  provide.  It  is  often  possible 
to  diminish  the  cost  of  the  ration  greatly 
without  lowering  its  effectiveness.  The 
economy  in  such  a  practice  is  self-evi- 
dent. In  New  Hampshire,  Burkett 
studied  the  cost  of  different  horse  ra- 
tions and  found  that  the  expense  varied 
according  to  the  market  price  of  mate- 
rials in  that  state,  from  17  to  22V2  cents 
per  day  per  horse. 

On  account  of  the  many  substitutes 
which  have  already  been  suggested  for 
a  part  of  the  oat  ration,  there  is  no 
further  excuse  for  feeding  oats  as  the 
exclusive  grain  ration  to  work  horses, 
when  such  materials  as  corn,  cottonseed 
meal,  brewers'  grains,  bran,  barley,  etc, 
are  to  be  conveniently  obtained.     In  the 


334 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


case  of  the  New  Hampshire  experiments 
on  the  cost  of  horse  rations,  it  was  found 
that  oats  was  the  most  expensive  part 
of  the  ration,  and  that  this  grain  proved 
no  more  satisfactory  than  other  feeding 
stuffs.  In  the  experiments  in  question, 
the  average  total  cost  per  year  for  feed 
for  one  horse  was  $47.35,  and  the  average 
cost  for  feed  for  each  hour's  work  ac- 
tually performed  was  3.4  cents. 

Observations  made  along  this  line  in 
Canada,  indicate  that  under  average 
Canadian  conditions,  the  cost  of  feed 
and  the  care  of  the  horse  may  be  esti- 
mated at  about  37  cents  per  day.  In 
Ohio,  a  set  of  experiments  was  carried 
out  in  determining  the  cost  of  feeding 
horses.  The  daily  grain  ration  in  this 
case  consisted  of  7^2  pounds  each  of 
corn  and  cob  meal  and  bran;  while 
each  horse  received  one  ton  of  hay  per 
year  and  in  winter  an  additional  feed 
of  30  pounds  of  silage  per  day.  The 
cost  of  feeding  under  these  conditions 
was  $84  per  horse  per  annum. 

Colts — If  it  at  any  time  becomes  nec- 
essary to  raise  colts  by  hand,  they  should 


Fig.  225 COLT  CREEP  FOR  FEEDING  GRAIN 


get  fresh,  warm  cow's  milk  with  a  table- 
spoonful  of  sugar  to  each  quart  of  milk. 
It  is  desirable  that  cow's  milk  fed  to 
colts  should  not  test  over  4  per  cent  of 
fat.  Cow's  milk  may  be  given  a  pint  or 
less  at  a  meal,  five  to  ten  times  per  day. 
Fresh  skim  milk  may  gradually  be 
substituted  for  the  whole  milk,  as  with 
calves,  and  the  colts  may  be  taught  to 
eat  grain.  By  the  end  of  two  months, 
colts  should  drink  as  readily  as  calves. 
If  it  is  desired  to  hasten  growth  as 
rapidly  as  possible,  one  fresh  egg  may 
be  stirred  in  the  milk  daily,  for  each 
colt. 

The  addition  of  sugar  to  cow's  milk  is 
not  necessary  on  account  of  its  composi- 
tion, but  in  order  to  make  the  milk  more 


palatable  for  the  colt.  After  colts  are 
weaned  they  may  be  fed  from  4  to  6 
quarts  of  skim  milk  per  day,  until  one 
year  old.  The  results  obtained  from 
such  a  system  of  feeding  are  very  satis- 
factory, and  in  some  comparative  tests 
which  have  been  made  produce  horses 
of  100  pounds  more  weight  than  would 
otherwise  have  been  the  case.  Moreover, 
the  use  of  skim  milk  is  favorable  to 
the  development  of  good  bone  and 
muscle.  If  milk  cannot  be  obtained  for 
colt  feeding,  it  is  necessary  to  give  them 
oats  or  some  other  grain  twice  a  day. 
Before  the  colt  is  weaned  it  should  be 
taught  to  eat  a  small  amount  of  lin- 
seed meal  in  addition  to  the  oat  ra- 
tion. The  purpose  of  feeding  linseed 
meal  is  to  prevent  constipation  after 
the  colt  is  weaned.  Equally  good  re- 
sults may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a 
little  flaxseed  tea. 

Colts  should  be  fed  grain  as  soon  as 
they  will  eat  it,  and  for  this  purpose 
oats  and  bran  are  excellent  mixed  with 
small  quantities  of  salt.  Colts  should 
not  be  allowed  to  starve  during  the 
first  year,  for  if  a  scanty  ration  is 
fed,  they  may  be  stunted  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  they  never  reach  full  develop- 
ment afterwards.  Colts  on  the  range 
should  be  moved  from  time  to  time, 
since  the  feed  may  get  poor  in  one  lo- 
cality and  may  be  much  better  in  an- 
other. It  is  also  necessary  to  keep  a 
close  watch  on  the  water  supply  and  salt. 

Compounding  rations — In  the  discus- 
sion of  various  feeds  for  horses,  mention 
has  been  made  of  their  feeding  value; 
medicinal  effect,  if  any,  and  the  quan- 
tities in  which  they  should  be  fed.  In 
compounding  these  materials  for  ra- 
tions, a  great  variation  will  be  noted. 
In  the  northern  states,  the  standard  ra- 
tion with  horsemen  consists  of  oats  and 
timothy  hay.  In  the  southern  states 
the  prevailing  ration  is  corn  stover, 
corn,  cottonseed  meal,  soy  beans  and 
cowpeas,  while  on  the  Pacific  coast  a 
very  common  ration  consists  of  barley 
hay,  oat  hay  or  wild  oat  hay,  supple- 
mented by  barley  or  other  grains.  In 
other  parts  of  the  country  still  other  ra- 
tions are  commonly  fed. 

It  is  perfectly  evident,  therefore,  that 
feeding  horses  is  an  art  more  than  a 
science.  After  a  horse  raiser  has  ac- 
quired a  certain  amount  of  practical 
experience  in  feeding  one  ration,  that 
ration,  in  his  hands,  gives  satisfactory 
results.      The    same    feeding    materials 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


might  be  used  with  unsatisfactory  re- 
sults by  other  persons,  who  have  not 
had  experience  with  those  particular 
feeding  stuffs.  There  is  no  reason  why 
one  ration  should  be  adopted  in  a  cer- 
tain locality  because  it  has  been  found 
particularly  suitable  for  another  locality. 
No  farmer  in  the  southern  states,  for 
example,  would  consider  it  practical 
to  buy  oats  and  timothy  hay  for  feeding 
his  horses,  simply  because  that  ration 
was  found  satisfactory  in  the  northern 
states.  There  is  no  one  ration  for 
horses.  A  combination  of  suitable  and 
economical  feed  stuffs  should  be  made, 
according  to  the  abundance  of  various 
crops  and  the  prevailing  market  prices, 
and  various  substitutions  may  then  be 
made  in  a  ration,  as  indicated  above, 
under  the  discussion  of  different  feeds. 

Sample  rations_It  may  be  well  to 
present  a  few  samples  of  rations  which 
have  given  good  results  in  different  lo- 
calities. In  Edinburgh,  it  was  found 
that  horses  at  heavy  hauling  on  a  ration 
of  16  pounds  of  oats  and  21  pounds  of 
Italian  rye  grass  hay,  kept  in  excellent 
condition,  but  lost  weight  when  the 
hay  was  diminished  to  the  extent  of  2 
pounds.  In  Kansas  City,  draft  horses 
have  been  found  to  keep  in  condition 
on.  a  ration  of  20  pounds  each  of  oats 
and  hay;  or  on  a  ration  20  pounds  hay, 
4x/2  pounds  corn  and  6V2  pounds  oats, 
morning  and  noon  and  6  pounds  of 
wheat  bran  at  night.  In  California,  a 
good  ration  consists  of  10  pounds  al- 
falfa hay,  12  pounds  barley  and  7 
pounds  cracked  corn.  McLay,  a  noted 
breeder  of  Clydesdale  horses,  has  come 
to  the  conclusion  on  a  basis  of  practi- 
cal experience,  that  10  pounds  of  oats, 
5  pounds  of  corn  and  3  pounds  of  bran, 
divided  into  three  equal  feeds  make  a 
ration  which  cannot  be  much  improved. 
The  amount  of  corn  may  be  increased 
during  the  winter.  In  addition  to  this 
grain  feed,  about  15  or  16  pounds  of 
hay  are  allowed  for  each  horse. 

The  rations  allowed  army  horses  in 
the  United  States,  are  as  follows:  For 
cavalry  horses,  12  pounds  oats  and  14 
pounds  of  hay;  for  artillery  horses,  the 
same;  and  for  mules,  9  pounds  of  oats 
and  14  pounds  of  hay.  In  Great  Britain 
very  similar  rations  are  allowed  for 
army  horses.  As  a  rule,  however,  both 
hay  and  straw  are  fed,  with  a  similar 
oat  ration  to  that  which  prevails  among 
our  army  horses.  In  France,  oats  and 
hay  in  similar  proportions  are  the 
standard  rations  for  army  horses,  and 


the  same  may  be  said  of  Germany. 
Omnibus  horses,  however,  in  France  re- 
ceive beans,  corn,  oats,  hay  and  straw; 
and  in  England,  corn,  peas,  hay  and 
straw  or  beans  in  the  place  of  peas. 
Fire  company  horses  in  various  cities  of 
the  United  States  receive  oats  and  hay 
with  straw  and  small  quantities  of  bran. 
Express  horses  usually  receive  corn  in 
addition  to  oats,  bran  and  hay;  fre- 
quently, also,  both  corn  and  clover  meal 
are  fed  during  the  day. 

In  Scotland,  MacNeilage  collected 
some  valuable  data  regarding  the  feed- 
ing of  draft  and  work  horses  in  cities 
and  for  farms.  In  many  localities  it 
was  found  that  brood  mares  were  given 
a  mash,  composed  of  mixed  ground 
grains  at  5  A.  M.;  cut  corn  stalks  ait 
noon  and  mash  again  at  6  P.  M.  Near 
foaling  time  a  little  molasses  was  added 
to  the  mixture.  Other  horse  feeders 
fed  bruised  oats,  linseed  meal  and  small 
quantities  of  Swedish  turnips  to  mares 
during  pregnancy.  Before  the  colt  is 
weaned,  the  amount  of  linseed  meal  and 
oats  was  considerably  increased.  Mac 
Neilage  found  that  the  use  of  boiled 
food  is  dying  out  in  the  western  part  of 
Scotland,  and  on  many  farms  has  been 
abandoned  entirely.  Farmers  have  found 
that  horses  winter  better,  and  are  less 
liable  to  colic.  The  general  tendency 
among  the  most  successful  of  Scotch 
feeders  is  to  feed  the  horse  at  least  five 
and  even  six  times  per  day.  The  same 
feeder  considers  that  a  work  horse  should 
never  be  fed  less  than  four  times  a  day, 
and  that  five  or  six  times  is  still  better. 
.Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  work  horses 
soon  after  feeding,  it  is  strongly  recom- 
mended that  the  hay  should  be  fed  cut, 
in  order  to  check  the  liability  to  colic. 

Nosebags—With  all  work  horses, 
whether  on  farms  or  in  cities,  it  has 
been  found,  as  the  result  of  the  extended 
use  of  nosebags  for  feeding  horses,  that 
this  practice  is  a  very  commendable  one 
in  every  way.  The  percentage  of  colic 
is  greatly  reduced  thereby,  and  the  horse 
kept  in  better  condition.  By  the  use 
of  nosebags  it  is  possible  to  divide  the 
daily  ration  up  into  a  number  of  small 
meals  at  more  frequent  intervals  than 
would  otherwise  be  possible;  and  ex- 
perience shows  that  a  horse  thrives  bet- 
ter on  five  or  six  or  even  seven  small 
meals  per  day  than  two  or  three  heavier 
meals. 

Feeding  brood  mares — Previous  to 
foaling,    and    especially    after    foaling, 


336 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


mares  should  be  fed  a  nitrogenous  grain 
ration,  combined  with  green  feed,  to  give 
a  large  milk  yield.  Alfalfa,  clover  and 
cowpea  hay  are  perhaps  best  suited  to 
this  purpose.  The  more  milk  yielded  by 
the  mare,  the  better  the  development  in 
the  colt,  since  colts  are  in  this  respect 
on  the  same  basis  as  the  calf,  lamb  or 
pig.  Ogilvie  recommends  that  brood 
mares  should  be  kept  at  work  constantly 
during  the  period  of  pregnancy,  lighten- 
ing the  work  somewhat  towards  foaling 
time.  In  his  experience,  better  and 
more  vigorous  colts  were  obtained  by 
this  method  than  where  the  mares  are 
too  much  pampered  and  kept  in  idle- 
ness. "The  average  farm  mare  can  be 
worked,  if  in  the  hands  of  a  careful  and 
intelligent  man,  right  up  to  the  foaling 
time,  without  fear  of  injury  to  her  or 
her  prospective  offspring."  The  same 
breeder  recommends  that  after  a  rest 
of  two  weeks,  following  foaling,  the 
mare  should  again  be  put  to  daily  work. 
The  colt  need  not  be  taken  away  from 
the  mother  during  the  working  hours 
unless  he  is  too  much  in  the  way  or  li- 
able to  do  harm  to  crops. 

A  great  variety  of  opinions  prevail  re- 
garding the  time  when  mares  should  be 
returned  to  the  stallion  for  service.  Dif- 
ferent breeders  follow  different  practices 
in  this  respect  and  each  one  insists  up- 
on his  time  as  being  Best.  Thus  we  find 
recommended  as  the  proper  time  every 
day  from  the  ninth  to  the  twenty-first 
after  foaling.  The  majority  of  breeders, 
however,  prefer  the  18th  to  the  21st  day 
after  foaling.  No  mistake  will  be  made 
if  either  one  of  these  days  is  selected. 

Care  and  feed  of  the  stallion — The 
stallion  needs  plenty  of  oats,  bran,  clean 
hay,  crushed  barley,  green  grass  and 
other  forage  and  no  corn.  The  oats  and 
bran  should  be  fed  twice  per  day,  and 
throughout  the  mare  season.  Warren 
recommends  a  good  sized  feed  of  boiled 
barley  with  a  little  flaxseed  cooked  in  it, 
mixed  with  bran  and  fed  hot  at  night.  It 
is  recommended  that  the  stallion  should 
not  be  fed  large  quantities  of  hay  or  al- 
lowed to  drink  much  water  in  the  morn- 
ing, especially  just  before  service.  Many 
breeders  use  small  quantities  of  beans 
in  the  ration  for  stallions,  especially 
during  the  breeding  season.  "With  re- 
gard to  the  number  of  mares  which  may 
be  served  by  a  stallion,  much  difference 
of  opinion  prevails,  and  great  differ- 
ences are  observed  in  individual  horses. 


If  a  stallion  is  allowed  to  begin  ser- 
vice at  two  years  of  age,  the  number  of 
mares  should  be  very  small;  otherwise, 
considerable  injury  will  be  noted  in  the 
development  of  the  stallion  and  will  ap- 
pear most  conspicuously  in  later  years. 
Most  horse  raisers  recommend  that  the 
stallion  be  not  allowed  to  go  into  service 
until  he  is  four  or  five  years  old.  He 
may  then  serve  about  20  mares  the  first 
season,  increasing  the  number  until  50 
is  reached.  As  a  rule,  the  owners  of 
stallions  attempt  to  keep  them  gaining 
in  flesh,  rather  than  losing  during  the 
breeding  season.  In  order  that  this  may 
be  accomplished,,  the  stallion  should  not 
be  over  fat  at  the  opening  of  the  season. 
He  should  begin  the  season  in  moderate 
flesh  and  be  fed  liberally  enough  to 
make  slight  gains  in  weight  during  the 
whole  season.  His  effectiveness  and  the 
percentage  of  colts  will  be  higher  than 
if  the  stallion  begins  the  season  too  fat 
and  loses  weight  as  the  season  pro- 
gresses. 

The  digestive  capacity  of  the  horse — 
As  stated  in  Chapter  I,  the  stomach  of 
ruminants  consists  of  four  divisions, 
whereas  the  horse  has  only  a  single, 
comparatively  small  stomach.  As  the 
result  of  this  difference,  the  process  of 
digestion  in  the  horse's  stomach  is  much 
simpler  than  it  is  in  that  of  the  cow  or 
sheep.  From  a  chemical  standpoint, 
however,  the  processes  are  similar.  Ac- 
cording to  Henry,  the  average  capacity 
of  a  horse's  stomach  is  19  quarts;  the 
small  intestines,  67  quarts;  and  the  large 
intestines,  137  quarts.  Most  comparative 
experiments  with  horses  and  ruminants 
show  that  horses  have  a  lower  digestive 
efficiency  than  cattle  and  sheep.  The 
horse  digests  less  crude  fiber,  especially 
in  coarse  forage  plants,  than  does  the 
steer  or  sheep.  It  does  not  always  ap- 
pear, however,  in  such  tests,  that  the 
digestion  of  the  horse  is  particularly  in- 
effective. Thus,  in  Utah,  it  was  found 
that  horses  make  as  good  use  of  their 
food  as  cattle  and  are  fully  as  easy  to 
mature    as    steers. 

Injurious  feeding  stuffs — Many 
plants  are  known  to  be  more  or  less  poi- 
sonous to  horses  and  some  of  the  com- 
mon cultivated  horse  feeds  occasionally 
become  poisonous  as  the  result  of  being 
infected  with  ergot,  smut  or  molds. 
Ergot  occurs  quite  commonly  on  rye, 
wild  rye  grass  and  various  other  spe- 
cies     of     wild      grasses,      particularly 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


337 


throughout  the  western  states.  When 
eaten  in  large  quantities,  this  material 
is  highly  injurious^  and  may  cause 
death  if  persisted  in.  (See  Poisonou3 
Plants.) 

In  Vermont,  the  common  horse-tail 
or  scouring  rush  has  been  found  poi- 
sonous for  horses.  It  affects  young 
animals  sooner  than  old  ones,  but  horses 
fed  grain  resist  the  action  of  the  poison 
much  longer  than  those  which  do  not  re- 
ceive grain.  Apparently,  horses  which 
graze  upon  the  green  plant  are  not  poi- 
soned, particularly  if  the  plant  is  some- 
what immature.  In  hay,  however,  it 
causes  serious  results.  The  symptoms 
are  unthriftiness,  loss  of  weight,  loss  of 
control  of  the  muscles,  muscular  spasms 
and  inability  to  stand.  The  treatment 
consists,  in  the  first  place,  in  stopping 
the  use  of  the  hay  which  contains  the 
plant,  and  the  administration  of  a  pur- 
gative tonic  and  nutritious  ration,  par- 
ticularly one  which  is  slightly  laxative. 

Occasionally  golden-rod  has  proved 
more  or  less  poisonous  to  horses,  prob- 
ably on  account  of  the  presence  of  an  al- 
kaloid or  a  fungous  disease.  The  exact 
nature  of  the  poisoning,  however,  is  not 
well  understood. 

In  the  western  range  states,  a  num- 
ber of  poisonous  plants  are  known  to  af- 
fect horses.  The  loco  disease  is  ex- 
ceedingly common  in  horses  in  parts  of 
Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming  and  Colo- 
rado. (See  Poisonous  Plants.) 

Lupine  hay  has  occasionally  caused 
poisoning  in  horses  but  this  occur3 
much  less  frequently  than  with  sheep. 
The  apparent  immunity  in  most  cases 
of  horses  to  lupine  poisoning  appears  to 
rest  on  the  fact  that  the  horse  does  not 
eat  the  lupine  beans,  but  selects  merely 
the  leaves,  which  do  not  contain  any 
poison.  In  South  Dakota,  the  rattle-box 
weed  was  found  to  be  quite  poisonous  to 
horses,  although  the  number  of  animals 
which  feed  upon  it  is  comparatively 
small  and,  therefore,  only  slight  impor- 
tance attaches  to  it. 

Not  only  feeds  containing  ergot  may 
be  injurious  to  horses,  but  also  moldy  or 
smutty  grains  or  coarse  forage  may 
cause  bad  results.  Thus  horses  have  died 
as  the  result  of  eating  a  smutty  oat  hay, 
moldy  corn,  moldy  silage,  moldy  clover 
hay  and  other  spoiled  feed  stuffs.  Horses 
appear  to  be  more  susceptible  to  the  inju- 
rious effects  of  molds  and  parasitic  fungi 
than  are  cattle  and  sheep.  The  poisonous 
effects   of   sorghum,   which   occasionally 


develops  prussic  acid,  are,  of  course, 
equally  apparent  in  horses  and  cattle. 
The  bad  effects  noted  in  feeding  millet 
hay  to  horses  in  North  Dakota  have  al- 
ready been  referred  to.  In  addition  to 
the  poisonous  plants  and  fungi  already 
discussed  as  poisonous  to  horses,  men- 
tion should  also  be  made  of  larkspur, 
aconite,  death  camas,  flat  pea,  and  many 
other  native  plants,  which  are  more  or 
less  common  on  the  western  ranges. 

Box  stalls  for  horses  may  be  con- 
structed in  so  many  different  ways  that 
it  is  of  little  practical  importance  to 
suggest  the  details  of  construction,  since 
these  will  be  determined  by  the  particu- 
lar circumstances  of  each  case.  Good 
•esults,  however,  have  been  obtained 
from  the  use  of  planks  2x6  inches 
placed  3  inches  apart,  and  bolted.  If 
it  is  especially  desired  to  keep  the  feed 
box  clean,  it  may  be  constructed  so  as  to 
tilt  outward,  except  at  feeding  time;  it 
is  thus  easy  to  clean  it  and  no  project- 
ing pieces  of  wood  are  left  in  the  box 
stall,  which  may  tempt  the  horse  to  form 
the  habit  of  cribbing. 

Ventilation_Bad  ventilation  for 
horses  has  been  found  to  predispose 
them  to  brain  congestion,  respiratory 
catarrh  and  a  general  unsatisfactory 
condition.  It  is  not  necessary,  however, 
to  construct  such  elaborate  systems  of 
ventilation  for  horses  or  other  farm 
animals  as  has  sometimes  been  recom- 
mended. In  other  words,  good  ventila- 
tion is  much  more  necessary  than  a  high 
temperature  of  the  stable  and  a  sufficient 
amount  of  fresh  air  may  be  obtained 
in  almost  all  stables.  In  fact,  unless 
stables  are  built  with-  particular  care, 
it  is  impossible  to  prevent  air  from 
passing  through  them  in  all  directions 
and  affording  sufficient  ventilation  for 
more  animals  than  the  stables  could  pos- 
sibly accommodate. 

A  good  temperature  for  horse  stables 
is  about  50°  F.  in  winter  for  work  horses 
and  60  to  65°  F.  for  mares  and  suckling 
colts.  For  work  horses,  however,  it  is 
not  necessary,  as  every  farmer  knows,  to 
have  the  temperature  so  high.  In  fact, 
the  whole  matter  of  the  temperature 
requirement  depends  on  what  the  ani- 
mal is  accustomed  to.  Horses  which 
have  been  kept  in  artificially  warmed 
stables  would  be  likely  to  take  cold  if 
exposed  in  stables  full  of  cracks  and 
showing  practically  the  same  tempera- 
ture  inside  as  outside.     On  the  other 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


hand,  horses  which  are  accustomed  to 
passing  the  winter  in  cold  stables,  might 
be  injuriously  affected  by  being  kept  in 
artificially  warmed  stables  with  a  com- 
paratively high  temperature  and  mois- 
ture content  of  the  air. 

The  use  of  range  horses  in  the  East 
has  increased  so  much  of  late  that  a 
brief  mention  of  the  industry  seems  desir- 
able. Range  horses  are  brought  east 
more  and  more  from  year  to  year.  At 
first  a  considerable  market  for  them  was 
found  in  St.  Paul,  Kansas  City,  St. 
Louis  and  Chicago.  They  are  now 
brought  into  New  York,  New  England 
and  elsewhere  in  quite  large  numbers. 
Range  horses  in  skillful  hands  are  more 
easily  broken  than  is  commonly  sup- 
posed and  the  prejudice  against  brands 
is  disappearing. 

Age  of  horses — The  average  age  of 
usefulness  of  a  horse  may  be  set  down 
as  about  18  years,  although  many  of 
them  are  not  very  effective  after  reach- 
ing 12  years  of  f.ge.  Horses  frequently 
live  beyond  30  years,  and  occasionally  to 
the  age  of  40  or  50  years.  There  are 
mares  on  record  which  have  produced 
32  colts  and  quite  often  horses  are  ca- 
pable of  working  up  to  the  age  of  25  or 
30.  Thoroughbred  mares  may  be  bred 
to  a  somewhat  older  age  than  draft 
mares.  Thus,  many  breeders  use  thor- 
oughbred mares  up  to  the  age  of  22, 
but  draft  mares  are  usually  bred  only 
to  the  age  of  15  to  18  years.  As  a  rule, 
stallions  are  not  good  for  service  past 
the  age  of  20.  Geldings  are  preferred 
by  some  horse  users  and  mares  by  others. 
The  differences  in  the  effectiveness  of 
geldings  and  mares  are  not  great  enough 
to  be  of  any  note.  According  to  some 
Russian  authorities,  geldings  are  slightly 
more  susceptible  to  disease  than  mares, 
but  the  statistics  on  this  point  are  not 
extensive  enough  to  be  of  much  value. 

Blanketing  horses—Blankets  are  not 
always  used  in  a  rational  manner  in 
protecting  horses.  Thus  when  a  blanket 
is  placed  in  immediate  contact  with  a 
horse  underneath  the  harness,  especially 
in  the  case  of  horses  which  are  kept  at 
severe  work  in  winter,  they  sweat  quite 
profusely  while  in  motion  and  when  at 
rest  must  suffer  from  the  cold  on  ac- 
count of  being  moist  and  covered  with 
a  moist  blanket.  Better  results  in  equal- 
izing the  temperature  would  be  ob- 
tained by  working  horses  without  blan- 
kets and  blanketing  them  while  at  rest. 


The  only  justification  for  fastening  blan- 
kets on  working  horses  in  cities  is  that 
the  owners  cannot  always  depend  upon 
the  drivers  to  place  blankets  on  them 
when  the  horses  are  at  rest.  In  Utah, 
the  matter  of  blanketing  horses  was 
studied  with  reference  to  the  effect  upon 
the  gains  in  horses  and  the  amount  of 
food  eaten.  It  was  found  that  when 
blankets  are  worn  daily  while  the  horses 
were  at  work,  they  proved  a  source  of 
irritation  to  the  horses,  and  blanketed 
horses  lost  in  weight,  while  those  which 
were  not  blanketed  during  the  working 
hours  gained  slightly  on  the  same  ration. 

Grooming  horses— It  has  been  found 
by  experiment  that  the  weight  of  per- 
spiration which  passes  through  the  skin 
of  the  horse  during  a  hard  day's  work 
equals  that  of  the  feces.  It  is  apparent, 
therefore,  that  a  large  amount  of  solid 
waste  material  in  the  perspiration  must 
become  deposited  on  the  skin  and  in  the 
hair.  This  is  particularly  true  of  horses 
kept  at  hard  work  and  confined  in  sta- 
bles during  the  resting  hours.  When 
horses  are  turned  out  to  pasture  and 
not  worked,  the  amount  of  perspiration 
s  exceedingly  small,  and  the  consump- 
tion of  green  grass  and  other  laxative 
feeds  makes  it  unnecessary  to  pay  much 
attention  to  the  care  of  the  skin.  In  the 
stable,  however,  this  is  an  important 
matter.  The  mere  presence  of  flies  or 
other  similar  external  sources  of  annoy- 
ance is  sufficient  to  cause  some  worry 
on  the  part  of  the  horse  and  actual  loss 
in  weight,  or  at  any  rate  the  use  of  more 
food  for  the  same  amount  of  work. 

Similarly  with  an  unclean  skin,  the 
itching  caused  by  the  presence  of  this 
filth  on  the  skin  is  sufficient  to  worry 
the  horse,  and  the  digestive  and  other 
functions  are  also  influenced  unfavor- 
ably by  the  unhealthy  condition  of  the 
skin,  which  results  from  lack  of  care. 
There  is,  therefore,  abundant  renson 
for  grooming  horses  quite  aside  from 
the  mere  consideration  of  appearance. 
MacNeilage  found  that  throughout  the 
northern  part  of  Scotland,  horses  are 
commonly  groomed  three  times  daily, 
while  some  distillery  and  brewery  horses 
were  groomed  five  times  per  day;  viz., 
at  5  and  11  a.  m.,  and  at  12.30,  6  and  8 
p.  m.  When  the  horses  are  returned  to 
the  stables  in  a  sweaty  condition,  they 
are  first  treated  with  an  iron  scraper, 
then  rubbed  with   a   wisp   of  straw  or 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


339 


coarse  sacking,  after  which  they  are  cov- 
ered until  dry  and  then  thoroughly 
cleaned  with  brush  and  currycomb.  The 
appearance  of  the  coat  and  the  general 
thriftiness  of  the  horses  are  in  all  cases 
much  improved  by  thorough  grooming, 
so  that  this  operation  is  not  to  be  looked 
upon  as  a  mere  matter  of  style.  By 
means  of  careful  grooming  the  skin  is 
kept  in  a  healthy  condition,  the  sweat 
pores  are  opened  and  horses  are  actually 
able  to  endure  hard  work  more  success- 
fully and  with  less  loss  of  weight. 

Determining   age  by  teeth — At  birth 
the  colt  usually  has  no  teeth  in  the  front 


in  the  face  of  the  central  front  teeth 
are  obliterated  or  razed  off,  and  the 
same  process  takes  place  in  the  other 
front  teeth,  ending  with  the  corner  teeth 
by  the  end  of  the  second  year. 

The  shedding  of  the  milk  teeth  and 
the  appearance  of  the  second  set,  or  per- 
manent teeth,  begins  to  take  place  at 
from  two  and  one-half  to  three  years  of 
age.  The  first,  or  milk  teeth,  may 
always  be  recognized  by  their  shortness, 
white  color  and  by  a  constriction  or 
neck  near  the  gum.  The  middle  front 
teeth  are  shed  first,  the  intermediate 
ones  following  at  the  age  of  three  and 


Fig.    226 — FLEXIBLE    SHAFT    HORSE    CLIPPING  MACHINE 


of  the  mouth  and  only  four  molars  in 
each  jaw.  After  a  few  days,  the  middle 
incisor  teeth  appear,  and  after  about  a 
month  another  grinder  breaks  through 
on  each  side  of  each  jaw.  At  the  age 
of  four  months  the  intermediate  front 
teeth  appear,  and  at  the  age  of  six  to 
eight  months  the  side  front  teeth,  or  cor- 
ners as  they  are  commonly  called,  break 
through,  and  also  another  grinder  on 
each  jaw.  This  completes  the  set  of 
milk  teeth.  As  soon  as  a  tooth  breaks 
through  the  gum,  it  is  subject  to  wear, 
which,  in  connection  with  its  growth, 
continually  changes  its  appearance.  At 
the  age  of  13  to  16  months  the  cavities 


one-half  to  four  years,  and  the  corner 
teeth  between  four  and  one-half  and 
five  years  of  age.  These  conditions  will 
thus  serve  to  determine  the  age  of  the 
horse  up  until  the  time  when  he  be- 
comes mature.  A  horse  is  said  to  be 
mature  at  five  years  of  age,  when  his 
set  of  permanent  teeth  is  completed. 

The  determination  of  the  age  of  horses 
between  the  ages  of  five  and  10  years 
may  be  made  with  considerable  certainty 
by  experts,  from  a  study  of  the  front 
teeth  of  the  lower  and  upper  jaws.  Nat- 
urally these  teeth  undergo  a  progressive 
wearing  process,  which  changes  their 
appearance   as  the  animal  grows  older, 


340 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  general  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  shape  of  the  front  teeth  gradually 
changes  with  age.  In  young  horses 
they  are  wider  from  side  to  side  than 
from  front  to  back;  while  in  very  old 
horses  they  become  thicker  from  front 
to  back  than  from  side  to  side,  showing 
in  many  cases  a  triangular  shape.  At 
six  years  the  nippers  become  worn  down 
even  with  the  middle  teeth  and  the  inner 
edge  of  the  corner  teeth  is  also  worn 
down  even  with  the  outer  one.  The  nip- 
pers of  the  upper  jaw  take  about  two 
years  longer  to  wear  down  than  those 
of  the  lower,  so  that  until  a  horse  is 
eight  years  old  his  age  may  be  deter- 
mined nearly  as  well  by  referring  to  the 
upper  nippers  as  by  examining  the  lower 
nippers  at  the  age  of  six. 

At  the  age  of  seven  the  tushes  become 
dull  at  the  point  and  somewhat  rounded 
by  wear  and  both  edges  of  the  corner 
teeth  are  smooth  with  a  small  cavity  on 
the  face.  The  middle  teeth  have  lost 
their  mark  by  this  time  and  show  an 
even  surface.  From  this  age  until  10 
or  11,  the  incisor  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw 
are  usually  examined  for  determining 
the  age.  Age  is  now  indicated  with 
some  accuracy  by  the  amount  of  wear 
upon  the  face  of  the  teeth  and  by  the 
gradual  disappearance  of  their  marks 
or  cavities  on  the  cutting  surface.  The 
marks  in  the  corner  teeth  become  en- 
tirely obliterated  between  seven  and 
eight  years  of  age.  The  same  process 
takes  place  in  the  front  teeth  of  the 
upper  jaws  more  slowly  and  when  these 
changes  have  occurred  in  the  upper 
teeth,  the  horse  may  be  looked  upon  as 
10  years  of  age.  After  this  time  the 
determination  of  the  age  of  the  horse 
involves  more  or  less  guess  work;  the 
corner  teeth  become  triangular  and 
deeper  from  front  to  back.  By  the  age 
of  20  or  21,  the  angles  have  disappeared 
from  the  teeth  and  all  teeth  become  oval. 
The  teeth  gradually  become  deeper  than 
broad  and  as  this  process  goes  on  the 
space  between  the  teeth  increases.  The 
teeth  also  become  of  a  dirty  yellow  color, 
with  occasional  streaks  of  brown,  and 
the  gums  recede  and  waste  away. 

Bishoping  teeth — A  common  fraud- 
ulent method  of  attempting  to  make  the 
horse's  teeth  look  younger  than  they 
really  are  is  known  as  "bishoping."  This 
consists  in  using  an  engraver's  toed  to 
dig  out  a  slight  groove  on  the  biting 
surface  of  the  corner  teeth.  This  cav- 
ity is  then  burned  with  a  hot  iron  to 


give  it  the  black  color  which  would  be 
seen  in  a  six  or  seven-year-old  horse. 
The  expert,  however,  has  no  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  between  this  artificial 
mark  and  the  natural  mark  of  the 
younger  horse. 

MULES  AND  ASSES 

Mule  raising,  like  other  lines  of  ani- 
mal industry,  has  had  its  ups  and  downs, 
but  at  present  the  outlook  is  bright. 
Good  mules  are  readily  marketable  at 
a  remunerative  price — $140  to  $250. 
The  active  call  for  them  is  due  partly 
to  their  increased  use  for  all  purposes. 
Many  mules  were  needed  for  our  Span- 
ish war,  and  the  English  bought  thou- 
sands of  them  for  shipment  to  South 
Africa.  Throughout  the  South  they 
have  long  been  the  favorite  draft  ani- 
mal for  work  on  the  plantation  and  for 
city  use,  and  mules  are  being  employed 
more  and  more  for  similar  purposes 
in  the  northern  states.  According  to 
the  last  census  there  were  3,445,000  in 
the  United  States  and  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimates  the  number  at 
2,890,000. 

Stock  raisers  in  various  foreign  coun- 
tries are  rapidly  awakening  to  a  reali- 
zation of  the  peculiar  value  of  mules. 
Thus  in  Jamaica,  the  mule  industry  is 
in  a  much  more  flourishing  condition 
than  horse  breeding.  The  demand  for 
mules  for  use  in  the  banana  business 
is  so  great  and  continuous  that  during 
the  past  12  years  breeders  have  neglect- 
ed horses  and  turned  their  attention  to 
mules,  with  the  result  that  they  are 
now  bred  twice  as  extensively  as  horses. 
Similarly  the  mule  industry  is  growing 
in  South  America,  South  Africa  and 
elsewhere.  Many  countries  which  have 
hitherto  given  no  heed  to  mules  are  be- 
ginning to  look  into  the  business. 

The  mule,  as  is  commonly  known,  is 
a  hybrid  between  the  mare  and  the  male 
ass  or  jack.  The  hybrid  produced  be- 
tween the  horse  stallion  and  the  female 
ass  or  jennet,  is  known  as  a  hinny.  As 
stated  in  Chapter  I,  hybrids  may  be 
obtained  by  crossing  any  two  species  of 
the  horse  family.  These  crosses  have 
been  produced  between  the  horse  and 
ass,  zebra  and  quagga.  While  such 
crosses  are  easily  secured,  the  hybrid 
animals  are  always  sterile.  Several  in- 
stances have  been  cited  where  mare 
mules  have  been  supposed  to  bear  young. 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


341 


Upon  investigation,  however,  all  evi- 
dence for  the  supposed  fertility  of  mules 
has  proved  unsatisfactory.  Male  mules 
are  amorous  and  have  to  be  castrated, 
to  prevent  them  from  worrying  mares, 
but  no  colts  have  come  from  such  occa- 
sional breeding. 

Zebroids  — Within  recent  years  experi- 
ments have  been  carried  out  in  crossing 
zebra  stallions  on  mares.  The  resulting 
hybrid  is  known  as  a  zebroid.    The  most 


poses,  or  for  heavy  and  light  draft  work, 
their  size  and  form  depending  upon  that 
of  the  mare.  Percheron,  Clydesdale  and 
Suffolk  mares  produce  draft  zebroids, 
while  thoroughbred  mares  produce  ze- 
broids of  considerable  speed.  Breeding 
may  be  done  either  in  the  spring  or  fall, 
but  preferably  in  moderately  warm 
weather.  Eecently,  the  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal Industry  has  undertaken  some  ex- 
periments in  breeding  zebroids. 


conspicuous  men  in  this  work  are  Pro- 
fesssor  Ewart  and  Baron  de  Parana  of 
Brazil.  Zebroids  tend  to  inherit  the 
size  and  conformation  of  the  mare,  be- 
having like  mules  in  this  respect.  The 
stripes  of  the  zebra,  however,  are  not 
entirely  obliterated  in  the  hybrid. 
Zebroids  are  active,  gentle,  docile,  good 
feeders  and  of  remarkable  power.  They 
are  rather  more  elegant  animals  than 
mules  and  are  claimed  to  be  better 
workers  and  of  more  tractable  disposi- 
tion,   They  may  be  bred  for  saddle  pur- 


Fig.     227 FIVE-YEAR-OLD     JACK 

(Courtesy  Converse  Bros.) 

Selection  of  jack — In  raising  mules, 
the  selection  of  the  jack  is  an  important 
matter.  We  may,  therefore,  proceed  to 
describe  the  various  breeds  of  jacks, 
which  may  be  used  for  the  purpose.  In 
general,  the  best  grades  of  jacks  of  ail 
breeds  are  used  for  raising  jacks  and  are 
called  jennet  jacks,  while  the  some- 
what less  valuable  ones  are  bred  to 
mares  for  the  production  of  mules  and 
are  called  mule  jacks.  In  the  following 
account   of   jack   breeds,   Goodpasture's 


342 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


descriptions  as  modified  by  Knight  are 
largely  utilized. 

Andalusian — This  breed  comes  from 
southern  Spain,  and  was  the  first  to  be 
introduced  into  the  United  States.  The 
King  of  Spain  presented  a  jack  and 
jennet  of  this  breed  to  George  Wash- 
ington in  1787.  Later  Henry  Clay  in- 
troduced them  into  Kentucky.  It  is  an 
old  breed.  The  color  is  gray,  frequently 
white,  and  rarely  black  or  blue.  The 
Andalusians  stand  14  to  15  hands  high 
and  have  fine  legs  with  large  bone  and 
comparatively  free  from  jack  sores.  The 
head  and  ears  are  fairly  satisfactory  in 


States  by  Henry  Clay.  This  is  a  good 
black,  with  white  points,  of  fine  style 
and  action,  and  from  14M>  to  15  hands, 
with  a  clean  bone.  The  Catalonian  is 
a  popular  jack  on  account  of  his  desir- 
able color,  fine  short  hair  and  unusual 
height.  Rarely  specimens  of  this  breed 
are  gray.  In  style  and  action  the  Cat- 
alonian is  unsurpassed  and  he  is,  there- 
fore, a  desirable  animal  for  crossing 
upon  our  native  jennets.  .  Some  of  the 
chief  good  points  of  our  native  jacks 
come  from  Catalonian  crosses.  Certain 
breeders  claim  that  mules  sired  by  Cata- 


Fig.    228 — BROOD    MARE   AND   HER   MULE    COLT 


conformation,  but  the  breed  is  unpopu- 
lar on  account  of  its  color. 

Maltese — This  well-known  breed  came 
from  the  island  of  Malta,  and  the  first 
to  reach  this  country  were  given  to 
General  Washington  by  Lafayette.  The 
Maltese  is  a  small  jack,  seldom  standing 
over  14  hands  high.  The  color  is  black 
or  brown.  The  head  is  well  formed, 
with  pointed  upright  ears,  but  the  leg3 
are  rather  small  for  sires  of  mules.  The 
Maltese  is  quite  satisfactory  for  saddle 
or  driving  purposes,  but  is  too  small  as 
a  mule-getter  for  our  farm  conditions. 

Catalonian  is  another  Spanish  breed 
of  jack  first  introduced  into  the  United 


Ionian  jacks  mature  earlier  than  those 
from  other  breeds. 

The  Majorca  jack  comes  from  the 
island  of  the  same  name.  It  is  the 
largest  of  all  imported  jacks,  often 
standing  16  hands  high,  with  the  great- 
est weight  and  heaviest  bone,  head  and 
ear  of  all  jack  breeds.  No  jennets  of 
this  breed  have  been  imported  into 
America. 

The  Italian  jack  js  common  in  Italy 
and  has  been  imported  in  considerable 
numbers  into  this  country.  They  are 
the  smallest  of  the  imported  breeds  and 
the  price  is  correspondingly  low.  The 
color  is  black  with  an  occasional  gray, 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


343 


and  the  height  13  to  14  hands.  The  bone 
is  large,  but  the  Italian  jack  is  too 
small  for  producing  mules.  They  seem 
to  be  related  to  the  Maltese.  Occasion- 
ally they  are  quite  vicious. 

The  Poitou  was  the  latest  breed  of 
jacks  to  be  imported  into  this  country. 
The  Poitou  jack  has  been  greatly  im- 
proved by  systematic  breeding,  with  the 
result  that  Prance  leads  Europe  in  qual- 
ity and  number  of  jacks  and  also  iof 
mules.  According  to  Ayrault,  the  noted 
French  authority  on  the  subject,  the 
head  of  this  jack  is  large,  the  mouth 
small,  and  the  ears  long  with  long,  curly 
hair.  The  tail  is  short,  with  long  hair 
only  at  the  tip.  The  chest  is  broad  and 
all  the  joints  large.  The  mane  is  long 
and  the  hair  generally  fine  and  silky. 
The  color  is  black  or  dark  brown,  rarely 
gray.  The  price  is  high,  ranging  from 
$1000  to  $3200.  They  are  in  such  great 
demand  in  France,  Spain  and  elsewhere 
that  the  trade  can  scarcely  be  supplied. 
The  requirements  for  entry  into  the 
Poitou  stud  book  are  very  strict.  Mules 
from  this  jack,  according  to  Allen,  are 
unequaled,  and  sell  for  more  than  those 
from  any  other  breed.  Draft  mares  bred 
to  this  jack  in  the  United  States  pro- 
duce excellent  mules. 

The  native  jack—Notwithstanding 
the  excellence  of  many  imported  jacks, 
especially  the  Poitou  and  Catalonian, 
it  is  the  opinion  of  experienced  breeders 
like  J.  L.  Jones,  that  "our  native  jacks 
with  good  imported  crosses  behind  them, 
will  sire  the  mules  best  suited  to  the 
wants  of  those  who  use  them  in  this 
country,  and  will  supply  the  market 
with  what  is  wanted  by  the  dealers." 
The  native  jack  is  of  greater  weight 
and  larger  bone  than  imported  jacks, 
showing  in  this  regard  the  effect  of 
limestone  soil  and  blue  grass.  He  is  a 
mixture  of  all  breeds  of  imported  jacks 
and,  therefore,  shows  all  colors.  Re- 
cently, however,  breeders  have  selected 
them  for  black  color  with  white  points. 
Colts  from  native  jacks  are  stronger, 
with  better  body  and  more  length  than 
those  of  imported  jacks.  In  Jamaica, 
the  Maltese  jack  is  preferred  for  mule 
breeding.  At  present  there  are  about 
1400  registered  jacks  in  the  United 
States. 

Best  time  for  breeding — In  breeding 
jacks  to  jennets,  the  spring  is  the  best 
season.  Jack  colts  are  weaned  at  six 
months  of  age.  They  are  fed  on  oats, 
bran,  hay  and  plenty  of  green  forage  or 


pasture.  Both  jennet  and  mule  jacks 
may  begin  service  at  two  years  of  age. 
The  jack  gets  only  about  50  per  cent 
of  mule  colts  from  his  service,  but  the 
percentage  of  colts  from  stallions 
is  usually  no  higher.  About  *40  mule 
colts  per  season  is  good  work  for  a  jack. 
Most  consider  it  best  that  mule  jacks 
should  not  be  allowed  to  associate  with 
their  own  species,  but  only  with  the 
horse.  During  the  season  of  service 
they  should  be  fed  a  nitrogenous  ration 
and  should  have  the  freedom  of  a  good 
pasture. 


Fig.    229 NEW    USE   FOR   THE   DONKEY 

The  burro—From  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains to  the  Pacific  coast  a  diminutive 
jack,  known  as  the  burro,  is  in  common 
use.  The  burro  is  the  descendant  of 
jacks  brought  by  the  Spanish  settlers 
of  that  region,  but  it  is  not  certain  to 
what  breed  of  jack  it  is  most  closely 
related.  Its  color  varies  from  white  to 
almost  black,  mouse  color  being  very 
common.  The  size  is  about  that  of  the 
Shetland  pony.  A  peculiar  feature  fre- 
quently seen  in  the  burro  is  its  enor- 
mously thick  neck.  It  is  a  slow,  strong, 
patient  and  sure-footed  animal,  and  is 
capable  of  carrying  loads  up  to  250 
pounds.  It  is,  therefore,  an  excellent 
pack  animal  for  mountain  work.  Burro 
mares  crossed  with  the  thoroughbred 
stallion  produce  tunnies  of  considerable 


344 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


speed,  good  temper,  great  endurance  and 
more  style  than  the  ordinary  mule 
shows.  The  best  of  hinnies  for  mining 
are  obtained  by  putting  burro  mares  to 
small,  blocky  stallions.  If  it  is  desir- 
able in  such  cases,  artificial  insemina- 
tion may  be  practiced  by  means  of  the 
syringe  or  capsule. 

Mule  industry — The  following  states 
are  leaders  in  the  mule  industry:  Texas, 
Missouri,  Mississippi,  Georgia,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
North   Carolina,  etc.     In  recent  years 


horses  when  frightened  throw  the  head 
up,  thus  bruising  it  and  causing  poll 
evil.  Mules,  on  the  other  hand,  lower 
the  head  at  such  times  and  avoid  dan- 
ger in  that  way.  Moreover,  mules  excel 
horses  in  their  capacity  for  hard  work, 
in  endurance,  in  length  of  life  and  in 
economy  of  feeding.  It  is  often  as- 
serted that  mules  live  twice  as  long  as 
horses,  but  the  truth  is  they  live  con- 
siderably longer  than  horses.  Then.too, 
mules  are  not  immune  to  ordinary  horse 
diseases,  as  sometimes  asserted.     On  the 


Pig.  230 — TWO-YEAR-OLD  MULE   FROM   KENTUCKY  JACK  AND  COMMON  FARM   MARE 


the  industry  has  become  widely  extended 
and  there  are  at  present  large  mule 
ranches  in  Iowa,  Montana,  Colorado  and 
Utah.  The  number  of  jacks  including 
burros  in  the  United  States  is  about 
125,000,  a  large  percentage  of  them  be- 
ing used  in  the  production  of  mules. 

Mules  may  be  used  for  all  purposes 
for  which  horses  are  adapted,  except  fast 
driving,  and  in  addition  are  well  suited 
to  several  lines  of  work  where  horses 
cannot  be  profitably  employed.  Thus  in 
mines  mules  excel  horses  for  several 
reasons,  notably    for    the    reason    that 


contrary,  they  are  just  as  susceptible  to 
glanders,  influenza,  distemper,  colic, 
etc,  as  are  horses.  The  English  govern- 
ment suffered  great  losses  from  glanders 
among  mules  in  the  Boer  war. 

For  military  purposes,  the  mule  has 
long  been  considered  superior  to  the 
horse,  and  the  army  mule  has  been  a 
conspicuous  feature  in  all  our  Indian 
fighting  and  more  serious  wars.  The 
mule  is  less  easily  frightened  then  the 
horse  and  withstands  hardships  better, 
such  as  going  without  water  for  24  hours 
and  without  feed  for  two  or  three  days.; 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


345 


The  use  of  mules  for  draft  purposes 
in  cities  is  increasing  from  year  to  year, 
and  for  farm  work  they  are  also  becom- 
ing more  popular.  A  Virginia  farmer 
writes:  "For  general  purposes  and  last- 
ing wear  the  well  bred  mule  outclasses 
and  outlasts  any  horse."  This  statement 
is  based  on  a  long  experience  with  mules 
bred  from  mares  weighing  1400  to  1750 
pounds,  and  a  Kentucky  jack  for  which 
$1000  was  paid. 

The  opinion  prevails  quite  widely  that 
the  mule  is  more  stubborn,  vicious  and 
ill-tempered  than  the  horse.  The  tem- 
per and  behavior  of  the  mule,  however, 
depend  largely  on  his  breaking,  training 
and  method  of  handling.  Mules  endure 
abuse  and  rough  handling  with  as  much 
patience  as  the  horse.  An  Iowa  breeder 
considers  "no  team  more  gentle,  more 
safe  or  more  agreeable  to  handle  than  a 
pair  of  mules."  In  the  South  the  mule 
and  the  negro  work  together.  Cotton 
and  sugar  plantations  are  inconceivable 
without  mules.  All  these  uses  of  the 
mule  constitute  a  market  which  is  not 
likely  to  be  overstocked  for  some  time 
to  come.  Since  the  mule  inherits  much 
of  its  form  from  the  dam,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  exercise  as  much  care  in  select- 
ing mares  as  in  horse  breeding.  The 
mare  must  be  sound  and  well  built,  and 
the  color  should  be  dark,  preferably 
black,  bay  or  brown.  "The  mare  should 
have  good  length,  large,  well-rounded 
barrel,  good  head,  long  neck,  good, 
broad,  flat  bone,  broad  chest  and  good 
style." 

Best  time  to  breed  mares — The  right 
time  for  breeding  is  about  April  1  in 
Tennessee  and  at  corresponding  times 
in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Before 
being  served,  mares  should  be  hobbled 
or  placed  in  pits  or  chutes.  A  suitable 
breeding  chute  may  easily  be  construct- 
ed of  plank,  placed  vertically  and  close 
enough  together  so  that  the  jack's  feet 
do  not  get  caught.  At  the  entrance  to 
the  chute  wings  may  be  placed  opening 
out  at  a  slight  angle.  Poles  passing 
through  the  chute  in  front  and  behind 
the  mare  and  also  behind  the  fore  legs 
and  in  front  of  the  hind  legs  just  under 
the  belly,  will  prevent  any  accident  from 
kicking  or  squatting.  Moreover,  if  sev- 
eral mares  are  ready  for  service  at  the 
same  time,  artificial  insemination  may 
be  accomplished  by  means  of  the  syringe 
or  capsule  method.  (See  Artificial  Im- 
pregnation.)    The  mare  is  returned  to 


the  jack  on  the  eighteenth  day  after 
service. 

For  farm  work,  a  mule  should  stand 
15  to  15.2  hands  high  and  weigh  1050 
to  1100  pounds.  Some  users  of  mules 
prefer  a  heavier  animal — up  to  1300 
pounds.  In  order  to  get  mules  of  this 
size,  Percheron  mares  and  a  jack  15.2 
hands  high  may  be  used.  In  all  cases, 
both  the  mare  and  jack  should  be  dark 
in  color,  for  the  market  demands  dark 
colored  mules.  A  mature  jack  is  a  more 
certain  foal  getter  than  a  young  one. 
Wbile,  therefore,  jacks  may  be  allowed 
to  do  service  sparingly  at  two  years  of 
age,  they  should  not  be  brought  up  to 
a  maximum  till  the  age  of  four  or  five 
years.  Some  breeders  castrate  male 
mules  during  the  first  summer,  while 
they  are  still  with  the  mares,  but,  as  a 
rule,  it  is  better  to  wait  till  they  are 
one  year  old.  In  general,  the  market 
prefers  female  to  male  mules.  The 
females  mature  a  little  earlier  and  are 
plumper  and  more  squarely  built.  Then 
gnats  and  screw  worm  flies  often  irri- 
tate the  sheath  of  the  male. 

Warder  recommends  that  mules  be 
broken  at  two  years  of  age,  after  which 
they  are  to  be  put  at  light  work  during 
the  third  year.  It  is  believed  that  by 
this  system  they  develop  a  quicker  step 
than  when  broken  after  attaining  full 
maturity  and  put  at  hard  work  imme1 
diately.  The  same  methods  are  to  be 
used  in  breaking  mules  as  with  horses. 
Abuse  and  barbarous  treatment  are 
quite  uncalled  for.  "By  kind  treatment 
mules  may  be  rendered  the  most  docile 
and  affectionate  creatures  among  our 
domestic  animals  and  will  often  show 
more  intelligence  than  the  horse." 

Hinnies,  as  already  stated,  are  hybrids 
obtained  by  crossing  the  stallion  upon 
the  female  ass  or  jennet.  The  hinny 
is  usually  smaller  than  the  mule  and  is 
commonly  considered  less  desirable  in 
every  respect.  One  breeder  states  that 
binnies  are  weak  and  stubborn  and  can- 
not be  compared  with  mules.  They  re- 
semble the  horse  rather  than  the  jennet 
and  have  a  neater  head  and  heavier 
mane  and  tail  than  the  mule.  In 
Jamaica,  the  hinny  is  not  considered  so 
unimportant.  One  noted  breeder  says, 
"I  can  make  bold  to  say  that  they  are 
hardier  than  the  mule  out  of  mares,  will 
grow  to  a  serviceable  size  and  are  more 
cheaply  bred."  Another  breeder  in 
Jamaica  states  that  hinnies  "are  larger, 
more  docile,  and  in  all  respects  better 


346 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


than  the  ordinary  mule,  and  the  saving 
in  breeding  is  considerable,  as  the  price 
of  one  mule  mare  equals  that  of  three 
or  four  jennies,  and  the  keep  of  a  jenny 
one-fourth  that  of  a  mare."  Small  stal- 
lions are  used  in  breeding  hinnies.  We 
have  already  mentioned  the  fact  that 
good  hinnies  have  been  obtained  by 
crossing  thoroughbred  or  pony  stallions 
on  burro  mares.  Now  and  then  in  farm 
papers,  the  question  is  raised  concern- 
ing the  value  and  usefulness  of  hinnies. 
It  may  be,  therefore,  that  on  account  of 
the  economy  in  raising  them,  more  at- 
tention may  be  given  to  hinnies  in  the 
future  than  has  heretofore  been  the 
case. 


Feeding  mules—The  statement  is  fre- 
quently made  that  mules  eat  less  than 
horses.  Riley,  however,  on  the  basis  of 
a  long  experience  with  thousands  of 
army  mules,  formed  a  different  opinion. 
He  maintains  that  a  mule  "requires  just 
as  much  as  a  horse  of  similar  dimen- 
sions." In  fact,  at  hard  work,  Riley 
states  that,  "the  mule  will  eat  more 
than  the  horse  will  or  can."  At  three 
years  of  age  the  mule  is  shedding  his 
milk  teeth  and  cannot  eat  much.  He 
is,  therefore,  weak  and  particularly  lia- 
ble to  contract  distemper,  sore  eyes,  skin 
sores  and  other  diseases.  But  the  ma- 
ture mule  in  health  is  a  good  feeder. 
In  general,  a  poor  feeder  is  a  poor  ani- 


Fig.    231 THE    MULE   AND   THE    COTTON    PLANTER 


Market  classes — There  are  two  gen- 
eral classes  of  mules,  cotton  mules  and 
sugar  mules.  The  size  of  the  colt  at 
birth  and  the  rapidity  of  growth  deter- 
mine whether  it  be  a  sugar  or  cotton 
mule.  "If  the  colt  when  foaled,  is  3 
feet  5  inches  and  upwards,  and  grows 
nicely,  it  will  make  a  sugar  mule;  if 
under  the  above  height  it  will  be  a  cot- 
ton mule.  The  mature  sugar  mule 
stands  15.3  to  16.3  hands  or  higher  and 
is  heavy,  well-boned  and  rather  stylish. 
They  are  used  on  sugar  plantations,  for 
dray  purposes,  and  for  heavy  farm  work. 
The  cotton  mule  is  simply  smaller  than 
the  sugar  mule,  but  of  the  same  con- 
formation. 


mal  whether  it  be  sheep,  pig,  dairy  cow, 
beef  steer  or  horse,  and  the  mule  is  no 
exception  to  this  rule.  The  mule  will 
manage  to  get  along  on  poor  feed  given 
at  irregular  intervals,  but  the  sensible 
man  does  not  attempt  to  determine  just 
how  much  neglect  in  this  respect  the 
mule  will  endure. 

The  mule  colt  is  taught  to  eat  grain 
before  it  is  weaned,  which  takes  place 
at  the  age  of  four  months.  At  weaning 
time  the  colts  are  put  in  a  barn  and  fed 
bran,  oats,  cut  grass,  and  clean  hay. 
After  about  two  weeks  they  may  be 
turned  on  pasture,  preferably  alfalfa  or 
clover  with  some  grain.  Little  variation 
is  needed  on  this  system  till  mules  are 


HORSES  AND  MULES 


347 


two  years  old.  Then  if  they  are  to  be 
sold,  they  must  be  fattened;  otherwise 
they  bring  but  a  small  price.  The  fol- 
lowing fattening  regimen  has  been  pro- 
posed by  Jones:  "The  sugar  mule 
should  be  placed  in  the  barn  with  plenty 
of  room  and  not  much  light  about  the 
first  of  November,  before  he  is  two  years 
old,  and  fed  about  12  ears  of  corn  per 
day  and  all  the  nice,  well-cured  clover 
hay  he  will  eat,  and  there  kept  until 
about  the  first  of  April.  Then  in  the 
climate  of  middle  Tennessee  the  clover 
is  good,  and  the  mule  may  be  turned  out 
on  it  without  fear  of  firing,  that  is, 
heating  so  as  to  cause  scratches,  as  the 
green  clover  removes  all  danger  from 
this  source.  During  the  time  they  run 
on  clover  they  eat  less  hay,  but  this 
should  always  be  kept  by  them."  Later 
they  are  put  in  barns  or  sheds  and  fed 
green  clover  and  grain  in  the  form  of 
sheaf  oats  and  bran.  Ground  barley 
may  be  fed  in  June  ad  libitum.  Later 
they  may  be  fed,  in  several  separate 
grain  rations,  green  roasting  ears, 
shelled  corn,  bran  and  oats.  Bran  and 
oats  are  considered  necessary  for  giving 
the  proper  finish  to  the  coat.  Mules  fed 
in  this  way  until  the  September  after 
they  are  two  years  old,  should  weigh 
1150  to  1350  pounds.  The  sugar  mule 
market  opens  in  September. 

The  cotton  mule  is  usually  not  put 
in  the  barn  till  the  August  after  it 
reaches  two  years  of  age.  It  should  re- 
ceive shelled  corn,  green  corn,  good  hay 
and  soiling  crops  until  November,  after 
which  time  oats  and  bran  are  added,  so 
as  to  bring  the  mule  to  the  right  finish 
by  January  1,  when  the  market  for  the 
cotton  mule  opens.  The  central  south- 
ern market  for  sugar  mules  is  New 
Orleans,  but  large  markets  for  both 
classes  of  mules  are  found  in  Chicago, 
St.  Paul,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Louis- 
ville, Nashville  and  many  other  cities 
of  the  Mississippi  valley  region.  In 
feeding  working  mules  the  same  mate- 
rials may  be  used  and  in  the  same  ra- 
tions as  for  horses.  (See  above.)  A 
number  of  feeding  experiments  have 
been  carried  on  with  mules  and  the 
results  may  be  briefly  cited  here  as  sup- 
plementary to  the  discussion  of  feeding 
under  horses.  Chicken  corn  proved 
nearly  equal  to  corn  for  mules  in  Mis- 
sissippi. This  crop  is  usually  cut  green 
four  or  five  times  a  year,  but  it  may 
be  worth  while  to  allow  it  to  mature  and 
feed  the  grain  to  mules. 


Corn  and  cob  meal  was  compared 
with  shelled  corn  in  North  Carolina  in 
rations  of  10  pounds  clover  hay  for 
roughage,  and  also  with  a  ration  of  oat 
hay.  The  results  were  slightly  in  favor 
of  shelled  corn.  Cottonseed  meal  is  ex- 
tensively fed  to  mules.  In  Louisiana 
it  is  recommended  that  the  ration  begin 
with  y2  pound  and  be  gradually  in- 
creased to  6  pounds  as  a  maximum 
feed.  Only  bright,  yellow  meal  is  con- 
sidered safe.  Eed,  musty  meal  is  always 
to  be  avoided.  In  a  test  in  Mississippi, 
cottonseed  meal  was  not  relished  by 
mules.  In  North  Carolina  it  was  found 
that  cottonseed  meal  could  be  used  to 
replace  a  part  of  the  corn  or  oats  in  a 
mule  ration.  Good  results  were  had 
from  feeding  2  pounds  daily  mixed  with 
other  grain  or  sprinkled  on  moistened 
hay  or  corn  stover. 

In  North  Carolina,  4  pounds  gluten 
meal  and  4  pounds  corn  stover  were 
compared  with  8  pounds  of  oats  for 
mules  in  rations  containing  also  10 
pounds  corn  and  cob  meal  and  8  pounds 
cowpea  hay.  The  gluten  meal-corn 
stover  ration  proved  slightly  superior 
and  was  cheaper,  but  the  mules  did  not 
greatly  relish  the  gluten  meal.  At  the 
same  experiment  station,  bran  proved 
more  effective  and  cheaper  than  oats 
for  mules.  Oats  are  usually  too  expen- 
sive for  mules  and  may  economically 
be  partly  or  entirely  replaced  with  cot- 
tonseed meal,  gluten  meal,  cowpea  hay, 
or  alfalfa.  Wheat  and  cowpeas  have 
been  found  about  equally  effective  for 
mules  in  rations  of  4  pounds  with  8 
pounds  of  corn.  Wheat,  however,  is 
too  expensive  and  cowpeas  have  the  ad- 
ditional advantage  of  improving  the 
soil. 

Beggarweed  hay  may  be  fed  shredded 
to  mules  ad  libitum.  In  Florida,  this 
hay  gave  good  results.  Cassava  is  not 
much  relished  by  mules,  but  in  Florida 
it  seemed  to  have  a  greater  feeding 
value  than  sweet  potatoes.  The  latter 
may  be  fed  in  rations  of  12  to  15 
pounds.  In  Florida,  it  was  found  that 
they  could  be  used  to  replace  half  of  the 
ordinary  corn  ration,  the  substitution 
being  made  at  the  rate  of  3  pounds  of 
sweet  potatoes  for  1  pound  of  corn.  A 
mule  was  kept  in  good  condition  for 
three  months  on  sweet  potatoes,  cassava 
and  hay. 

Bermuda  hay  for  working  mules  in 
Mississippi  proved  equal  to  timothy  and 
was    somewhat    cheaper.      Cowpea   hay, 


348 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


substituted  for  bran,  pound  for  pound, 
in  North  Carolina,  proved  equal  to  the 
bran  and  reduced  the  cost  of  the  ration 
5  cents  per  day.  Fifteen  pounds  of 
cowpea  hay  with  10  pounds  corn  and 
cob  meal  gave  better  results  than  a 
ration  containing  5  pounds  corn  and 
cob  meal,  1  pound  cottonseed  meal,  5 
pounds  cowpea  hay  and  12  pounds  corn 
stover.  Silage  may  be  fed  to  mules 
under  the  same  conditions  as  to  horses. 
In  North  Carolina,  silage  was  found  to 
improve  mule  rations.  The  animals 
were  active,  sleek  and  always  in  good 
condition  while  receiving  silage.  In 
these  experiments  silage  was  also  com- 
pared with  oat  hay  (30  pounds:  15 
pounds,  clover  hay  in  the  same  ratio  and 
cowpea  hay  also  in  the  ratio  30  pounds: 
15  pounds).  In  all  cases,  it  proved 
highly  satisfactory  when  fed  in  rations 
of  25  to  30  pounds. 

Molasses  is  commonly  fed  to  mules 
in  rations  of  5  to  20  pounds  per  day, 
usually  8  to  12  pounds.  In  Louisiana, 
blackstrap  molasses  has  been  found  al- 
most equal  to  corn  for  mules  and  may 
be  bought  for  5  cents  per  gallon.  For- 
merly on  some  sugar  plantations,  oats 
were  fed  in  rations  of  18  pounds  per 
day.  The  use  of  molasses  has  greatly 
reduced  the  cost  of  feeding.  Molasses 
is  extensively  fed  to  mules  in  Jamaica, 
South  Africa  and  elsewhere.  We  may 
now  mention  a  number  of  rations  and 
feeding  methods  which  have  given  good 


results  in  the  hands  of  breeders  and 
farmers. 

Southern  feeders'  ration — A  south- 
ern mule  raiser  has  found  that  mules 
at  light  work  may  be  kept  in  fine  condi- 
tion from  December  to  March  on  a  ra- 
tion of  5  pounds  cottonseed  meal  and 
cottonseed  hulls  ad  libitum.  On  this 
ration  the  hair  shed  early  in  the  spring 
and  the  coat  had  a  fine  appearance.  In 
South  Africa,  chaffed  hay,  corn  stover, 
corn,  linseed  meal,  bran,  barley,  alfalfa, 
sweet  potatoes,  pumpkin  and  sunflower 
seeds  are  used  in  compounding  mule 
rations.  The  Rhodesian  government  has 
found  that  chaffed  hay  (cut  in  %-inch 
lengths),  is  much  less  likely  to  cause 
colic  in  mules  than  whole  hay,  especially 
if  the  mules  are  put  to  work  immediate- 
ly after  feeding. 

The  use  of  a  well  balanced  ration 
greatly  reduces  the  percentage  of  disease 
among  mules.  Thus  in  Louisiana,  by 
the  use  of  molasses,  cowpea  hay  and 
alfalfa,  the  cost  of  mule  rations  has 
been  reduced  one-half  and  the  mules 
are  much  healthier  than  on  very  wide 
rations  with  too  much  corn,  or  even  on 
an  exclusive  grain  ration  of  oats.  On 
large  sugar  plantations,  it  has  been 
found  that  properly  balanced  rations 
(for  example  8  pounds  corn  and  cob 
meal,  2  pounds  cottonseed  meal,  11 
pounds  molasses  and  15  pounds  cut  cow- 
pea hay),  almost  eliminate  the  occur- 
rence of  colic  among  mules  and  cost 
only  15  cents  a  day. 


PART  VII 

The  Beef  Cattle 
Industry 


FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


ECONOMIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  BEEF 
CATTLE 

Cattle  raising  for  the  production  of 
beef  has  undergone  many  fluctuations 
during  the  brief  history  of  our  country. 
The  production  of  beef  has  not  always 
been  a  profitable  business,  even  in  the 
days  of  the  cattle  kings  When  every- 
thing goes  well  with  cattle,  there  are 
large  profits  in  the  business;  but  the 
risks  are  great,  the  initial  expense  of 
getting  into  the  business  is  a  serious 
matter,  and  the  skill  required  in  manag- 
ing cattle  is  of  no  mean  order.  There 
are  many  other  considerations,  which 
cause  men  to  choose  sheep  or  hogs  in 
preference.  In  the  first  place,  cattle 
mature  much  more  slowly  than  either 
sheep  or  hogs.  Then,  too,  they  require 
more  feed  for  each  pound  of  gain.  More- 
over, the  market  requirements  are  very 
strict  in  the  case  of  beef,  and  prices 
are  disastrously  low  for  cattle  which 
do  not  conform  to  these  standards.  Fail- 
ures for  non-conformance  to  these  re- 
quirements are  somewhat  less  serious  in 
the  case  of  sheep  or  hogs,  and  the  loss 
is  only  a  moderately  high  payment  for 
the  experience. 

On  the  western  ranges,  sheep  have 
long  been  rivals  of  cattle  and  for  the 
past  15  or  20  years  have  had  much  the 
best  of  the  argument.  Greater  profits 
have  been  derived  from  sheep.  As  a 
natural  result,  sheep  have  been  gradual- 
ly replacing  cattle  in  the  western 
states  and  large  tracts  of  range,  which 
were  originally  used  for  cattle  grazing, 
are  now  devoted  entirely  to  sheep. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  great  importance  of  the 
cattle  industry  in  the  United  States. 
Notwithstanding  the  fact,  as  already  in- 
dicated, that  profits  have  not  been  par- 
ticularly attractive  during  the  past 
few  years,  an  increasing  number  of  men 
are  learning  how  to  produce  beef  at  a 
profit  even  under  conditions  which   ap- 


pear to  be  unfavorable  to  the  farmer. 
Most  of  our  highest  finish  on  beef  ani- 
mals is  put  on  in  the  corn  belt.  Not 
all  of  these  cattle  are  raised  on  farms 
in  the  central  states,  but  this  is  true  of 
a  considerable  percentage  of  them;  and 
thousands  more  are  shipped  in  from 
tbe  range  to  be  finished  on  the  cheaper 
grains  of  the  central  states. 

Cautions  prompted  by  experience — 
The  cattle  feeders  of  the  central  states 
are  gradually  learning  how  to  avoid 
some  of  the  unprofitable  practices,  which 
have  ruined  their  predecessors  in  that 
line  of  business.  In  this  work  the 
change  in  market  requirements  has 
helped  the  feeder  considerably.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  cattle  business,  a  five 
or  six  year  old  steer  in  an  over-fat  con- 
dition was  in  great  favor.  Now  such  an 
animal  cannot  compete  with  the  finished 
steer  at  the  age  of  two  or  three,  and, 
within  recent  years,  baby  beef  has  come 
to  occupy  an  important  place  in  the 
business  of  beef  production.  The  ad- 
vantage of  using  younger  animals  is  ob- 
vious, since  the  capital  invested  is 
turned  over  more  rapidly,  and  the  cost 
of  finishing  an  animal  is  less  when  the 
process  lasts  only  a  year  or  two  than 
when  the  animal  is  held  on  the  farm  un- 
til four  or  five  years  of  age. 

It  should  not  be  supposed  from  this 
enumeration  of  cautions  that  any  at- 
tempt is  being  made  to  discourage  beef 
production.  The  demand  for  beef  is 
always  equal  to,  and  sometimes  in  ex- 
cess of,  the  production,  and  this  must 
be  true  as  far  into  the  future  as  it 
is  possible  to  foresee.  The  population 
is  increasing  at  present  more  rapidly 
than  the  increase  in  beef-raising,  and 
other  means  than  those  commonly  used 
at  present  must  be  found  for  keeping 
up  with  the  demand  for  beef.  It  should 
be  understood  from  the  start,  however, 
that  antiquated  or  slovenly  methods  in 
beef    production    cannot    bring    profits. 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


It  is  only  men  who  have  learned  how, 
and  know  the  present  market  require- 
ments, who  will  succeed  in  producing 
beef  at  a  fair  profit. 

Annual  consumption — The  total  num- 
ber of  beef  cattle  at  present  held 
in  the  United  States  on  farms  and 
ranges,  is  about  44,000,000.  During 
1905,  12,500,000  beef  animals  were 
slaughtered,  of  which  875,000  were  ex- 
ported. The  average  value  of  these 
animals  was  about  $41.50  a  carcass. 
There   are    also    about    2,000,000    calves 


BEEF  BREEDS 

Perhaps  the  first  question  which  en- 
ters the  mind  of  any  person  who  intends 
to  go  into  the  beef  business,  concerns  the 
choice  of  a  breed  of  beef  cattle.  We 
therefore,  characterize  the  different 
breeds  of  beef  animals,  with  notes  on 
their  relative  importance  and  their 
chief  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

Shorthorns — We  commence  with  this 
breed  for  the  reason  that  of  all  breeds  of 
beef  cattle,  this  is  the  most  popular. 
Shorthorns  are  also  commonly  called 
Durhams,   from   the   English   county   in 


W^m^i- 


Fig.    234 — THE    SHORTHORN    BULL  LAVENDER   CLIPPER 


killed  annually  for  veal.  The  number 
of  adult  beef  cattle  slaughtered  annual- 
ly is  approximately  20  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  on  hand.  Among  the  ap- 
proximately 44,000,000  beef  animals  in 
the  country  at  present,  not  over  one- 
half,  or  22,000,000,  are  cows;  these  cows 
will  yield  a  crop  of  calves  amounting  to 
about  80  per  cent  annually,  or  17,600,- 
000;  deducting  the  12,500,000  adult 
animals  slaughtered  annually,  and  2,000,- 
000  calves,  we  have  left  a  possible  in- 
crease of  3,100,000  upon  the  total  num- 
ber of  beef  animals  in  the  country. 


which  the  breed  originated.  These  ani- 
mals were  developed  by  improving  the 
Teeswater  and  Holderness  cattle  with 
slight  admixtures  of  Dutch  bulls  and 
Galloways.  Sborthorns  had  already  been 
introduced  into  this  country  about  1790, 
and  importations  have  occurred  with 
great  frequency  since  1815.  Among 
prominent  early  breeders  of  Shorthorns 
in  this  country  we  have  Lewis  F.  Allen 
and  William  Warfield.  The  first  volume 
of  the  American  Shorthorn  Herd  Book 
was  published  in  1846,  and  that  of  the 
Ohio  Southern  Shorthorn  Record  in 
1878. 


154 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Popularity — At  present,  Shorthorns 
are  found  in  every  state  and  territory 
in  the  Union,  and  in  every  province  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Shorthorns 
are  perhaps  relatively  most  numerous 
in  Illinois  and  Iowa,  but  are  abundantly 
distributed  throughout  the  central 
states.  Their  popularity  is  due  largely 
to  their  fitness  for  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  raised ;  or,  in  other  words, 
is  based  on  a  solid  business  foundation. 
Shorthorns  are  capable  of  readily 
adapting  themselves  to  the  different  con- 
ditions under  which  they  are  found.    In 


become  fully  mature  and  attain  their 
complete  size  at  the  age  of  four  years. 
The  conditions  under  which  they 
thrive  best  and  yield  the  greatest  profits 
are  those  which  prevail  in  the  central 
states,  where  good  pastures  are  to  be 
obtained,  and  where  suitable  grains  for 
fattening  are  abundant.  Shorthorns 
are  capable  of  making  as  good  returns 
for  their  feed  as  any  other  breed.  The 
meat  is  of  good  quality,  the  percentage 
of  bone  and  offal  is  small,  but  the  grain 
of  the  meat  is  not  quite  so  fine  as  is 
observed  in  other  breeds. 


Fig.    235 SHORTHORN    BULL    FROM    NONPAREIL    HERD 


point  of  hardihood  they  are  not  equal 
to  the  Galloways  or  Scotch  Highland 
cattle,  and  are  perhaps  inferior  in  this 
respect  to  the  Herefords,  especially  under 
range  conditions.  This  matter,  how- 
ever, depends  so  greatly  upon  the  opin- 
ion of  breeders,  who  are  almost  always 
somewbat  prejudiced  in  favor  of  one 
breed  or  another,  that  the  point  is  not 
worth  arguing.  In  regard  to  size  and 
weight,  they  are  somewhat  superior  to 
all  other  beef  breeds.  They  mature  as 
early  as  other  breeds,  and  may  be 
brought  to  a  proper  market  ripeness  at 
the  age  of  two  and  one-half  years.    They 


Strong  and  weak  points — One  of  the 
strong  points  in  favor  of  Shorthorns  is 
tbeir  milk  yield.  In  fact,  the  Shorthorn 
is  often  referred  to  as  a  dual  purpose 
breed,  yielding  a  good  quality  of  beef, 
and  at  the  same  time  giving  a  large 
quantity  of  milk.  This  quality  has 
been  considered  of  sufficient  importance 
to  perpetuate,  and,  as  a  result,  we  have 
a  milking  race  of  Shorthorns. 

More  attention  has  been  given  to 
milking  Shorthorns  in  England  than  in 
this  country,  and  this  fact  is  perhaps 
due  to  a  tendency  among  our  breeders 
to    go    into    specialties.      This    requires 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


355 


that  attention  be  given  to  securing  one 
line  of  good  qualities  without  regard  to 
other  matters,  such  as  milk  production. 
On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  milk 
which  Shorthorns  yield,  they  are  well 
adapted  to  localities  where  a  combination 
of  dairying  and  beef  production  can  be 
operated  most  profitably. 

Shorthorns  are  also  of  great  value, 
like  other  pure  beef  breeds,  in  grading 
up  native  or  scrub  cattle,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce a  good  quality  of  grade  animals  for 
beef.  The  chief  weaknesses  of  Short- 
horns are  lack  of  constitution  and  rela- 
tive sterility  as  observed  in  certain  fam- 
ilies, especially  where  careless  breeding 
or  in-and-in  breeding  have  been  prac- 
ticed. 

The  standard  colors  of  the  Short- 
horn are  red,  white  and  roan,  with  red 
most  in  favor,  and  all  shades  of  roan 


to  ship  thoroughbred  Shorthorns  from 
the  corn  belt  into  the  arid  Southwest, 
without  loss  of  condition  in  the  animal. 

Hereford — It  is  commonly  considered 
that  the  Herefords  are  descended 
from  some  of  the  native  cattle  of  Great 
Britain,  and  that  they  were  mixed,  in 
their  earlier  history,  with  the  Devon  and 
the  Sussex  cow.  Apparently  all  of  these 
animals  were  at  first  nearly  a  solid  red. 
A  cross  with  white  cattle  gave  a  ten- 
dency to  white  markings,  which  has 
persisted  in  the  Herefords.  In  the  early 
history  of  the  breed,  the  face  was  not 
pure  white  as  at  present.  This  charac- 
teristic, however,  has  been  definitely 
fixed  by  long  continued  breeding. 

History  of  the  breed — The  Herefords 
were  well  known  and  had  established  a 
considerable  reputation  for  themselves 
in  many  herds  as  early  as  1835.     They 


Eig.  23G — herd  of  young  herefords 


well  liked ;  but  white  is  somewhat  in  dis- 
favor. The  general  form  is  large,  com- 
pact and  rectangular,  with  a  smoothness 
of  outline  such  as  is  required  by  the 
standard  adopted  for  beef  form.  The 
body  is  long  and  deep,  with  parallel  up- 
per and  lower  lines  and  side  lines.  The 
head  is  relatively  small  and  considerably 
narrower  in  the  female  than  in  the  male. 
The  horns  are  short,  but  longer  and 
smaller  in  the  female. 

While  it  is  commonly  contended  that 
the  Shorthorn  is  not  quite  equal  to  the 
Hereford  on  the  range,  many  range  men 
have  had  excellent  success  with  them. 
In  the  Southwest,  the  Shorthorn  is  the 
prevailing  beef  type  and  the  majority 
of  grade  beef  animals  contain  Short- 
horn blood.  This  breed  withstands  vac- 
cination for  Texas  fever  very  well,  and 
is  also  capable  of  adjusting  itself  to 
changed  climatic  conditions.  It  is  a 
comparatively  simple  matter,  therefore, 


did  not  gain  in  popularity,  however,  as 
fast  as  the  Shorthorns,  partly  for  the 
reason  that  their  milking  powers  were 
somewhat  inferior.  Then,  too,  there 
was  considerable  controversy  regarding 
the  purity  of  white-faced  and  mottled- 
faced  animals,  so  that  their  distribu- 
tion was  strongly  checked.  Apparently 
the  first  importation  of  Herefords  into 
the  United  States  was  made  by  Henry 
Clay  in  1817.  The  American  Hereford 
Cattle  Breeders'  Association  was  organ- 
ized in  1881,  or  three  years  previous  to 
the  organization  of  a  herdbook  in  Eng- 
land. At  present  the  Herefords  are  dis- 
tributed almost,  if  not  quite,  as  widely 
as  the  Shorthorns,  being  most  numerous 
in  the  Mississippi  valley,  particularly 
Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Illinois  and 
Indiana. 

Strong  and  weak  points — The  Here- 
fords gain  rapidly,  adapt  themselves  to 
all    soil,    climatic    and    feed    conditions 


u 

°  i 

a   « 


ffi  s 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


357 


which  prevail  in  the  United  States  and 
do  exceedingly  well  in  the  corn  belt  and 
the  agricultural  part  of  Canada.  They 
are    also    particularly    noted    for    their 


account  of  the  fact  that  attention  was 
given  primarily  to  beef  form.  It  is 
claimed  for  the  Herefords  that  they  are 
less    susceptible    to    abortion    and    milk 


238- 


A    TIER!)    OF    HEREFORD    CATTLE 


grazing  ability  on  the  range.  The 
average  size  of  the  Hereford  is  slightly 
under  that  of  the  Shorthorn,  but  they 
mature  as  early,  being  ready  for  beef 
at  two  and  one-half  years  of  age.  In 
fact,  recently,  claim  has  been  made  that 
Herefords  mature  earlier  than  any 
other  beef  breed.  The  quality  of  the 
meat  is  good  and  the  dressed  weight  sat- 
isfactory. In  crossing  the  Herefords 
with  other  breeds,  the  best  results  have 
been  obtained  with  Shorthorns  and  Gal- 
loways.    Crosses  with  Devons  and  West 


fever  than  most  other  beef  breeds.  The 
chief  weakness  of  the  Hereford  is  the 
small  milk  yield. 

Colors — The  face,  throat,  chest,  lower 
part  of  the  body,  legs  and  tip  of  the 
tail  are  white,  all  other  parts  being  red. 
The  red  should  neither  be  too  dark  nor 
too  light.  The  skin  is  slightly  thicker 
than  that  of  the  Shorthorn,  but  the 
form  of  the  body  is  essentially  the  same. 
The  horns  are  longer  and  more  spread- 
ing, the  position  in  which  they  are  car- 
ried being  a  characteristic  of  the  breed. 


Fig.    239 — HEREFORD    CALVES 


Highland  cattle  are  less  satisfactory.  In 
England,  the  milking  quality  of  the 
Hereford  was  good,  but  it  has  been  con- 
siderably neglected  in   this  country  on 


Polled  Herefords—While  the  horns  of 
xhe  Herefords  have  always  been  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  elements  of  beauty 
of  this  breed,   the  market  demand  for 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


359 


polled  cattle  has  given  rise  to  the 
desire  of  securing  polled  Herefords. 
This  has  finally  been  accomplished 
through  the  work  of  a  number  of  indus- 
trious breeders,  including  Guthrie  and 
Gammon.  The  origin  of  polled  Here- 
fords is  much  the  same  as  that  of  polled 
Durhams,  since  they  depend  upon  Here- 
ford bulls  and  common  muley  cows. 
Some  difficulty  was  experienced  in  get- 
ting a  start  with  a  herd  of  polled  Here- 
fords, since  quite  close  breeding  had  to 
be  practiced.  An  organization  was 
formed,  however,  in  1900  and  very  satis- 
factory progress  is  being  made  with  the 
polled  Herefords. 


from  horneu  cows  were  hornless,  and  in 
1S93  a  two-year  bull  and  six  heifers  were 
selected  from  his  progeny  as  a  basis  for 
further  experiments.  The  first  bull 
was  named  Discovery,  and  in  1898  four 
additional  horned  Hereford  heifers  were 
bred  to  a  descendant  of  Discovery  and 
their  calves  were  all  hornless.  Polled 
Herefords  are  now  distributed  from 
Wisconsin  to  Texas  and  various  breed- 
ers report  entire  success  with  them. 
There  is  no  tendency  for  the  horns  to 
return  and  the  progeny  of  Polled  Here- 
ford bulls  are  hornless  in  60  to  90  per 
cent  of  cases.  This  percentage  compares 
favorably  with  Angus  or   Galloway. 


Pig.    241 THIRD    PRIZE    ANGUS   BULL   AT   INTERNATIONAL     STOCK    SHOW    1906 


They  were  first  exhibited  at  the 
Omaha  Exposition  in  1889  under  the 
name  of  Polled  Kansans,  but  this  name 
was  subsequently  dropped.  Some  con- 
troversy has  been  waged  lately  regard- 
ing the  quality  of  the  Polled  Herefords, 
it  being  claimed  on  one  side  that  in  get- 
ting rid  of  the  horns,  some  of  the  de- 
sirable qualities  of  the  Herefords  were 
lost.  This,  however,  is  strongly  denied 
by  other  champions  of  the  new  breed,  and 
the  point  must  be  left  for  the  future 
development  of  the  breed  to  settle. 

Development  of  the  breed — In  1889, 
Mr.  W.  W.  Guthrie  of  Atchinson,  Kan- 
sas, discovered  on  his  ranch  a  nearly 
pure  bred  Hereford  calf,  which  was 
hornless.     All  of  the  calves  by  this  bull, 


Polled  Hereford  clubs — The  Ameri- 
can Polled  Hereford  Cattle  Club  was 
organized  in  1900,  and  now  has  about 
500  registered  animals.  The  National 
Polled  Hereford  Breeders'  Association 
established  in  1902,  also  has  a  large  reg- 
istration and  the  supply  of  young  bulls 
is  quite  inadequate  to  meet  the  demand. 
Under  the  rules  governing  registration 
in  the  record  book  of  this  association, 
"the  produce  of  any  bull  in  the  Nation- 
al Polled  Hereford  Record  from  any 
cow  in  the  American  Hereford  Record 
and  the  produce  of  any  cow  in  the  Na- 
tional Polled  Hereford  Record  by  a 
bull  in  the  American  Hereford  Record 
is  eligible. to  registration  in  the  National 
Polled  Hereford  Record  if  such  produce 


360 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


has   not    developed   horns    when    it   has 
reached  the  age  of  two  years." 

Aberdeen  Angus — This  breed  is  va- 
riously known  as  Polled  Angus,  Polled 
Aberdeen  or  Aberdeen  Angus.  In  the 
early  history  of  Scotland  there  seems  to 
have  been  a  number  of  polled  cattle  re- 
ferred to  as  Angus  Doddies,  Buchans, 
or  Aberdeen  Humlies.  In  Scotland, 
the  approved  color  is  black,  but  occa- 
sionally some  white  or  red  markings  ap- 
pear; such  animals,  however,  are  not 
used   for   breeding   purposes.     In    Scot- 


between  the  Angus  and  Galloway  is  in 
the  thicker  skin  and  longer  and  more 
shaggy  hair  of  the  Galloway. 

Popularity — The  Angus  was  first  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  in  1873, 
and  into  Canada  in  1876.  The  breed 
met  with  some  prejudice,  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  the  field  was  already  oc- 
cupied by  Shorthorns  and  Herefords. 
It  was  necessary,  therefore,  for  the 
champions  of  the  Polled  Angus  to  dem- 
onstrate the  good  points  claimed  for  the 
Angus  before   this   breed   acquired   any 


a  good  type  of  pulled  angus  cow 


land,  the  Angus  is  considered  as  hav- 
ing a  finer  bone,  softer  and  silkier  hair 
and  shorter  legs  than  the  Galloway.  It 
has  long  occupied  in  that  country  a  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  fat  stock  and  beef 
markets,  on  account  of  its  excellent 
meat.  Within  100  years,  crosses  have 
been  made  between  the  Angus  and  Ayr- 
shire, Guernsey,  a  breed  known  as  Fife, 
now  extinct,  Shorthorns  and  Galloway 
cattle.  In  fact,  the  intimate  relation- 
ship between  the  Angus  and  Galloways 
must  be  sufficiently  apparent  from  the 
fact  that  both  are  black,  polled  and  na- 
tive to  Scotland.     The  chief  difference 


decided  popularity.  The  American 
Aberdeen-Angus  Breeders'  Association 
was  organized  in  1883.  The  Angus  is 
now  well  distributed  throughout  the 
United  States,  being  found  in  nearly 
every  state  and  territory;  they  are  bred 
most  extensively,  however,  in  Iowa,  Illi- 
nois, Missouri,  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Kan- 
sas, Iowa  standing  far  in  the  lead  in  the 
number  of  this  breed. 

As  already  indicated,  the  Angus  had 
not  become  much  known  outside  of 
Scotland  before  the  middle  of  the  last 
century;  but  since  their  introduction 
into  the  United  States,  their  numbers 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


361 


have  increased  rapidly,  extensive  impor- 
tations of  Scotch  blood  have  been  made, 
and  the  breed  is  steadily  gaining  in 
popularity.  The  Angus  is,  perhaps,  best 
adapted  to  localities  where  moderate 
temperatures  prevail,  and  where  com- 
fortable quarters  may  be  furnished  for 
winter.  With  regard  to  the  value  of  the 
Angus,  on  the  western  ranges,  consid- 
erable difference  of  opinion  prevails 
and  the  statement  has  frequently  been 
made  that  these  cattle  are  too  lazy  to 
make  a  success  under  range  conditions. 
It  is  impossible  to  give  an  authoritative 
opinion  on  this  subject,  since  so  much 
prejudice  prevails  in  the  matter;  in  fact, 


much  attention  to  the  early  maturing 
qualities  of  the  Angus,  with  the  result 
that  this  breed  now  matures  as  early  as 
any  other.  In  ability  to  make  economic 
use  of  food,  the  Angus  is  second  to  no 
other  breed.  The  form  is  almost  always 
symmetrical,  and  not  patchy.  In  fact, 
the  hair  is  so  short  that  any  irregularity 
of  form  would  be  apparent.  During  re- 
cent years,  the  Angus  has  carried  away 
its  share  of  prizes  at  fat  stock  shows, 
and  in  block  contests.  The  quality  of 
the  meat  is  usually  recognized  as  su- 
perior to  that  of  the  Shorthorns  and 
Ilerefords,  and  nearly  or  quite  equal  to 


Fig.    243 — BLACK   ROCK,   GRAND   CHAMPION  ANGUS    STEER   AT    THE    1905    INTERNATIONAL 


the  champions  of  almost  every  breed 
claim  that  their  particular  breed  is  su- 
perior to  all  others,  as  a  rustler  on  the 
range.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  many 
cattle  raisers,  throughout  the  range, 
from  the  northern  to  the  southern  boun- 
dary of  the  United  States,  have  reported 
excellent  results  from  the  use  of  pure 
bred  and  grade  Angus  on  the  range,  and 
have  found  that  Angus  bulls  are  as  ca- 
pable of  getting  vigorous  calves  under 
range  conditions  as  any  other  breed  of 
bulls. 

Strong  and  weak  points — In  size, 
the  Angus  is  perhaps  slightly  inferior 
to  the  Shorthorn  and  Hereford,  but  on 
account  of  its  short  legs  it  weighs  more 
than  its  apparent  size  would  indicate. 
The  breeders  in  this  country  have  given 


that   of   West   Highland   and   Galloway 
cattle. 

In  Scotland,  the  Angus  was  considered 
a  good  milch  cow,  but  in  the  United 
States,  little  attention  has  been  given  to 
the  milk  yield  of  this  breed,  so  that  at 
present  the  quantity  of  the  milk  is 
rather  small.  The  fat  content  is  per- 
haps above  the  average.  The  Angus 
are  good  breeders  and  their  value  in 
crossing  and  grading  up  native  stock 
has  long  been  recognized.  In  fact,  a 
good  Polled  Angus  bull  will  produce 
from  75  to  90  per  cent  of  black,  polled 
calves  from  horned  cows  of  any  color. 
This  indicates  clearly  enough  the  high 
pre-potency  of  the  Angus  in  fixing  its 
characteristics  upon  the  offspring.  On 
this  account,  Angus  bulls  are  often  used. 


O     o 

o    « 


o    " 

►J     o 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


363* 


on  dairy  cows  when  the  calves  are  not 
desired  for  dairy  purposes. 

The  standard  points  of  the  Angus  in 
America  are  essentially  the  same  as  al- 
ready mentioned  in  Scotland.  The  color 
must  be  black.  White  is  decidedly  ob- 
jectionable, except  on  the  under  line 
behind  the  navel  and  even  there  it  must 
not  show  in  a  large  patch.  The  skin 
is  of  medium  thickness,  with  a  mellow 
touch,  covered  with  thick,  soft  hair. 
The  skin  must  never  be  hard  nor  the 
hair  stiff. 

Galloways — This  breed  of  cattle  also 
comes  from  Scotland,  and  has  occasion- 
cally  been  called  Polled  Scots.  In  Scot- 
land the  standard  color  is  black  with  a 


Popularity— Biggar  has  justly  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  Galloway  cat- 
tle have  qualities  which  particularly  fit 
them  for  the  western  ranges.  In  the 
first  place,  they  are  possessed  of  un- 
usual hardiness,  whereby  they  are  able 
to  endure  a  severe  climate.  Absence  of 
horns  is  also  a  desirable  quality,  and  in 
type  they  are  very  uniform.  Finally, 
they  possess  the  power  of  transmitting 
their  good  qualities  to  their  offspring  in 
a  marked  degree.  A  Galloway  bull  of 
good  breeding  will  transmit  a  black  color 
to  90  per  cent  of  his  calves,  and  the 
hornless  condition  to  from  95  to  100 
per  cent  without  regard  to  the  breed  of 
the  mother. 


m  m  ws  .    - 

Mv          ,r      -      ,. „.,„. ,m3glk- 

^tN£~-f*&i 

H 

Pig.  245 — GALLOWAY  COW  BARONESS  2ND  OF  TARBREOCH 


brownish  tinge.  The  head  is  short 
and  wide,  with  a  broad  forehead  and 
wide  nostrils.  The  body  must  be  deep, 
rounded  and  symmetrical,  the  skin  mel- 
low and  moderately  thick,  the  hair  soft, 
wavy,  with  a  mossy  undercoat;  and 
wiry  or  curly  hair,  is  very  objectionable. 
The  Galloways  are  so  called  on  account 
of  their  apparent  origin  in  the  province 
ol  Galloway  and  the  breed  is  one  of  the 
oldest  and  purest  of  the  beef  type.  It 
was  first  introduced  into  Ontario  in 
1853,  and  into  Michigan  in  1870.  The 
first  volume  of  the  American  Galloway 
Herd  Book  was  published  in  1883.  At 
present  the  most  important  centers  of 
breeding  Galloways  are  Missouri,  Iowa, 
Illinois.  Kansas  and  Minnesota. 


While  at  present  the  Galloways  are, 
perhaps,  not  so  popular  as  either  the 
Shorthorns,  Hereford  or  Angus,  they 
are  at  least  entitled  to  the  fourth  place 
among  the  beef  breeds,  as  pointed  out 
by  Shaw,  and  they  are  rapidly  gaining 
in  popularity.  They  are  the  hardiest  of 
all  beef  breeds  except  the  West  High- 
land cattle,  their  size  is  somewhat 
smaller  than  that  of  the  breeds  already 
considered,  but  their  grazing  qualities 
are  of  an  exceedingly  high  order.  They 
do  not  mature  quite  so  early  as  the 
Shorthorns,  Herefords  or  Angus,  but 
they  take  on  flesh  smoothly  and  the 
meat  has  long  been  noted  for  its  excel- 
lent quality;  in  fact,  in  this  respect 
they  perhaps  excel  even  the  Angus.    The 


564 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Galloways  are  excellent  breeders  and 
show  an  extremely  small  percentage  of 
sterility.  The  only  serious  objection 
which  can  be  raised  against  them  is 
their  small  milk  yield.  One  of  the  pe- 
culiar valuable  points  of  the  Galloway, 
is  their  hide,  which,  when  tanned,  may 
be  used  for  robes  and  fur  coats.  Ac- 
cording to  the  most  recent  scale  of 
points  for  the  Galloway,  this  breed  must 
be  pure  black  with  a  brownish  tinge; 
white  markings  on  the  feet,  ankles,  legs, 
or  any  part  of  the  body  above  the  under 
line  are  very  objectionable. 

West     Highland     cattle,    also   known 
simply  as   Highland  cattle  came   origi- 


therefore,  best  adapted  to  severe  cli- 
mates like  those  of  Alaska  and  North- 
west Canada,  and  some  of  the  colder 
parts  of  the  Rocky  mountain  ranges. 

Popularity — The  West  Highland  cat- 
tle have  been  imported  in  small  num- 
bers into  the  United  States,  especially  in 
the  far  West,  and  to  some  extent  in  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  and  elsewhere 
throughout  the  country.  At  least  one 
small  herd  is  found  in  the  state  of  New 
York.  During  the  fall  and  early 
winter  months,  when  the  coat  is  in  best 
condition,  this  breed  presents  a  beauti- 
ful appearance;  otherwise  it  is  shaggy. 
In  size,  it  is  the  smallest  of  the  true  beef 


X- 

^ 

sjib 

if."  { ~ ■'vT 

. 

"•'                                     '"^'    '  '*'?;   '^vW 

y 

BS^SP^'Y  ' I    ■"''"'  '^^S 

..<-■ 

V^NSSfc  V"-.  ^^^fe 

■  '>     .-'.■  *■ 

Fig.    246 — WEST    HIGHLAND    BULL,    CHAMPION   AT    ST   LOUIS    EXPOSITION 


nally  from  the  western  part  of  Scotland. 
The  horns  are  large,  sharp-pointed  and 
upturned.  The  color  is  generally  black, 
brindle  or  dun.  The  hide,  as  compared 
with  the  Angus  and  Galloways,  is  thick 
and  covered  with  long,  soft  hair,  con- 
siderably longer  even  than  that  of  the 
Galloways.  There  are  several  distinct 
varieties  of  West  Highland  cattle,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  Kyloes,  North 
Highlanders,  and  the  West  Highlanders. 
In  Scotland,  this  breed  is  not  considered 
of  much  value  for  its  milk,  and  there- 
fore the  calves  are  usually  allowed  to 
suck  the  cows.  In  hardiness,  however, 
it  is  superior  to  all  other  breeds,,  and  is 


breeds,  but  they  weigh  well  in  propor- 
tion to  their  apparent  size.  The  West 
Highland  cattle  are  capable  of  not  only 
enduring  cold,  but  also  damp  weather, 
and  can  find  a  living  for  themselves  on 
either  grass  or  brush.  They  mature 
rather  slowly,  and  the  quantity  of  the 
milk  is  very  small.  The  meat,  how- 
ever, is  considered  especially  excellent, 
and  in  the  English  markets  commands 
the  very  highest  price. 

The  color  may  vary  considerably, 
black  being  very  common  with  a  ten- 
dency at  present  toward  a  yellow  or  light 
dun;  brindle  or  red  and  black  colors  are 
also  allowed.     The  form  is  that  of  the 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


365 


typical  beef  type,  only  smaller,  and  the 
body  in  proportion  to  its  size  is  strong, 
deep,  thick  and  exceedingly  compact. 

Sussex  cattle_This  breed  differs 
from  the  Devon  in  being  larger  and 
coarser.  Standard  animals  are  always 
of  a  dark  red  color;  white  or  black 
markings  indicate  impure  blood.  The 
head  is  relatively  thin  and  the  horns 
point     somewhat     forward,     then     turn 


closely  related  to  the  Devons  in  their 
early  history.  The  Sussex  Herd  Book  of 
England  was  established  in  1860.  Sus- 
sex cattle  were  first  imported  into  the 
United  States  in  1884  and  into  Canada 
in  1891.  They  have  not  made  much 
progress  in  this  country  since  their 
introduction,  although  a  few  herds  have 
been  established  along  the  states  bor- 
dering  on   the   Mississippi   river.     The 


Fig.    247 WEST    HIGHLAND    COW   AND   CALF 


up  and  are  thin,  long  and  tapering. 
The  form  corresponds  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  beef  type,  but  the  Sussex 
is  apt  to  be  deficient  in  the  shoulder. 
The  back  line  is  usually  straight,  but  is 
sometimes  broken  by  a  slight  lump  be- 
tween the  shoulders.  This  breed,  ac- 
cording to  many  English  champions,  is 
very  hardy  and  is  capable  of  making  a 
good  showing  under  favorable  climatic 
and  feed  conditions. 
Popularity — The  Sussex  seems  to  be 


Sussex  is  best  adapted  to  localities 
where  abundant  feed  and  pasturage  are 
available.  They  are  relatively  heavy, 
being  fully  equal  to  the  Galloways  in 
size.  They  do  not  mature  very  early, 
but  are  excellent  grazers  and  furnish 
a  good  quality  of  meat  in  an  economic 
manner  from  the  feed  consumed.  The 
Sussex  is  not  much  used  for  dairy  pur- 
poses, and  the  milk  yield  is  compara- 
tively low.  They  are  fertile  and  good 
breeders,   but   their   value   for   crossing 


366 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


and  grading  up  with  common  stock  has 
not  been  tested  to  any  marked  extent  in 
the  United  States.  The  color  standard 
adopted  for  the  United  States  is  a  solid 
red  of  either  a  dark  or  light  shade.  The 
horns  are  rather  long  but  not  heavy  and 
spreading,  showing  a  graceful,  forward 
curve. 

Long  Horn  Leicestershire,  or  Craven 
cattle,  are  descended  from  a  breed  of 
cattle  which  became  established  in  York- 
shire, England,  and  was  noted  for  its 
beauty  and  fattening  quality.  The  fa- 
mous breeder,  Bakewell,  originated  a 
race  of  cattle  known  as  the  Dishley 
breed,   by   crossing   these   cows    with   a 


being  allowed  along  the  under  line  and' 
upon  the  udders  of  cows.  Both  of  the 
Welsh  breeds  are  good  milkers  and  pro- 
duce an  excellent  quality  of  beef.  They 
are  hardy  and  active  and  are,  therefore,' 
well  adapted  to  maintaining  themselves 
under  range  conditions. 

Red  polled  cattle  are  commonly  clas- 
sified among  the  dual  purpose  breeds  and 
are  sometimes  called  the  Norfolk  Polled 
breed  or  Norfolk  Red  Polls.  According 
to  the  English  standard,  the  color  must 
be  red,  while  the  tip  of  the  tail  and  ud- 
der may  be  white.  The  head  must  be 
be  decidedly  that  of  the  beef  type.  The 
absolutely  hornless   and  the  form  must 


Eig.   248 — RED  POLLED  BULL   FALSTAFF  II 


Northumberland  bull.  Notwithstanding 
their  apparent  good  qualities,  the  Long 
Horns  have  ceased  to  be  general  favor- 
ites, since  Bakewell's  time.  At  first, 
this  breed  was  too  coarse,  but  con- 
siderable improvement  has  been  made, 
especially  in  reducing  the  coarser  parts 
and  increasing  the  size  of  the  higher 
priced  cuts  of  meat. 

Welsh  breeds  of  beef  cattle— At  pres- 
ent there  are  two  Welsh  breeds,  known 
as  North  and  South  Wales  cattle,  or 
Anglesey  and  Castle  Martin  breeds. 
Both  of  these  races  are  apparently 
descended  from  the  indigenous  cattle  of 
Great  Britain.  The  pure  bred  animals 
are  almost  entirely  black,  a  little  white 


cows  give  sufficient  milk  to  make  profit- 
able dairy  animals,  and  at  the  same  time 
preserve  the  beef  form.  The  Red  Polls 
are  apparently  the  outcome  of  mixing 
both  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  Polled  cattle. 
Improvement  has  been  brought  about  by 
careful  selection  and  good  feeding. 
They  were  first  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  1873,  and  the  Red  Polled  Cat- 
tle Club  of  America  was  formed  in  1883, 
publishing  the  first  herd  book  in  1887. 
The  Red  Polls,  although  most  numerous 
in  the  central  and  Mississippi  valley 
states,  are  now  registered  from  nearly 
every  state  and  territory  in  the  Union. 
Among  the  dual  purpose  breeds,  the  Red 
Polls   are  perhaps  the  most  popular  at 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


367 


present.  They  stand  between  the  Short- 
horns and  Devons  in  size,  are  excellent 
milkers,  mature  early  and  are  noted  for 
transforming  their  feed  into  milk  dur- 
ing the  period  of  lactation  and  into 
beef  as  soon  as  they  are  dry. 

Devon  cattle  are  one  of  the  oldest  and 
purest  breeds  of  dual  purpose  cattle 
which  originated  in  Great  Britain.  In 
their  early  history,  they  were  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Hereford  and  Sussex 
cattle.  The  breed  is  found  in  its  purest 
and   best   form   in   North   Devon.     The 


Popularity — Devons  were  first  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  in  1817, 
after  which  importations  took  place  with 
considerable  rapidity.  The  first  volume 
of  the  American  Devon  Herd  Book  was 
published  in  1861.  This  breed  is  now 
found  in  nearly  every  state  in  the  Union, 
but  is  more  numerous  in  Ohio,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,  Massachusetts  and 
Wisconsin.  Devons  are  not  particularly 
popular  in  most  parts  of  this  country  for 
dual  purpose  cattle  for  the  reason  that 
they  are  somewhat  deficient  in  size  for 


•       ::                e 

J 

.  4 

Fig.    249 — DEVON    BULL,    TULIP    ROYAL 


English  standard  for  the  Devon  requires 
a  small,  clean  head  with  deer-like  ex- 
pression, thin,  fine  horns  of  a  cream 
color  tipped  with  black,  growing  with 
a  regular  curve  upwards.  The  skin  is 
somewhat  loose  and  covered  with  hair  of 
a  soft,  furry  nature,  inclined  to  curl 
whenever  the  animal  is  in  good  condi- 
tion and  full  coat.  The  North  Devon 
race  of  this  breed  is  highly  esteemed 
for  beef  and  for  draft  purposes,  but  less 
for  the  dairy.  Their  milk  has  a  high  fat 
content  but  the  quantity  is  rather  small. 
The  South  Devon  race  is  sometimes 
mixed  with  a  larger  breed  called  the 
Old  Marlborough  Bed. 


beef  and  the  milk  yield  is  small.  They 
are  active  grazers  and  the  fat  content  of 
the  milk  is  very  high.  They  do  not  ma- 
ture quite  so  early  as  the  standard  beef 
breeds.  In  crossing  and  grading  up 
scrub  stock,  they  are  quite  valuable. 
The  bulls  are  able  to  transmit  their  rich, 
red  color  to  a  large  percentage  of  off- 
spring. According  to  the  American 
standard  the  heads  of  Devon  cows  should 
be  rather  long,  with  a  broad,  indented 
forehead,  tapering  slightly  towards  the 
nostrils.  The  nose  should  be  of  a  flesh 
color.  The  minimum  weight  at  three 
years  old  is  1,000  pounds.  The  Devon  is 
neat,    smooth    and    graceful   in   genera] 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


appearance  and  is  decidedly  more  active 
than  Shorthorns. 

Polled  Durhams  originated  in  Ohio, 
from  two  sources;  viz,  a  cross  between 
Shorthorn  bulls  and  muley  cows  and 
pure  hornless  Shorthorns,  which  oc- 
casionally are  seen  as  freaks  in  this 
breed.  They  are,  therefore,  a  double 
standard  breed  and  stand  in  the  same  re- 
lation to  the  Shorthorn  as  the  Polled 
Hereford  does  to  the  standard  Hereford 
with  horns.  The  American  Polled  Dur- 
ham Breeders'  Association  was  organized 
in  1899.  The  Polled  Durhams  are  be- 
coming popular  throughout  the  United 
States  and  have  been  exported  to  some 
extent  abroad,  where  they  are  also  mak- 
ing a   name   for  themselves.     They  are 


formed  in  1880,  and  the  breed  has  be- 
come generally  distributed  throughout 
the  United  States,  the  first  record  book 
having  been  issued  in  1882.  Brown 
Swiss  cattle  are  well  adapted  to  con- 
ditions where  a  combination  of  dairying 
and  beef  production  is  sought.  The 
size  is  medium;  cows  weigh  from  1,200 
to  1,300  pounds.  The  quantity  of  milk 
is  moderately  large,  and  its  fat  content 
good.  The  Brown  Swiss  cattle  are  ex- 
cellent grazers,  fatten  readily  when  dry 
and  the  calves  develop  rapidly.  They 
are  fertile  and  excellent  breeders.  Ac- 
cording to  the  American  standard  the 
color  is  dark  brown  to  light  brown  or  at 
some  season  of  the  year  gray.  A  few 
splashes   of  white   near   the   udder   are 


Pig. 


)0 — EXULISII   TYPES   OF   DEVON   COWS 


most  numerous  in  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Ohio,  Texas  and  other  central  states. 
They  were  first  exported  to  the  Argen- 
tine Eepublic  in  1894.  The  appearance 
and  points  of  the  Polled  Durhams  are 
essentially  the  same  as  those  of  Short- 
horns, but  more  attention  has  been  given 
to  milking  qualities,  so  that  this  breed 
probably  excels  even  the  milking  Short- 
horns in  the  quantity  of  milk. 

Brown  Swiss  cattle  are  one  of  the 
standard  breeds  from  Switzerland,  and 
have  become  generally  distributed 
throughout  Europe.  It  was  first  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  in  1869 
by  Mr.  Henry  M.  Clark  of  Belmont, 
Mass.,  since  which  time  many  importa- 
tions have  been  made.  The  American 
Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association  was 


not  objectionable  and  a  light  stripe  is 
allowed  along  the  back.  The  hair  be- 
tween the  horns  is  light,  but  not  red- 
dish. The  horns  are  rather  short,  fiat- 
tish  and  with  black  tips. 

Holderness— As  explained  by  Youatt, 
the  Shorthorns  include  the  Holderness 
and  Teeswater  breeds,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  derived  from  a  cross 
with  large  bulls  that  were  imported  from 
Holland  into  Yorkshire.  The  Holder- 
ness is  a  large  framed  breed,  with  good 
backs,  long  quarters,  straight  legs  and 
well  developed  udders.  Frequently  they 
are  white,  with  blue  or  gray  spots;  but 
the  majority  of  them  are  mouse-col- 
ored and  white.  The  Teeswater  cattle 
were  of  large  size,  but  of  an  ungainly^ 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


369 


form  and  gave  less  milk  than  the  Hol- 
derness,  but  of  a  somewhat  higher  fat 
content. 

Polled  Albion—About  25  years  ago, 
Mr.  B.  E.  Ferris  crossed  white  Short- 
horn cows  with  a  polled  bull  of  unknown 
pedigree,  obtaining  a  white,  polled  strain 
of  cattle.  The  admixture  of  Jersey, 
Holstein  and  Ayrshire  blood  was  also  al- 
lowed, but  later  more  Shorthorn  blood 
was  introduced  into  the  strain.  The 
cows  are  said  to  be  somewhat  smaller 
than  Shorthorns,  yield  a  fair  quantity 
of  milk,  ranging  as  high  as  5  per  cent 
in  fat.  A  Polled  Albion  Breeders'  As- 
sociation has  been  formed  and  a  herd 
book  is  being  kept.  The  bulls  weigh 
about  1,600  pounds  and  the  cows  about 
050.  The  breed  is  said  to  be  hardy  and 
of  more  rapid  growth  than  the  Bed 
Polled. 

MARKET    CLASSES 

In  the  first  place,  distinction  should 
be  made  between  market  classes  and 
market  grades.  The  market  classes, 
which  are  commonly  recognized,  in- 
clude: beef,  butcher  stock,  cutters  and 
canners,  veal  calves  and  stockers  and 
feeders ;  while  the  grades  are :  prime 
choice,  good,  medium,  common  and  in- 
ferior. Attention  has  been  called  by 
Mumford  to  the  importance  of  studying 
these  market  grades,  so  as  to  understand 
thoroughly  the  market  demands.  This 
is  a  necessary  part  of  a  successful  beef 
business,  since  nondescript  beef  cattle 
cannot   be    assigned   to    definite   classes, 


and  the  owner  must,  therefore,  take 
chances  regarding  the  price  which  he  re- 
ceives for  them.  The  market  classes  al- 
ready named  may  each  include  several 
grades,  so  that  the  classes  gradually 
shade  into  one  another,  but  the  prime 
animals  of  each  class  are  to  be  readily 
recognized    after    a    little    study.      The 


251 brown     swiss     champion    at 

world's    fair 

names  of  the  different  market  classes 
indicate  somewhat  the  uses  to  which 
cattle  are  put,  while  the  grades  refer  to 
quality. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that 
weight  has  only  a  secondary  influence  in 
determining  the  grade  and  the  market 
price.  It  is  commonly  recognized  as 
being  a  much  more  difficult  matter  to 
determine  the  correct  value  of  low  grade 
cattle    than    of    cattle     of   the    higher 


Fig.    252 — POLLED    ALBION    BULL 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


371 


grades.  Obviously  the  best  way  of  be- 
coming acquainted  with  the  market 
grades  is  to  visit  a  large  stock  market 
like  Chicago  and  study  the  classifica- 
tion, as  adopted  by  the  expert  cattle 
buyers.  If  the  farmer  is  in  a  position 
to  supply  high-grade  cattle,  he  is  prac- 
tically certain  to  receive  a  remunerative 
price  for  them;  in  fact  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  bull  the  market  somewhat  with 
fine  cattle,  so  that  often  they  bring  more 
than  they  are  really  worth.  On  the 
other  hand,  common  and  medium  grades 
of  cattle  are  not  much  in  demand  and 
seldom  bring  their  full  value. 


Fig.    254 POINTS    IN    THE    STEER 


1    Forehead  and  face 

17 

Hooks 

2    Muzzle 

18 

Rumps 

3    Nostrils 

19 

Hin«li|ii:irlcrs 

4    Eyes 

20 

Thighs 

5    Ears 

21 

Twist 

6    Poll 

22 

Base  of  Tail 

7    Jaws 

23 

Cod  purse 

8    Throat 

24 

Underline 

it    Shoulders 

25 

Flanks 

lu    Chest 

26 

Leys  and  bone 

11    Brisket 

27 

Hocks 

12    Fore  ribs 

28 

Forearms 

13    Back  ribs 

29 

Neck  veins 

14    Crops 

30 

Bush  of  tail 

15    Loins 

31 

Heart  girth 

16    Back 

32 

Pin  bones 

Importance  of  knowing  market  re- 
quirements— The  small  feeder  who  does 
not  study  market  classes  and  seldom 
visits  large  stock  markets,  is  at  a  great 
disadvantage  as  compared  with  the  regu- 
lar shipper,  for  the  reason  that  the 
former  is  not  well  posted  on  the  latest 
market  demands,  and  the  style  and  qual- 
ity of  cattle  for  which  there  is  the 
most  active  call.  Even  the  breeder  of 
pure  bred  stock  needs  to  familiarize  him- 
self with  the  market  classes,  for  other- 
wise he  may  continue  to  breed  and  se- 
lect his  animals  in  such  manner  as  to 
perpetuate  characters  which  are  coming 
into  disfavor  on  the  market.  When  a 
breeder  decides  upon  a  particular  breed, 
and  continues  to  breed  these  animals  be- 
cause they  belong  to  a  particular  breed, 
i  he  is  overlooking  the  fact  that  a  breed  of 
i animals  is  not  valuable  because  it  bears 
.a  certain  name,  but  because  it  possesses 
.certain  qualities  for  which  there  is  a 
(regular. demand  upon  the  market.     The 


purchaser  looks  for  quality  in  the  pro- 
duct, not  for  a  particular  breed  name. 
It  may  be,  therefore,  that  in  a  lot  of 
cattle  of  different  breeds  offered  for  sale 
upon  the  beef  market,  each  market  class 
will  contain  animals  of  each  breed. 

Designation  of  terms — Beef  cattle  in- 
clude export,  shipping  and  dressed  beef 
steers.  Under  this  class  are  quoted  all 
grades  of  fat  steers  and  heifers,  which 
have  received  enough  food  of  the  right 
quality  to  indicate  a  successful  attempt 
to  fatten  them.  The  weight  varies 
greatly,  since  the  class  includes  every- 
thing from  heavy  shipping  steers  to 
light  grades  of  dressed  beef.  In  the 
class  of  beef  cattle  we  have  prime  steers, 
weighing  from  1,200  to  1,600  pounds; 
choice  steers  and  good  steers  each  weigh- 
ing from  1,150  to  1,600;  medium  steers 
weighing  from  1,100  to  1,400;  and  com- 
mon, rough  steers,  weighing  from  900 
to  1,200  pounds. 

The  terms  shipping,  export  and 
dressed  beef  cattle  are  sometimes  used 
to  mean  distinct  classes.  This  is  not 
really  the  case,  however,  since  these 
terms  refer  to  the  uses  which  are  made 
of  the  cattle,  rather  than  to  their 
quality.  As  a  rule,  export  cattle  in- 
clude good  and  choice  grades  of  steers, 
weighing  from  1,200  to  1,500  pounds. 
Shipping  steers  include  medium  and 
good  grades  of  cattle,  weighing  from 
1,160  to  1,500  pounds,  and  bought  f  or  the 
eastern  markets.  The  Boston  buyers 
prefer  heavy  steers.  As  stated  by  Mum- 
ford,  there  is  a  constant  limited  demand 
for  prime  steers,  weighing  1,200  to 
1,300  pounds,  for  the  high-class  trade  in 
New  York.  Dressed  beef  cattle  is  a 
term  used  to  denote  steers  purchased  by 
the  Chicago  packers.  There  is  a  wider 
range  in  the  weight  and  quality  of  these 
cattle  than  among  the  cattle  which  are 
used  for  export  or  shipping  purposes. 
In  the  various  market  classes  already 
mentioned,  no  weight  is  given  exceed- 
ing 1,600  pounds,  and  this  is  a  satis- 
factory maximum,  for  the  reason  that 
but  few  cattle  reach  the  market  which 
weigh  more  than  1,600  pounds. 

In  the  general  class  of  beef  cattle  we 
have  also  baby  beef,  distillers  and  Texas 
cattle,  these  being  sub-divisions  of  the 
class.  Baby  beef  contains  only  the 
prime  and  choice  grades,  while  the  dis- 
tillers and  Texas  cattle  show  all  the 
grades.  Baby  beef  is  a  term  applied  to 
choice  or  prime  steers  between  the  ages 
of  one  and  two  years,  and  weighing  from 


372 


FARMER'S' CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


800  to  1,000  pounds.  The  term  Dis- 
tillers arose  from  the  fact  that  formerly 
the  feeders  who  used  distillers'  residues 
in  cattle  rations  purchased  only  poor 
grades  of  bulls  and  steers,  for  the  con- 
sumption of  such  feed.  At  present 
however,  distillery  residues  are  fed  to  a 
better  grade  of  steers.  The  Texas  or 
western  range  cattle  were  formerly 
distinguished  by  their  long  horns  and 
brands.  At  present  a  long  horn  steer 
is  seldom  seen,  and  the  pure  breeds  of 
cattle  have  been  so  widely  distributed 
over  the  range  that  the  western  range 
steer  may  not  be  distinguished  by  any 
characteristic  feature  except  for  the 
fact  that  he  bears  a  brand.  A  slight 
discrimination  is  made  by  buyers 
against  Texas  cattle  on  account  of  their 
long  horns,  and  against  southern  cattle 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  they  come 


but  are  animals  which  have  never  been 
sufficiently  well  fed  to  be  in  a  good  mar- 
ket condition.  As  a  rule,  only  a  small 
percentage  of  steers  of  good  quality  are 
classed  as  butcher  stock,  for  if  they  are 
fat  they  go  in  the  class  of  beef  cattle, 
and  if  they  have  not  been  fattened  and 
are  promising  animals,  they  are  more 
properly  classified  with  the  stockers  and 
feeders. 

Cutters  and  canners_Mumford  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  impression 
commonly  prevails  that  this  class  in- 
cludes only  old,  thin  cows.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  however,  it  includes  poor 
bulls,  steers  and  heifers,  as  well  as  cows. 
Great  difficulties  are  experienced  in  fix- 
ing the  value  of  animals  which  belong  to 
this  class.  Cows  are  apt  to  show  an 
excessively  large  paunch  and  in  general 
they    dress    a    relatively   low   per    cent. 


Fig.   255 — WESTERN   STEERS   USED  IN  LARGE  FEEDING  OPERATIONS 


from  below  the  quarantine  line.  Dis- 
tinction is  often  made  to  indicate  lo- 
calities where  range  steers  have  been 
bred  and  fed.  Thus  we  have  such  terms 
as  Montana  Texans,  Dakota  Texans, 
etc.  Since  all  western  range  cattle  bear 
brands,  they  are  sometimes  referred  to 
as  branded  cattle. 

Butcher  stock — This  class  includes 
what  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  the  by- 
products of  the  industry  of  cattle  feed- 
ing. This  means  that  the  feeder  has 
failed  to  produce  a  prime  animal, 
either  for  the  reason  that  he  made  a  poor 
selection  of  feeders,  or  from  not  hav- 
ing used  proper  rations.  It  is  not  al- 
ways possible,  however,  to  make  for- 
tunate selections  of  stock,  and  even  the 
most  expert  cattle  feeders  sometimes  se- 
lect in  their  herds  animals  which  can- 
not be  satisfactorily  fattened.  These 
animals  find  their  way  to  the  local 
or  Chicago  market.  Many  of  them  are 
not  culls  from  the  classes  of  beef  cattle, 


Buyers,  therefore,  ordinarily  discrimi- 
nate against  them.  Neither  cutters  nor 
canners  include  any  prime  grades,  since 
from  the  very  nature  of  the  class,  it  is 
evident  that  no  animals  of  prime  quality 
should  be  included  in  it.  The  quality 
which  is  visually  apparent  in  inferior 
canners  may  be  readily  understood  from 
such  names  as  Dairymaids,  Nellies, 
Hat  Racks  and  Skins,  which  are  com- 
monly applied  to  them.  Low-grade  bulls, 
which  show  a  poor  conformation  and 
lack  of  condition  are  commonly  referred 
to  as  Bologna  Bulls.  The  best  part  of 
the  loins  and  ribs  of  bologna  bulls,  how- 
ever, may  be  used  for  block  purposes. 

Stockers  and  feeders — This  is  a  very 
important  market  class  of  beef  stock, 
since  from  this  class  the  majority  of 
cattle  feeders  select  their  stock  for  the 
production  of  fine  beef  animals.  As 
indicated  by  Mumford,  these  two  classes 
represent  the  beginning  and  the  end  of 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


373 


the  processes  of  beef  production.  Stack- 
ers and  feeders  may  include  calves, 
yearlings,  two-year-olds,  and  older  ani- 
mals. Steers  and  bulls  about  a  year 
and  a  half  old  that  are  intended  for 
placing  immediately  in  the  feed  lot  are 
referred  to  as  feeders;  while  calves, 
heifers  and  young  steers  are  commonly 
called  stockers.  It  is  difficult,  however, 
to  draw  a  hard  and  fast  line  between 
these  subdivisions  of  the  class.  It  is 
rare  that  a  steer  weighing  less  than  800 
pounds  is  put  in  the  feed  lot,  the  com- 
mon weight  ranging  from  900  to  1,000 
pounds  or  more.  Feeders  are  usually  a 
year  and  a  half  of  age  or  older. 


veal  calves  are  not  determined  by 
weight  but  by  quality.  A  choice  veal 
calf  must  be  fat  and  in  fancy  condition. 
It  must  not  be  too  young  or  too  old; 
too  light  or  too  heavy. 

RAISING  CALVES 

Several  systems  of  raising  calves  are 
in  favor  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. Calves  may  be  allowed  to  run  with 
the  cows  during  a  number  of  months 
and  take  all  the  milk.  Again,  they  may 
be  kept  confined  and  allowed  to  suck 
several  times  daily.  Another  variation 
is  found  in  confining  calves  and  feeding 
them  fresh,  whole  milk  from  the  pail. 


Fig.  256 — GOOD  VEAL  PROM  ILLINOIS  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


It  should  not  be  supposed  that  feed- 
ers must  be  animals  lacking  in  quality. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  even  the  finest  bred 
animals  at  the  beginning  of  the  fat- 
tening period  necessarily  lack  market 
finish.  The  period  of  fattening  is  de- 
signed to  put  this  finish  on  the  animals. 
Therefore,  the  fancy,  selected  feeders 
may  include  the  most  promising  beef 
animals  which  can  be  found. 

Veal  calves  include  choice  veals 
weighing  from  120  to  160  pounds;  good 
veals  weighing  from  110  to  200  pounds; 
medium  veals,  weighing  from  100  to 
240;  and  common  veals  weighing  from 
80  to  800f    It  is  obvious  that  grades  of 


Again,  they  may  be  fed  on  fresh  sepa- 
rated milk  or  skim  milk,  or  less  often 
they  are  fed  whey,  buttermilk  or  sour 
milk.  On  the  western  ranges,  the  only 
system  which  can  be  operated  with  suc- 
cess consists  in  allowing  the  calves  to 
run  with  the  cows  for  several  months, 
after  which  they  are  weaned  and  do  not 
receive  either  whole  or  skim  milk,  but 
are  put  on  a  grain  and  coarse  forage  ra- 
tion, or  may  be  allowed  to  obtain  all 
their  feed  on  the  range.  Range  cows 
allow  their  calves  to  suck  at  frequent 
intervals  while  they  are  young,  but  the 
calves  do  not  follow  the  cows  until  they 
have     acquired    considerable    strength^ 


374 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


At  first,  the  calves  are  kept  hidden, 
while  the  cow  goes  off  to  graze  for  a 
few  hours,  and  then  returns  to  allow  the 
calf  to  get  more  milk. 

In  all  dairy  regions,  and  wherever 
milk  may  be  sold  as  such,  or  in  the  form 
of  butter,  the  farmer  must  decide  on  the 
relative  economy  of  allowing  the  calf 
to  have  the  whole  milk,  or  selling  the 
cream  or  butter  and  replacing  this  part 
of  the  milk  with  other  food.  This 
problem  has  been  attacked  by  many  ag- 
ricultural experts,  and  by  other  practi- 
cal feeders;  and  interesting  residts  have 
been  obtained  which  have  had  much  to 
do  in  determining  the  common  practice 
in   this   matter.      Calves   may  be   more 


this  matter  is  the  kind  and  quantity  of 
cream  substitutes  which  may  be  best 
and  most  economically  used  with  the 
skim  milk  ration  for  calves. 

Hay  tea  experiments — In  Kansas, 
Otis  tested  the  use  of  hay  tea  for  calves. 
In  this  experiment  two  kinds  of  hay 
were  used:  mixed  hay,  containing  or- 
chard grass,  blue  grass  and  a  little  red 
clover;  and  alfalfa  hay.  The  hay  was 
boiled  for  one  or  two  hours,  after  which 
the  coarse  material  was  removed  and 
the  tea  further  concentrated  by  boiling. 
In  this  experiment  I2V2  pounds  of  hay 
were  used  to  produce  100  pounds  of  tea. 
The  total  cost  of  this  amount  of  tea 
was    estimated    at    11    cents.      The    re- 


Fig.  21 


-BLOODED   CALVES    WORTH    MORE   THAN    MILK 


profitably  maintained  when  not  allowed 
to  receive  whole  milk,  but  only  skim 
milk  with  a  small  grain  ration  added. 
This  fact  being  established,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  determine  how  well  calves 
thrive  on  such  a  ration  as  compared  with 
calves  on  whole  milk  or  with  calves  al- 
lowed to  suck  the  cow.  Experiments 
along  this  line  have  shown  that  while  in 
some  instances  slightly  better  results 
are  obtained  in  whole  milk  calves  than 
in  skim  milk  calves,  yet  the  differences 
are  so  slight  that,  as  a  rule,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  between  calves 
brought  up  by  these  two  methods;  and 
the  profit  from  skim  milk  calves  is  al- 
most invariably  greater.  One  of  the 
most    important   points    to    consider    in 


suits  obtained  from  the  use  of  this  ma- 
terial were  not  very  satisfactory.  Al- 
falfa tea  appeared  to  be  so  laxative  that 
it  was  impossible  to  keep  the  calves  from 
scouring.  The  cost  of  gain  in  calves  on 
hay  tea  was  too  high. 

According  to  Stewart,  however,  this 
old  practice  of  rearing  calves  on  hay  tea 
rests  on  a  good  foundation.  The  soluble 
nutriments  in  the  hay  are  readily  ex- 
tracted by  boiling  and  the  material  con- 
tains all  of  the  nutrients  required  by  a 
growing  calf,  providing  the  hay  is  cut  at 
a  time  when  there  is  a  large  amount  of 
soluble  matter.  Moreover,  the  tea  should 
be  boiled  down  so  as  not  to  contain  too 
much  water  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  nutriment.    In  Stewart's  experiments, 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


375 


two  gallons  of  hay  tea,  to  which  Y± 
pound  each  of  flaxseed  and  wheat  mid- 
dlings had  been  added,  was  tried  on 
calves  for  a  period  of  sixty  days,  during 
which  the  amount  of  middlings  was 
gradually  increased  to  1  pound  a  day. 
The  calves  thrived  well  and  gained  more 
than  2  pounds  each  per  day. 

Educating  the  calf — In  teaching  the 
calf  to  drink,  it  is  desirable  to  leave  it 
with  itself  for  at  least  12  hours,  or  until 
it  becomes  hungry.  Attempts  to  make 
it  drink  before  it  is  hungry  are  almost 
sure  to  be  useless.  The  calf  may  be 
taught  to  drink  by  forcing  open  the 
mouth  and  holding  the  fingers  in  it. 
As  a  substitute  for  the  common  method 
of  teaching  calves  to  drink,  various  calf 


should  be  allowed  to  suck  the  cows  for 
three  to  five  days.  The  milk  during  this 
time  is  commonly  considered  unsuitable 
for  human  consumption.  At  the  end  of 
four  or  five  days  the  milk  is  ready  for 
use. 

During  this  time  the  calf  will  have 
received  the  colostrum  and  will  have 
benefited  by  its  nutritious  character 
and  its  medicinal  effects;  and  will  also 
have  assisted  in  preventing  inflamma- 
tion of  the  udder  of  the  cow.  The  calves 
may  now  be  separated  from  the  cows 
and  fed  on  whole  milk.  As  soon  as 
they  have  learned  to  drink,  the  whole 
milk  should  be  gradually  replaced  with 
warm,  perfectly  fresh  skim  milk,  the 
process     of     substitution     taking    place 


258 CALVES  READY  TO  FATTEN  FOR  BABY  BEEF.  KANSAS  EXPER.  STATION 


feeders  have  been  patented,  consisting 
of  a  tube  and  a  rubber  nipple.  It  is 
almost,  if  not  as  easy,  however,  to  teach 
a  calf  to  drink  as  to  induce  it  to  make 
use  of  the  feeder.  Often  the  calf  loses 
the  nipple  and  is  unable  to  find  it. 
Then,  too,  the  milk  is  obtained  so  slowly 
that  in  cold  weather  it  may  become 
chilled  before  the  calf  has  finished  his 
meal,  in  which  case  it  may  cause  scour- 
ing. 

The  average  calf  cannot  make  good 
use  of  hay  or  grain  until  he  is  about 
10  days  old.  During  this  time,  there- 
fore, it  is  well  to  feed  the  calf  whole 
milk.  The  following  scheme  may  be 
considered  as  based  on  the  results  ob- 
tained by  the  majority  of  cattle  raisers, 
who  have  adopted  the  mpthod  of  feeding 
calves  on  skim  milk  and  grain.     Calves 


slowly,  so  that  at  the  end  of  four  weeks 
the  calves  receive  nothing  but  skim 
milk.  The  skim  milk  must  be  fed  sweet 
and  warm ;  that  is,  of  a  temperature  of 
95  to  100°  F.  The  change  from  whole 
milk  to  fresh  skim  milk  will  occupy  a 
period  of  about  two  weeks.  The  skim 
milk  ration  may  begin  at  10  pounds 
a  day  and  may  be  increased  to  15  pounds 
at  four  weeks  of  age,  after  which  it 
should  range  from  18  to  24  pounds  a  day. 
Quantities  to  feed — At  first  the 
whole  milk  should  be  fed  about  three 
times  a  day:  4  pounds  in  the  morning, 
2  pounds  at  noon  and  4  pounds  at  night. 
After  10  days  two  meals  a  day  will  be 
sufficient.  During  the  time  that  the  calf 
receives  whole  milk,  the  quantity  may 
be     gradually     increased     to     about     12 


376 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


pounds.  When  the  process  of  substitu- 
tion has  begun,  about  1  pound  of  skim 
milk  should  be  substituted  for  1  pound 
of  whole  milk,  and  this  gradual  replace- 
ment kept  up  until  the  change  is  com- 
plete. In  the  meantime  the  calf  should 
be  taught  to  eat  a  little  grain;  some 
form  of  meal,  either  flaxseed,  linseed 
meal,  corn  meal,  kafir  corn  meal  or  va- 
rious mixtures.  A  handful  of  the  dry 
meal  may  be  placed  in  the  calf's  mouth 
and  by  this  means  it  is  forced  to  eat. 
The  taste  of  the  grain  is  agreeable  and 
the  calf  soon  learns  to  go  to  the  feed 
box  for  it. 

In  Kansas  it  has  been  found  that  a 
calf  from  three  to  five  weeks  of  age  may 
receive  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  skim 
milk  daily;  from  the  age  of  seven  to 
eight  weeks,  14  to  16  pounds;  and  from 
three  to  five  months,  18  to  20  pounds.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  the  percen- 
tage of  protein  in  skim  milk  is  greater 
than  in  whole  milk,  and  since  protein  is 
the  element  which  forms  the  bone  and 
muscle,  the  feeding  value  of  skim  milk 
should  be  obvious.  The  fat  content  in 
milk  is  the  least  valuable  of  the  milk 
constituents,  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  calf,  and  may  be  replaced  by  grains 
containing  some  fat. 

Calves  which  are  allowed  to  suck  the 
cows  may,  during  early  life,  show  a 
plumper  and  sleeker  appearance  than 
the  skim  milk  calves.  The  difference, 
if  any,  however,  usually  disappears  later 
on.  It  has  been  found  in  Kansas  that 
skim  milk  is  worth  from  20  to  40  cents 
a  hundred  pounds  as  a  food  for  calves. 
If  skim  milk  has  become  contaminated 
in  any  way,  or  undergoes  slight  changes, 
it  may  be  sterilized.  When  such  milk 
is  fed  to  calves,  they  usually  show  a  dis- 
like to  the  odor  of  the  milk  at  first,  but 
soon  become  accustomed  to  it.  A  com- 
parison of  *the  feeding  value  of  steri- 
lized skim  milk  and  fresh  separator 
skim  milk  shows  that  these  materials  are 
of  about  equal  value  for  calves.  In  the 
set  of  experiments  already  referred  to  in 
Kansas,  the  grain  used  in  replacing  the 
cream  of  milk  included  shelled  corn, 
corn  chop,  corn  meal,  whole  kafir  corn, 
ground  kafir  corn  and  linseed  meal,  to- 
gether with  a  little  dried  blood  and  flax- 
seed in  certain  cases.  The  average  daily 
gain  was  highest  on  a  combination  of 
shelled  corn  and  ground  kafir  corn.  In 
a  comparison  of  three  methods  of  feed- 
ing calves,  it  was  found  that  the  daily 
gain  was  V-/z  pounds  on  skim  milk,  1.86 


pounds  in  calves  which  drank  whole 
milk,  and  1.77  pounds  in  calves  which 
were  allowed  to  suck  the  cows.  Skim 
milk  calves  consumed  122  pounds  of 
grain  for  100  pounds  of  gain;  whole 
milk  calves  consumed  58  pounds  of 
grain  and  32  pounds  of  butter  fat  for 
100  pounds  of  gain.  Estimating  the 
butter  fat  at  the  usual  price,  the  ma- 
terial required  for  a  pound  of  gain  in 
this  case  cost  more  than  with  skim  milk 
calves. 

Otis  believes  on  the  basis  of  his  ex- 
periments that  the  use  of  skim  milk 
makes  it  possible  to  obtain  the  greatest 
profit  from  cows  on  home-grown  grains, 
since  feeds  which  are  desirable  in  re- 
placing cream  of  milk  may  easily  be 
raised  on  the  farm  and  will  yield  as 
great  a  profit  when  fed  to  young  calves 
as  can  be  obtained  from  them  in  feeding 
any  other  kind  of  animal. 

Experiments  with  milk  substitutes 
— In  Pennsylvania,  Haywood  carried 
out  a  set  of  experiments  to  determine 
whether  calves  may  be  reared  on  milk 
substitutes  without  the  use  of  milk.  The 
results  of  these  experiments  indicate 
that  there  is  little  difficulty  in  raising 
dairy  calves  without  milk,  except  for 
the  first  two  weeks.  The  cost  of  raising 
calves  on  milk  substitutes  up  to  an  age 
when  they  may  be  put  upon  a  hay  and 
grain  ration,  or  three  to  four  months 
of  age,  does  not  exceed  about  $10  a  head. 
Calves  from  valuable  dairy  stock,  when 
raised  in  this  way,  are  worth  much  more 
than  the  cost  of  production  and  are, 
therefore,  raised  at  a  profit.  In  these 
experiments  the  calves  were  allowed  to 
suck  the  cows  for  a  few  days  after  which 
they  were  taught  to  drink  whole  milk 
and  were  then  gradually  accustomed  to 
the  substituted  material. 

As  a  basis  for  the  preparation  of  a 
milk  substitute,  Hayward  took  an  Eng- 
lish formula,  calling  for  16  2-3  pounds 
flour,  33  1-3  pounds  flaxseed  meal  and 
50  pounds  linseed  meal.  In  feeding  this 
mixture,  21/2  pounds  were  scalded  in 
boiling  water  after  which  enough  water 
was  added  to  make  2  gallons,  and  a  little 
salt  and  sugar  were  sprinkled  in  the 
material  before  feeding.  Another  sat- 
isfactory mixture  tested  in  Pennsylva- 
nia contained  30  pounds  wheat  flour,  25 
pounds  cocoanut  meal,  20  pounds  nu- 
trium,  10  pounds  of  linseed  meal  and  2 
pounds  of  dried  blood.  One  pound  of 
this  mixture  was  added  to  6  pounds  of 
hot  water  and,  after  stirring,  allowed  to 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


377 


cool  down  to  a  temperature  of  100°  E. 
before  feeding. 

English  practices — In  several  coun- 
ties of  England  calves  are  left  with  the 
cows  for  about  two  weeks,  after  which 
they  are  taught  to  drink  first  whole 
fresh  milk  and  then  whole  and  skim 
milk  mixed.  At  the  end  of  about  a 
month,  the  calf  receives  only  skim  milk 
with  oatmeal,  barley  meal  or  linseed 
meal.  Small  quantities  of  hay  are  also 
placed  within  reach  of  the  calves  and 
they  are  given,  in  addition,  chopped  tur- 
nips, carrots  or  other  vegetables. 

In  Ayrshire,  calves  which  are  intended 
for  dairy  cows  are  fed  on  whole  milii 
for  the  first  four  to  six  weeks,  allowing 
them  about  4  quarts  a  day,  the  quantity 
lessened  as  soon  as  there  is  plenty  of 
green  grass  to  eat.     Grain  is  added  at 


that  a  very  small  quantity  of  mixed 
meal  be  added  to  the  milk  from  the  time 
the  calf  is  four  or  five  days  old.  If 
oatmeal  or  linseed  meal  is  used,  it  seems 
to  act  as  a  tonic  and  helps  to  prevent 
scouring  and  other  digestive  troubles. 
Objections  to  natural  feeding — One 
of  the  chief  objections  to  the  custom  of 
allowing  calves  to  suck  the  cows  until 
they  are  a  month  old,  or  more,  is  that 
it  is  then  much  more  difficult  to  wean 
them  and  they  lose  flesh  while  they  are 
being  taught  to  drink.  In  general,  the 
older  the  calf  the  more  difficult  it  is 
to  teach  him  to  drink  from  a  pail,  so 
that  the  practice  of  feeding  him  from  a 
pail  at  the  end  of  the  first  week  has 
abundant  justification.  Calf  rearing  is 
never  successful  unless  the  calves  are 
kept  in  a  healthy,  growing,  progressive 


Eig.  259 — ROUGH  FEEDERS  ON  AN  AVERAGE  FARM 


the  age  of  about  four  weeks.  With  the 
milk  other  feeds  are  given,  such  as  hay 
tea,  linseed  jelly,  oat  and  wheat  meal 
porridge,  etc.  Another  method  of  feed- 
ing, which  has  given  success  in  Ireland, 
consists  in  making  a  thick  soup  of  lin- 
seed meal  and  bean  or  pea  meal,  which 
is  mixed  with  milk  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  a  material  of  about  the  consist- 
ency of  mucilage. 

In  the  northern  countries  of  England 
the  common  practice  prevails  of  feeding 
calves  equal  parts  of  milk  and  sweet 
whey  at  a  lukewarm  temperature.  The 
only  objection  to  this  feed  is  that  it  is 
apt  to  cause  scouring.  In  Norfolk, 
calves  are  frequently  raised  on  skim 
milk,  to  which  a  little  wheat  flour  is 
added.  They  are  also  allowed  to  have 
a  small  amount  of  chopped  turnips  and 
a  bit  of  hay.  Some  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful English  beef  raisers  recommend 


state,  and  any  check  which  may  take 
place  in  growth  is  likely  to  result  in  a 
stunting  from  which  it  may  never  en- 
tirely recover. 

Rice  meal  was  compared  in  Alabama 
with  corn  meal  for  calves,  the  calves 
being  allowed  small  quantities  of  Japan 
clover  hay.  It  was  found  somewhat  dif- 
ficult to  induce  the  calves  to  eat  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  rice  meal,  and  it 
therefore  became  necessary  to  substitute 
bran  for  one-third  of  the  rice  meal.  The 
calves  which  received  rice  meal  made  an 
average  daily  gain  of  1.6  pounds,  while 
those  which  were  fed  corn  meal  gained 
1.9  pounds  a  head  daily. 

Whey  is  commonly  utilized  for  both 
calves  and  pigs.  A  comparison  of  whey 
and  skim  milk  was  made  in  Kansas  by 
Otis.  In  this  test  it  was  found  that 
whey  produced  poor  gains  and  that  the 
returns    given    for    the    feed    consumed 


378 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


were  not  satisfactory,  but  when  the 
test  was*  repeated,  using  alfalfa  hay,  bet- 
ter results  were  obtained.  The  calves 
which  received  whey  did  not  become  fat, 
but  they  remained  in  a  thrifty  con- 
dition. 

Defective  ration — If  serious  scour- 
ing takes  place  in  young  calves,  it  is 
evident  that  there  is  something  wrong 
with  the  ration.  The  addition  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  dried  blood  to  the  milk  ra- 
tion has  been  found  to  be  valuable  in 
checking  scouring  in  Kansas.  A  num- 
ber of  packing  companies  manufacture 
a  sterilized  dried  blood  or  blood  meal 
which  may  be  safely  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  serious  cases  of  scours,  the 
addition  of  one  or  two  eggs  with  dried 
blood  is  quite  successful.  Another  rem- 
edy which  gave  good  results  in  Kansas 
consists  in  adding  from  1  to  2  ounces 
of  castor  oil  to  the  milk  in  the  morning, 
followed  in  the  evening  by  a  dose  of  15 
or  20  drops  of  laudanum  in  addition  to 
the  dried  blood. 

Various  feeds — In  order  to  get  a  defi- 
nite idea  of  the  feeding  value  of  milk 
for  calves,  a  test  was  made  by  Beach 
in  Connecticut,  in  which  it  was  found 
that  for  each  pound  of  gain  in  calves, 
from  0.91  to  1.33  of  a  pound  of  solid 
matter  must  be  fed.  This  shows  that 
the  young  calf  is  exceedingly  effective 
in  manufacturing  meat  out  of  feeds.  In 
Switzerland,  it  has  been  found  that  six 
eggs  and  14  quarts  of  milk  a  day  are 
sufficient  to  make  a  calf  gain  three 
pounds  a  day.  This  ration,  however, 
would  be  altogether  too  expensive,  ex- 
cept for  high  bred  animals  or  in  loca- 
tions where  fancy  prices  could  be  ob- 
tained for  fine  veal  calves.  In  New 
South  "Wales,  cod  liver  oil  is  extensively 
used  in  feeding  calves.     It  appears  that 

2  ounces  of  cod  liver  oil  in  3  gallons  of 
milk  makes  a  ration  on  which  calves 
will  gain  1%  pounds  a  day  at  a  cost  of 

3  cents.  The  cod  liver  oil  is  easily  fed 
and  is  greatly  relished  by  the  calves. 
Likewise  in  England,  cod  liver  oil  has 
given  excellent  results.  In  many  cases 
calves  are  fed  on  whole  milk  for  five 
weeks,  after  which  a  ration  is  prepared 
in  the  proportion  of  5  quarts  of  skim 
milk  to  2  ounces  of  cod  liver  oil.  The 
oil  may  be  safely  fed  to  calves,  since 
it  never  shows  any  bad  effects  and  the 
calves  appear  to  be  very  fond  of  it.  It 
constitutes  an  exceedingly  cheap  ration 
when  mixed  with  milk. 


Various  forms  of  starch  have  been 
used  as  cream  substitutes  for  calves.  In 
Italy,  a  ration  of  skim  milk  and  starch 
made  gains  of  2  pounds  a  day  in  calves. 
Oleomargarine  added  to  skim  milk  was 
found  to  be  more  effective  than  ground 
bone.  According  to  some  feeders,  scalded 
linseed  meal  is  the  best  cream  sub- 
stitute, followed  in  effectiveness  by  cod 
liver  oil.  In  Queenstown,  cod  liver  oil 
has  been  found  to  lessen  the  danger  of 
scouring,  and  gave  better  results  than 
a  mixture  of  linseed  meal  and  molasses 
added  to  skim  milk. 

There  seems  to  be  no  apparent  ad- 
vantage in  boiling  milk  for  calves,  since 
according  to  German  experience,  if  it 
is  fed  in  a  fresh  condition  it  should  not 
contain  enough  bacteria  to  cause  scour- 
ing. 

A  comparison  of  skim  milk  calves  and 
sucking  calves  was  made  in  Nebraska, 
during  which  Burnett  kept  the  calves 
under  observation  for  147  days.  During 
this  time  the  average  gain  of  skim  milk 
calves  was  292  pounds,  and  sucking 
calves  343  pounds.  The  amount  of  gain 
in  these  cases  was  in  favor  of  whole 
milk,  but  a  greater  economy  was  shown 
in  the  use  of  skim  milk. 

In  Germany,  an  artificial  calf  cream, 
sold  under  the  name  of  Kalberrahm,  has 
been  used  as  a  cream  substitute,  but 
when  mixed  with  skim  milk,  this  feed 
has  been  found  to  be  somewhat  inferior 
to  whole  milk  for  calves. 

A  number  of  feeders  in  New  South 
Wales  have  made  use  of  cocoanut  oil 
cake.  *Tke  results  obtained,  however, 
indicate  that  this  material  is  not  easj 
to  prepare  and  that  calves  do  not  thrive 
well  on  it.  In  Canada,  cocoa  shell  milk 
has  been  prepared  by  boiling  cocoa  shells 
in  water.  This  material  appears  to  be 
a  good  substitute  for  milk  for  young 
calves. 

Ration  experiments — -In  Nebraska, 
Haecker  carried  on  a  series  of  experi- 
ments to  test  the  value  of  certain  rations 
containing  fat  for  replacing  the  cream 
in  skim  milk  for  calves.  In  his  experi- 
ments, linseed  meal,  germ  oil  meal,  corn 
oil,  shelled  corn,  oats  and  bran  were 
used.  In  accordance  with  common  prac- 
tice in  this  state,  the  calves  were  taken 
from  their  mothers  at  the  end  of  three 
days  and  fed  whole  milk  for  about  two 
weeks,  after  which  a  change  was  made 
to  skim  milk.  The  corn  and  oats  added 
to  the  milk  were  fed  ground  and  ^  the 
calves  were  taught  to  eat  grain  rations 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY, 


379 


at  the  end  of  six  weeks.  Corn  oil  of- 
fered some  difficulty.  At  first  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  prepare  a  mixture 
of  the  corn  oil  and  milk  containing  3 
per  cent  of  fat.  It  was  found  neces- 
sary, however,  to  reduce  the  fat  to  2 
per  cent,  since  the  oil  proved  too  laxative. 

During1  this  experiment  it  appeared 
that  linseed  meal  is  an  excellent  mate- 
rial for  replacing  cream  in  milk  and 
is  very  economic  as  compared  with  the 
other  feeds.  Germ  oil  meal  gave  about 
as  good  results  as  linseed  meal,  and  is, 
therefore,  recommended  as  a  calf  food. 

In  order  to  attain  their  greatest  de- 
velopment, calves  require  mill:  for  a 
period  of  four  or  five  months.  After 
that  time  milk  may  be  entirely  omitted 
from  the  ration  and  the  grain  ration 
may  be  increased.  It  is  presupposed 
that  calves  begin  to  receive  grain  at  the 
age  of  two  or  three  weeks  in  addition 
to  skim  milk.  To  the  grains  which  have 
already  been  mentioned  for  this  purpose, 
we  may  add  kafir  corn  meal,  which  has 
been  found  to  give  excellent  results  in 
Kansas  as  a  substitute  for  corn  meal. 

In  Iowa,  the  use  of  whole  milk  gave 
somewhat  better  gains  in  calves  than  did 
a  mixture  of  skim  milk  and  flaxseed. 
The  whole  milk  calves,  however,  re- 
ceived a  more  decided  check  in  their 
growth  at  weaning  time  than  did  the 
skim  milk,  calves.  Partly  in  conse- 
quence of  this  fact  the  cost  of  gain  on 
whole  milk  was  7.6  cents  a  pound, 
while  on  skim  milk  and  flaxseed  it  was 
5  cents  a  pound.  Corn  meal,  at  later 
tests  in  the  Iowa  station,  proved  to  be 
the  best  of  all  grains  as  a  cream  sub- 
stitute. 

Similar  residts  were  obtained  in 
Nebraska.  At  the  end  of  a  year  whole 
milk  calves  could  not  be  distinguished 
from  skim  milk  calves,  and  the  profits 
were  much  larger  in  the  latter  than  in 
the  former.  During  the  first  week  or 
two,  the  whole  milk  calves  appeared  to 
be  in  the  lead,  but  the  skim  milk  calves 
soon  equaled  them  in  growth.  The 
Minnesota  experiment  station  found 
that  the  cost  of  raising  calves  on  whole 
milk  was  three  times  that  of  raising 
them  on  skim  milk  and  ground  flaxseed. 
In  Massachusetts,  good  results  have  been 
obtained  from  the  use  of  an  emulsion 
of  skim  milk  and  oleomargarine,  with 
an  addition  of  a  little  brown  sugar. 
Calves  will  make  good  gains  on  skim 
milk  alone,  but  when  pork  is  high  and 


veal  low,  there  is  greater  profit  in  feed- 
ing skim  milk  to  pigs  than  calves. 

Cream  substitutes — The  proposition 
of  feeding  calves  on  skim  milk  and 
using  some  cream  substitute  involves 
the  question  of  the  relative  profit  from 
milk  in  the  form  of  butter  and  veal  or 
beef.  In  Pennsylvania,  it  was  found 
that  milk  gave  better  returns  in  veal 
than  in  butter.  When  calves  were  com- 
pared with  pigs  in  regard  to  their  abil- 
ity to  utilize  skim  milk,  it  was  found 
that  young  calves  were  about  equal  to 
pigs.  In  fact,  in  Utah,  calves  up  to  the 
age  of  three  and  one-half  months  re- 
quired less  milk  and  corn  for  a  pound 
of  gain  than  did  pigs;  but  after  five  or 
six  months  pigs  took  the  lead  in  this 
respect. 

In  Wisconsin,  experiments  have  been 
carried  on  in  making  curds  from  sweet 
skim  milk  by  heating  it  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  90°  F.  and  adding  a  liquid  ren- 
net extract.  This  material  produced 
excellent  gains  in  calves. 

We  have  already  recommended  that 
milk  constitute  a  part  of  the  ration  of 
calves  until  they  are  four  or  five  months 
old.  Some  Canadian  feeders,  however, 
have  found  that  skim  milk  is  not  strictly 
indispensable  after  the  calves  are  two 
months  old.  In  some  of  the  southern 
states  cottonseed  meal  has  been  used  as 
a  cream  substitute  in  feeding  calves 
and  has  given  excellent  results.  In 
Mississippi,  cottonseed  meal  was  found 
to  be  the  cheapest  grain  which  could  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  If  fed  in  too 
large  quantities,  however,  it  may  kill 
the  calves. 

In  France,  a  large  variety  of  feeding 
stuffs  have  been  used  as  cream  substi- 
tutes, including  potato  starch,  cooked 
flaxseed,  rice  flour,  barley  meal,  malt 
flour  and  oleomargarine.  Quite  satis- 
factory results  in  using  cream  substi- 
tutes have  also  been  obtained  in  Hol- 
land, Sweden  and  other  European  coun- 
tries. 

Recently  Klein  has  recommended  the 
addition  of  small  quantities  of  formalin 
to  milk  as  a  treatment  for  scours.  In 
order  to  produce  the  right  results  it  is 
not  necessary  that  the  formalin  be  used 
in  greater  strength  than  one  part  to 
4,000.  If  it  is  added  to  the  milk  ration 
after  calves  show  symptoms  of  scouring, 
the  effect  is  very  decided  and  a  recovery 
ordinarily  takes  place  within  two  or 
three  days. 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  the  above  discussion  of  various 
cream  substitutes,  other  recommenda- 
tions have  been  made  regarding  scour- 
ing, and  it  appears  from  the  experi- 
ments of  various  feeders  that  a  number 
of  substances  have  the  effect  of  prevent- 
ing scours,  among  them  cod  liver  oil, 
rye  bran,  kafir  corn  meal,  dried  blood, 
etc 

There  is  one  disadvantage  in  feeding 
skim  milk,  as  compared  with  allowing 
calves  to  suck  the  cows.  This  appears, 
however,  only  when  calves  are  fed  in  a 
careless  manner.  If  calves  are  fed  only 
twice  a  day,  especially  when  they  are 
very  young,  and  then  allowed  to  have 
all  the  milk  they  will  drink,  they  may 
develop  into  small,  pot-bellied  yearlings, 


veal  in  fancy  condition  to  a  larger  one 
in  a  rougher  condition. 

Fancy  veal — The  art  of  producing 
fancy  veal  has  been  highly  developed  in 
England.  The  feeders  keep  their  calves 
in  dark  pens,  scrupulously  clean  and 
furnished  with  dry  bedding.  It  is  some- 
times recommended  that  a  piece  of  chalk- 
stone  be  suspended  so  that  the  calves 
may  lick  it,  since  it  is  sometimes  sup- 
posed that  chalk  assists  in  whitening 
the  meat.  This  idea  is  probably  incor- 
rect, but  chalk  appears  to  help  in  pre- 
venting scouring. 

Veal  raisers  seek  to  produce  veal 
calves  with  the  whitest  possible  meat. 
In  general,  the  use  of  whole  milk,  with- 
out any  other  feed,  has  been  found  to 


»| 


Fig.    260 BABY   BEEF   FROM    ILLINOIS    EXPERIMENT    STATION 


which,  in  the  western  states,  are  known 
as  "dogies." 

Feeding  calves  for  veal — About 
2,000,000  calves  are  annually  killed  in 
the  United  States  for  veal.  The  indus- 
try of  fattening  veal  for  market  is  there- 
fore of  no  mean  importance.  The  same 
variation  of  methods  prevails  here  as 
in  rearing  calves  for  dairy  or  beef  pur- 
poses, and  therefore  a  considerable 
variety  of  feeds  have  been  used.  In 
order  to  bring  fancy  veal  prices,  calves 
should  be  hastened  to  a  proper  market 
condition  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible 
In  general,  calves  should  be  in  prime 
veal  form  at  six  to  eight  weeks  of  age; 
and  if  they  are  in  condition  at  that 
time,  it  is  not  desirable  to  keep  them 
longer,  since  the  market  prefers  a  small 


give  the  best  results.  Where  this 
scheme  of  feeding  is  followed,  the  milk 
from  the  different  cows  is  divided  so 
that  the  calves  receive  a  milk  richer  and 
richer  in  fat  as  they  increase  in  age. 
An  attempt  is  made  also  in  feeding 
fancy  veal  to  keep  the  temperature  of 
the  pens  as  nearly  constant  as  possible. 
The  best  results  in  the  production  of  a 
tender  veal  of  light  color  is  obtained 
when  the  calves  are  given  from  the  start 
all  the  milk  which  they  can  take  with- 
out suffering  from  indigestion.  In  or- 
der to  properly  force  the  larger  veal 
calf,  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  him 
milk  of  two  cows.  A  good  veal  in  proper 
condition  at  the  age  of  one  month  will 
take   all   the   milk    of   one   cow.      Some 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


381 


feeders  give  eggs  and  add  small  quan- 
tities of  meal  to  the  milk,  but  those 
who  have  a  reputation  for  producing 
fancy  veal  object  to  such  practice,  claim- 
ing that  meal  and  eggs  tend  to  darken 
the  meat  of  the  veal. 

In  Holland,  a  still  more  artificial 
method  of  forcing  veal  is  in  favor. 
Calves  are  kept  in  pens  so  narrow  that 
they  cannot  turn  around,  and  therefore 
cannot  take  any  exercise.  The  pens  are 
kept  in  total  darkness,  only  being  light- 
ed up  slightly  when  the  calf  is  fed.  The 
Dutch  feeders  also  keep  a  piece  of  chalk 
hanging  where  the  calf  can  readily 
lick  it. 

Baby  beef — Recently  an  increasing 
interest  has  been  shown  in  the  produc- 
tion of  baby  beef,  and  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  discuss  the  methods  by 
which  baby  beef  is  fitted  for  market  and 
the  economy  of  this  system. 

Under  certain  circumstances,  especially 
where  dairying  is  combined  with  beef 
production,  there  is  a  great  advantage 
to  be  secured  in  inducing  beef  animals 
to  mature  early.  The  problem  of  the 
production  of  baby  beef  has  received 
much  attention  from  expert  feeders  in 
Iowa,.  Kansas,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Ne- 
braska, New  Hampshire,  Utah,  Wiscon- 
sin, Colorado,  Canada  and  elsewhere. 
The  various  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions have  taken  an  active  part  in 
investigating  this  matter  and  have  con- 
tributed largely  to  a  clearer  understand- 
ing of  the  economy  of  early  maturity 
and  the  method  of  producing  this  result. 

Points  in  favor  of  baby  beef  produc- 
tion— The  production  of  baby  beef  is 
good  economy  for  the  reason  that  the 
amount  of  feed  required  for  a  given 
gain  is  less  in  young  than  in  old  ani- 
mals, and  this  fact  makes  it  highly 
desirable  to  begin  forcing  animals  from 
the  start.  In  the  above  discussion  of 
calf  feeding,  it  is  assumed  that  a  large 
percentage  of  the  calves  thus  treated 
are  to  be  forced  to  an  early  maturity. 
In  this  process  scrubs  do  not  mature  so 
early  as  well-bred  cattle,  and,  therefore, 
only  the  latter  should  be  chosen  for  the 
production  of  baby  beef.  In  practice, 
the  HerefordsA  Shorthorns,  Angus  and 
grades  of  these  breeds  are  most  used  in 
producing  baby  beef. 

The  raising  of  baby  beef  is  a  some- 
what difficult  and  complicated  specialty 
which  has  grown  up  within  recent  years 
and    considerable    skill    is   necessary   in 


securing  the  right  condition  of  the  ani- 
mals. All  animals  in  order  to  be  entered 
in  this  class  must  be  of  prime  or  choice 
quality.  Since,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  reduce  the  cost  of  beef  produc- 
tion as  much  as  possible,  a  larger  num- 
ber of  feeders  are  annually  going  into 
the  business  of  producing  baby  beef. 
Obviously,  the  sooner  the  animal  can  be 
brought  to  a  market  condition,  the 
greater  the  profit.  Not  only  are  gains 
made  more  rapidly  in  young  than  in  old 
animals,  but  the  amount  of  feed  re- 
quired for  a  pound  of  gain  is  also  less. 
The  quality  of  the  meat  is  superior,  the 
market  demand  is  somewhat  more  ac- 
tive, the  price  a  little  more  fancy  and 
the  money  invested  is  turned  over  at 
shorter  intervals.  In  fact,  many  beef 
raisers  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
with  increasing  prices  for  feeds,  labor 
and  land,  early  maturity  offers  the  only 
solution  of  a  profitable  system '  of  beef 
production.  The  tendency  of  feeders 
toward  obtaining  an  early  maturity  in 
cattle  has  been  manifested  for  many 
years.  At  first,  the  market  age  was 
lowered  to  three  years,  after  which  we 
began  to  find  that  the  best  beef  breeds 
are  fully  mature  at  30  months  and  that 
animals  may  be  found  in  an  excellent 
market  condition  for  baby  beef  at  the 
age  of  one  to  two  years.  The  men  who 
first  engaged  in  this  line  of  beef  pro- 
duction as  a  venture,  soon  found  that 
as  they  lowered  the  market  age,  they 
added  greatly  to  their  profits  and  many 
others  followed  their  example.  A  fa- 
mous English  feeder  found  that  Short- 
horns could  be  forced  so  as  to  produce 
from  $6.50  to  $8  worth  of  meat  a  month 
up  to  the  age  of  a  year  and  a  half. 
When  sold  in  the  form  of  baby  beef, 
it  was  found  by  this  feeder  that  the 
animal  cost  for  work  and  feed  $1.51  a 
week.  At  first  it  was  supposed  that  the 
quality  of  young  beef  must  be  inferior 
to  that  of  older  animals.  It  was  soon 
found,  however,  that  quality  depends 
upon  the  method  of  feeding  and  that 
baby  beef  need  not  be  a  poor  article. 

Perhaps  the  best  plan  for  securing 
early  maturity  is  to  have  the  calves  come 
in  the  fall.  They  may  then  be  fed  on 
a  skim  milk  and  grain  ration  until  the 
pastures  turn  green  in  the  spring,  when 
they  should  be  put  upon  pasture  and  the 
grain  ration  continued.  As  soon  as  the 
pasture  gets  short  in  the  fall,  the  calves 
should  be  put  in  a  feed  lot  and  forced 
on  hay  and  grain  to  the  age  of  16  to 


382 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


18  months.  In  New  Hampshire,  it  was 
found  that  the  total  cost  of  bringing 
animals  to  a  fine  market  form  at  the 
age  of  16  months  was  $28.81. 

Experiments  in  Michigan  indicated 
that  early  maturing  breeds  of  cattle 
would  bring  a  greater  profit  at  one  year 
of  age,  if  pushed  from  the  start,  than 
if  kept  until  they  were  three  or  four 
years  old.  In  Colorado,  a  number  of 
feeding  experiments  were  carried  out 
with  calves  seven  to  10  months  old. 
They  were  forced  on  a  fattening  ration 
for  178  days,  the  ration  containing  corn, 
oats,  sugar  beets  and  alfalfa  hay.  The 
profit  obtained  from  these  animals  at 
the  end  of  the  feeding  period  was  very 
satisfactory.  Likewise  in  Iowa,  Ne- 
braska,   Minnesota,    Utah,    Canada  and 


and  linseed  meal.  When  such  a  system 
of  feeding  was  adopted,  the  profits  in 
baby  beef  from  skim  milk  calves  were 
much  greater  than  when  whole  milk  was 
used.  In  this  system  of  beef  production 
it  should  be  remembered  that  when  a 
forcing  ration  is  given  throughout  the 
first  year,  the  animals  may  not  endure 
heavy  feeding  the  second  year.  In  some 
instances  their  health  fails  and  financial 
loss  results.  If  calves  are  forced  from 
the  start,  they  should  be  finished  off 
soon  after  the  end  of  the  first  year  or 
not  later  than  18  months. 

Among  the  great  advantages  which 
may  be  claimed  for  the  system  of  baby 
beef  production,  we  may  mention  the 
fact  that  at  the  age  of  one  year,  heif- 
ers, if  in  good  market  condition,  bring 


»G1 — MEDIUM    CUTTERS    FROM    ILLINOIS   EXPERIMENT   STATION 


elsewhere,  excellent  results  have  been 
secured  in  feeding  for  baby  beef. 

Many  of  our  agricultural  experiment 
stations  have  demonstrated  clearly  that 
after  weaning,  calves  may  be  kept  on  a 
good  growth  ration  of  hay,  silage  and 
common  farm  grains  and  then  forced 
on  a  fattening  ration,  so  as  to  be  in  a 
fine  market  condition  at  an  age  of  one 
or  two  years.  By  this  system  better 
prices  are  obtained  for  farm  crops  than 
when  sold  direct.  The  rations  which 
are  desirable  for  the  production  of  baby 
beef  differ  according  to  the  section  of 
the  country  and  need  not  be  discussed 
in  detail  here,  since  the  feeding  value 
of  different  grains  and  other  feeding 
stuffs  will  be  discussed  in  order  in  the 
section  on  feeding  mature  beef. 

In  Canada,  it  has  been  found  that 
baby  beef  may  be  produced  cheaply  on 
i  ground  silage,  ground  barley  and  peas 


as  much  as  steers  and  this  is  the  only 
time  in  the  life  of  the  heifer  when  it 
will  bring  as  much  as  the  steer,  pound 
for  pound. 

In  Kansas,  the  best  and  cheapest  ra- 
tion was  alfalfa  hay  and  corn,  followed 
by  alfalfa  hay  and  kafir  corn.  In  the 
experiment  carried  on  in  Kansas,  the 
calves  were  of  common  breeding;  never- 
theless, they  made  good  gains  and  pro- 
duced a  satisfactory  profit.  While  this 
6hows  the  possibility  of  tising  common 
calves  in  baby  beef  production  it  should 
not  be  made  a  general  practice,  since 
failure  is  apt  to  result  and  it  is  far 
safer  and  more  profitable  to  use  only 
high-grade  or  pure-bred  beef  animals  for 
this  purpose.  With  good  breeding  and 
proper  feeding,  the  animals  should  be 
brought  to  the  weight  of  1,000  pounds 
at  the  age  of  12  to  14  months.  Cottrell 
calls   attention   to   the   well-known   fact 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


383 


that  the  more  the  calves  have  been  han- 
dled and  the  tamer  they  are  when  they 
go  into  the  feed  lot,  the  more  rapid  and 
economical  are  the  gains.  The  system  of 
rearing  calves  on  skim  milk  and  cream 
substitutes,  therefore,  fits  into  the 
scheme  of  baby  beef  production,  since 
the  calves  must  necessarily  be  handled 
from  the  earliest  age  and  thus  become 
accustomed  to  the  presence  of  man. 

In  the  experiments  now  under  discus- 
sion, the  profits  in  the  form  of  baby 
beef  from  calves  raised  with  cows  were 
less  than  from  skim  milk  calves  and 
this  constitutes  another  important  sup- 
port to  the  practice  of  feeding  skim 
milk  and  cream  substitutes. 

Importance  of  system  in  feeding  baby 
beef — In  the  production  of  baby  beef, 
great  care  must  be  taken  with  the  feeds ; 
they  must  be  fresh  and  palatable  at 
every  feeding  and  must  be  presented  in 
such  a  way  that  the  animals  will  eat 
the  largest  possible  quantities.  It  is 
commonly  recommended  that  the  feed- 
ing periods  be  absolutely  regular,  that 
water  and  salt  be  supplied  at  all  times 
and  in  general  that  the  grain  be  mixed 
with  the  hay  or  silage. 

According  to  statistics  collected  by 
Mumford  from  Illinois  beef  raisers,  the 
spring  is  chosen  as  the  season  for  the 
calves  to  come,  by  four-fifths  of  the  cor- 
respondents  of  the  Illinois  experiment 
station;  the  other  fifth  of  the  beef  rais- 
ers are  divided  in  their  preferences  be- 
tween summer,  winter  and  fall.  Among 
the  same  men  four-fifths  practiced  cas- 
tration on  bull  calves  under  three 
months  of  age  and  only  5  per  cent  post- 
poned the  operation  later  than  six 
months.  In  the  large  number  of  beef 
raisers,  among  whom  the  statistics  in 
question  were  collected,  less  than  one- 
half  raised  calves  for  the  production  of 
baby  beef,  the  average  age  of  cattle 
when  marketed  being  26  months  and  the 
average  weight  1,275  pounds.  While 
on  some  markets  baby  beef  means  well- 
fattened  beef  animals  about  one  year 
of  age,  the  term  is  frequently  extended 
to  include  all  finished  cattle  between  one 
and  two  years  old. 

Among  Illinois  beef  raisers,  the 
length  of  the  suckling  period  for  calves 
intended  for  the  production  of  baby 
beef  varies  from  one  week  to  10  months, 
with  an  average  of  five  months  and  24 
days.  The  suckling  period  for  calves 
not  intended  for  baby  beef  ranges  from 
five  to  seven  months,  six  months  being 


preferred  by  40   per   cent   of   the   beef 

producers. 

Interesting  statistics  were  also  col- 
lected among  prominent  beef  raisers 
with  regard  to  the  grain  feeds  which 
they  used  in  feeding  for  baby  beef. 
Among  these  grains,  corn  constitutes 
about  one-half,  oats  one-third,  followed 
by  bran,  linseed  meal,  a  mixture  of  corn 
and  oatmeal,  barley,  cottonseed  meal, 
gluten  meal,  wheat  and  rye  in  order. 

The  production  of  baby  beef  is  not 
confined  to  the  corn  belt,  but  is  much 
in  favor  in  various  other  parts  of  the 
country.  Thus,  in  Idaho,  French  has 
found  that  it  is  possible  to  raise  calves 
profitably  on  skim  milk  by  replacing 
the  cream  with  whole  oats;  when  calves 
are  fed  on  this  ration,  they  seem  to 
make  better  use  of  rough  feed  later  than 
do  calves  which  have  been  raised  on 
whole  milk.  The  important  point  is  also 
mentioned  by  French  that  early  matu- 
rity is  not  hindered  by  this  method  of 
feeding.  With  regard  to  the  economy 
of  the  practice,  it  appears  that  in  Utah 
the  value  of  the  cream  saved  is  more 
than  four  times  that  of  the  oats  con- 
sumed in  replacing  the  cream. 

In  a  series  of  feeding  tests  in  Idaho, 
it  was  found  that  steers  raised  in  the 
manner  just  described  gained  2  pounds 
per  day  for  a  period  of  128  days  on 
coarse  feeds  alone.  Baby  beef  produced 
on  skim  milk,  oats,  alfalfa  hay  and  pas- 
ture dressed  about  60  per  cent  of  the 
live  weight  and  the  meat  was  well 
marbled  and  pronounced  of  prime  qual- 
ity when  examined  by  the  butcher.  The 
steers  produced  an  average  profit  of  $18 
a  head  over  the  cost  of  feeding  and 
care. 

French  calls  attention  to  the  impor- 
tance of  teaching  calves  to  eat  hay  at 
as  early  an  age  as  possible.  The  hay 
should  be  provided  in  self-feeding  racks, 
so  that  they  can  obtain  it  at  any  time. 
"The  calves,  even  those  only  five  or  six 
days  old,  soon  learn  to  pick  this  tempt- 
ing bit  of  hay  instead  of  sucking  each 
other's  ears,  as  they  are  apt  to  do  when 
fed  in  the  ordinary  w*ay." 

The  question  often  occurs  to  the 
farmer  who  intends  to  force  calves  to  a 
market  maturity  at  an  early  age,  whether 
it  pays  best  to  feed  grain  during  the 
first  winter,  or  coarse  forage  alone.  In 
Nebraska,  this  matter  was  studied  by 
Burnett  and  Smith.  It  was  found  in 
this  experiment  that  it  is  more  econom- 
ical to  feed  a  small  grain  ration,  even  if 


384 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


good   gains   can    be   obtained   with   bay 
alone. 

In  a  furtber  test  of  tbis  matter,  tbe 
same  investigators  used  rations  of  6 
pounds  of  mixed  grain  in  the  winter, 
with  hay  and  pasture  in  summer  for  one 
lot  of  calves ;  a  similar  regimen  with  only 
3  pounds  of  grain  for  a  second  lot,  and 
no  grain  for  a  third  lot  of  calves.  The 
results  from  this  experiment  showed 
that  the  cost  of  producing  meat  in  calves 
during  winter  is  least  when  tbe  grain 
ration  is  of  considerable  size.  All  indi- 
cations pointed  to  the  economy  of  feed- 
ing  grain    during   the    winter.      If   the 


spring,  about  tbe  time  when  tbe  milk 
is  omitted  from  the  ration.  If  this  sys- 
tem is  adopted,  there  is  little  check  in 
the  regular  growth  of  the  calves.  In 
some  respects,  however,  this  system  is 
less  convenient  to  operate  on  the  farm 
than  the  ordinary,  and  what  appears 
more  natural,  one  of  having  the  calves 
come  at  the  usual  spring  season. 

Feeding  calves  for  dairy  and  stock 
purposes — In  the  above  discussion  of 
calf  feeding,  particular  attention  has 
been  given  to  feeding  calves  which  are 
intended  for  baby  beef.  A  number  of 
the  calves  produced  on  the  farm,  how- 


Fig.    262 — WELL    FED    STEERS   WORTH    $6.15    PER    HUNDREDWEIGHT,    FROM    ILLINOIS 
EXPERIMENT    STATION 


whole  year  is  taken  into  consideration 
and  the  system  adopted  in  which  no 
grain  is  fed  while  the  animals  are  on 
pasture,  it  appears  that  a  grain  ration 
one-third  of  the  full  size  is  most  eco- 
nomical. 

Season  for  calf  production — The 
majority  of  farmers  in  Illinois  prefer 
the  spring  season  for  calves  and  this 
may  be  considered  as  tbe  usual  farm 
practice  throughout  the  country.  There 
is  considerable  to  be  said  in  favor  of 
having  the  calves  come  in  the  fall,  par- 
ticularly since  if  they  are  fed  on  skim 
milk  and  a  moderate  grain  ration  dur- 
ing the  winter,  they  are  in  excellent 
condition  to  turn  out  to  pasture  in  the 


ever,  must  be  raised  to  full  maturity  for 
use  in  tbe  dairy,  for  breeding  cows,  and 
for  tbe  production  of  mature  beef.  Ex- 
actly the  same  methods  should  be 
adopted  in  feeding  these  calves  up  to 
the  time  when  the  milk  ration  is 
stopped.  After  that  period,  calves  which 
are  to  be  allowed  to  grow  to  full  ma- 
turity should  be  kept  on  moderate  grow- 
ing rations  which  will  merely  keep  them 
in  good,  vigorous  condition  and  produce 
moderate  gains.  It  is  always  desirable 
to  prevent  any  check  in  the  growth,  or 
loss  of  weight;  but  calves  which  are  to 
be  kept  for  stock  purposes  should  not 
be  made  overfat  during  their  early  life 
by  forced  feeding. 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


385 


Feeding  mature  steers — The  same 
feeds  are  to  be  used  in  feeding  mature 
steers  as  in  the  production  of  baby  beef. 
The  rations  become  a  little  larger,  since 
the  steers  weigh  more  and  are  capable 
of  utilizing  more  material.  They  must 
receive  the  same  variety  as  during  their 
early  life,  viz.,  grains  and  various  kinds 
of  coarse  forage,  including  pasture. 
After  the  fattening  period  has  begun, 
the  chief  point  is  to  keep  the  animals 
gaining  as  rapidly  as  possible  and  force 
them  to  a  market  maturity  at  the  ear- 
liest moment  compatible  with  the  health 
and  constitution  of  the  animals.  The 
sooner  the  market  finish  is  secured,  the 
more  profit  is  to  be  derived  from  the 
operation. 

Grains — While  it  is  possible  to  fatten 
animals  on  coarse  forage  alone,  provided 
this  is  supplied  in  large  quantities,  they 
cannot  be  fattened  so  as  to  conform  to 
modern  market  requirements  without  the 
liberal  use  of  grain  feeds  in  the  rations. 
We  may,  therefore,  discuss  in  this  con- 
nection the  comparative  value  of  the 
different  grains  which  are  commonly 
fed  to  cattle. 

Barley — Both  the  common  and  bald 
barley  is  used  in  fattening  steers.  In 
Idaho,  French  found  that  steers  kept 
on  a  grain  ration  of  equal  parts  chopped 
barley  and  shorts  made  satisfactory  re- 
turns for  their  feed  and  gained  a  pound 
in  weight  for  every  four  pounds  of  grain 
eaten.  The  gain  in  weight  compared 
favorably  in  point  of  rapidity  and  econ- 
omy with  the  results  obtained  in  the 
corn  belt,  where  the  market  price  for 
grains  is  somewhat  lower.  The  rough- 
age fed  to  the  steers  in  question  was 
hay  of  mixed  grasses  and  clover  and 
corn  silage. 

In  Montana,  a  test  was  made  by  Shaw 
to  determine  the  relative  results  from 
feeding  light,  medium  and  heavy  rations 
of  barley.  The  steers  used  in  this  ex- 
periment were  divided  into  three  lots, 
of  which  one  received  per  100  pounds 
live  weight  0.46  pound  of  barley,  the 
second  0.59,  and  the  third  0.72  pound 
barley.  The  barley  was  ground  and  fed 
in  the  form  of  a  meal.  The  amount  of 
food  required  for  a  pound  of  gain  in- 
creased with  the  amount  of  grain  fed 
in  the  ration  and  the  cost  of  gain  in- 
creased proportionately.  It  appears 
from  this  experiment  that  where  alfalfa 
or  clover  is  used  for  the  roughage  not 
more  than  %  pound  of  grain  to  100 
pounds  of  live   weight  is  necessary  to 


secure  satisfactory  results.  If  the  effect- 
iveness of  mixed  grains  be  considered 
at  100,  barley  was  found  to  equal  84.5. 
In  these  experiments  barley  seemed  to 
be  a  little  more  expensive  than  wheat, 
since  in  steers  which  were  fed  this  grain, 
the  cost  of  a  pound  of  gain  was  6  cents, 
as  compared  with  5  cents  for  wheat. 

In  North  Dakota,  barley  produced 
greater  and  faster  but  more  expensive, 
gains  than  a  combination  of  bran  and 
shorts,  while  in  Utah,  barley  proved  to 
be  cheaper  and  more  effective  than  pea 
meal  for  steers.  Barley  has  been  used 
in  Colorado  and  appears  to  produce 
rapid  gains,  but  the  shrinkage  of  the 
steers  in  shipping  is  somewhat  greater 
than  on  a  corn  ration. 

In  Scotland,  barley  bran  has  been 
found  to  produce  profitable  gains.  At 
the  Woburn  experiment  farm  it  ap- 
peared that  dried  brewers'  grains  can- 
not be  profitably  used  to  replace  all 
the  hay  in  a  ration  for  steers.  When 
used  to  replace  part  of  the  hay,  how- 
ever, they  produced  rapid  gains  in 
weight.  Brewers'  grains  have  not  been 
as  extensively  used  in  feeding  steers  as 
for  dairy  cows. 

In  Germany,  the  excessive  use  of  dis- 
tillery refuse  from  barley  and  other 
grains  was  found  to  exert  an  unfavor- 
able effect  on  the  quality  of  the  beef. 

Beech  nuts  have  been  fed  to  cattle 
in  rations  of  2  to  10  pounds.  Before 
feeding  they  are  usually  cracked  and 
may  then  be  fed  dry  or  moistened.  No 
harm  is  produced  from  the  vise  of  beech 
nuts,  but  they  may  be  fed  to  hogs  with 
better  and  more  economical  results,  since 
hogs  readily  harvest  them  without  as- 
sistance. 

Beans  are  fed  in  large  quantities  to 
steers,  but  not  many  experiments  have 
been  carried  out  to  determine  their  feed- 
ing value.  Jack  bean  meal  seemed  not 
to  be  relished  by  steers  in  Mississippi, 
and  proved  to  be  indigestible.  At  Wo- 
burn, horse  bean  meal  produced  rapid 
and  economical  gains  in  steers.  In  va- 
rious parts  of  England  excellent  results 
have  been  obtained  from  a  grain  ration 
of  beans,  oats  and  wheat,  in  the  ratio 
of  7:  5:  4. 

Bran — In  the  statistics  collected  by 
Mumf brd  in  Illinois,  it  appeared  that  10 
per  cent  of  the  beef  raisers  of  that  state 
used  bran.  The  average  amount  fed 
daily  is  5  pounds  a  head.  In  some  local- 
ities bran  is  too  expensive  to  occupy  a 
large  place  in  the  steer  ration  and  it  is 
commonly  limited  to  a  small  quantity  on 


386 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


this  account.  In  fact,  since  bran  varies 
considerably  in  price  from  year  to  year, 
it  is  used  or  omitted  from  the  ration, 
according  to  the  economy  of  feeding  un- 
der the  prevailing  prices.  Bran  is  used 
more  extensively  by  dairymen  than  by 
beef  raisers.  Its  value  in  the  produc- 
tion of  beef,  however,  is  well  understood, 
and  its  use  is  increasing  somewhat  dur- 
ing seasons  when  it  can  be  obtained  at 
reasonable  prices. 

Corn — Throughout  the  corn  belt  and 
wherever  this  grain  can  be  produced 
economically,  corn  unquestionably  stands 
at  the  head  of  the  list  of  grains  for 
economy  and  effectiveness  in  beef  pro- 
duction. It  may  be  fed  in  rations  of 
4  to  18  pounds  a  day,  as  the  only  grain; 
but  better  results  are  obtained,  even  in 
comparatively  short  feeding  periods,  by 
the  addition  of  smaller  amounts  of  bar- 
ley, wheat,  peas,  beans,  linseed  meal, 
cottonseed  meal,  bran,  soy  bean  meal 
and  other  nitrogenous  feeds. 

Whenever  corn  is  caught  by  frost  in 
the  fall,  so  that  it  does  not  reach  com- 
plete maturity,  doubt  is  frequently  enter- 
tained regarding  the  value  of  such  corn 
as  a  feed  for  steers.  This  question  was 
thoroughly  studied  by  Kennedy  and 
others  at  the  Iowa  experiment  station. 
The  results  obtained  from  feeding  tests 
showed  tbat  soft  corn  containing  35  per 
cent  of  water  at  the  beginning  of  the 
test  was  equal  in  feeding  value  to  ma- 
ture corn  when  usad  for  fattening  cattle. 
Cattle  which  received  the  soft  corn  made 
nearly  as  large  gains  and  finished  in  as 
fine  condition  as  those  on  mature  corn. 
Since  soft  corn  injured  by  frost  could  be 
readily  purchased  at  30  cents  a  bushel, 
the  gains  in  steers  were  produced  at  3 
cents  a  pound  less  than  when  mature 
corn  was  fed  costing  50  cents  a  bushel. 
Apparently  the  amount  of  water  present 
in  soft  corn  is  the  chief  difference  in  so 
far  as  composition  is  concerned  between 
it  and  fully  mature  corn.  In  Colorado, 
a  comparative  test  of  corn  and  wheat 
for  steers  showed  them  to  be  about 
equally  effective,  but  during  shipping 
the  shrinkage  was  much  less  in  the  corn- 
fed  steers. 

In  Oklahoma,  corn  has  been  found 
to  be  superior  to  kafir  corn,  and  about 
equal  to  wheat  meal  in  feeding  value  on 
the  basis  of  tests  made  in  Ohio.  A 
comparison  of  corn  and  wheat  in  Penn- 
sylvania gave  results  in  favor  of  corn. 
In  Virginia,  corn  fed  whole  or  ground 
made  greater  and  cheaper  gains  than 
cottonseed     by-products,     the     cheapest 


gains  being  made  on  whole  corn  fed  in 
rations  of  12  pounds. 

At  the  Texas  experiment  station,  com 
chops  proved  to  be  more  profitable  wben 
used  during  the  whole  fattening  period 
than  when  fed  merely  to  finish  off 
steers  which  had  been  maintained  on 
cottonseed  by-products.  Gluten  meal 
proved  to  be  superior  to  linseed  meal  at 
the  Ohio  experiment  station;  while  in 
Illinois,  gluten  meal  produced  the  re- 
quired market  finish  in  steers  more 
cheaply  than  any  other  of  several  ra- 
tions which  were  tested. 

In  farm  practice  corn  is  considered  a 
fundamental  grain  in  fattening  steers 
and  other  grains  are  looked  at  merely 
as  supplemental  feeds,  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  the  quality  of  the 
beef  or  for  increasing  the  efficiency  of 
corn. 

At  the  Iowa  experiment  station,  Ken- 
nedy and  others  carried  on  feeding  ex- 
periments in  testing  the  use  of  supple- 
mental feed  stuffs  with  corn.  It  was 
found  that  the  use  of  such  material  re- 
sults in  a  more  rapid  rate  of  gain,  finer 
finish,  sometimes  more  economic  gain, 
and  always  in  higher  prices  for  the  fin- 
ished beef.  Gluten  meal,  linseed  meal 
and  cottonseed  meal  proved  excellent 
feeds  for  this  purpose.  They  are  par- 
ticularly suitable  for  balancing  rations 
in  which  the  roughage  is  somewhat  in- 
ferior. 

The  extent  to  which  supplemental 
feeds  may  be  economically  vised  depends 
upon  the  price  of  corn  and  the  otber 
feed,  and  also  on  the  character  of  the 
roughage.  In  general,  the  higher  the 
price  of  the  cattle  and  the  finer  their 
quality,  the  more  profitable  will  be  the 
use  of  such  feeds.  While  these  supple- 
mental feeds  increase  the  effectiveness  of 
corn,  it  should  always  be  remembered 
that  almost,  if  not  quite  equally  good 
results  may  be  obtained  from  a  ration  of 
corn  and  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  Profits 
from  the  last  named  ration  will  ordina- 
rily be  greater  than  those  from  a  ration 
of  corn  and  expensive  grain  feeds. 

The  same  problem  of  the  economy  of 
supplemental  feeds  in  connection  with 
corn  was  studied  by  Burnett  and  Smith 
in  Nebraska.  It  was  found  that  the 
cost  of  gain  with  corn  alone  was  13  per 
cent  greater  than  with  corn  and  linseed 
meal.  Corn  and  grass  were  found  not  to 
supply  a  sufficient  amount  of  protein  for 
cheap  gain.  The  use  of  linseed  meal, 
moreover,  appeared  to  help  the  diges- 
tion of  steers,  so  that  they  were  less  / 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


387 


troubled  with  scours  than  those  which 
received  corn  as  the  only  grain. 

Recently  this  matter  has  been  thor- 
oughly studied  by  Haney  and  others  at 
the  Kansas  experiment  station.  In  this 
series  of  experiments,  eight  rations  were 
used  and  the  grains  used  in  the  experi- 
ments were  corn  and  cob  meal,  ground 
kafir  corn,  ground  wheat  and  a  mixed 
grain  ration,  the  coarse  forage  being 
mixed  hay,  sorghum  hay,  kafir  corn 
hay  and  alfalfa  hay.  The  amount  of 
hay  required  for  100  pounds  of  gain 
was  lowest  in  a  ration  containing  corn 
and  cob  meal  and  alfalfa  hay  and  great- 
est in  a  ration  of  ground  kafir  corn 
and  sorghum  hay.  The  cost  of  gain 
was  least  in  the  grain  and  alfalfa  ra- 
tion, and  greatest  in  the  kafir  corn  and 
sorghum  ration.  Similarly  the  dressed 
weight  was  highest  in  the  corn  and  al- 
falfa ration.  In  these  experiments  al- 
falfa hay  proved  to  be  superior  to  kafir 
corn  hay  or  sorghum.  The  amount  of 
gain  from  a  bushel  of  grain  was  greatest 
in  the  corn  and  alfalfa  ration  and  least 
in  the  kafir  corn  and  sorghum  ration. 
The  average  profit  per  steer  on  the  corn 
and  alfalfa  ration  was  $8.98 ;  while  a  loss 
of  $5.14  was  suffered  on  the  kafir  corn 
and  sorghum  ration. 

From  the  experiments  just  outlined, 
it  appears  that  in  beef  production,  kafir 
corn  is  about  equal  to  corn  and  cob  meal. 
Ground  wheat  and  alfalfa  hay  fed  to- 
gether is  not  an  economic  ration,  since 
it  is  too  laxative  and  the  wheat  is  too 
expensive.  The  chief  value  of  these  ex- 
periments lies  in  the  fact  that  they  show 
the  importance  to  the  western  farmer  of 
good  roughage  in  beef  production. 
Thus  alfalfa  hay  valued  at  $4  a  ton, 
together  with  corn  and  cob  meal,  pro- 
duced 100  pounds  of  gain  in  beef 
steers  for  $5.1*3.  By  increasing  the 
acreage  of  alfalfa,  and  giving  more  at- 
tention to  methods  of  tillage,  the  prob- 
lem of  securing  a  supplemental  feed  to 
be  used  with  corn  is  solved,  since  corn 
and  alfalfa  make  a  cheap  and  ideal  ra- 
tion. 

Not  only  in  this  country,  but  in  Scot- 
land, England  and  parts  of  Europe 
where  corn  has  been  imported  for  feed- 
ing purposes,  it  has  been  found  that 
corn  is  greatly  increased  in  efficiency 
by  the  addition  of  linseed  meal  or  some 
other  supplemental  feed.  Since  corn 
is  and  must  be  the  main  grain  used  in 
fattening  steers,  it  is  an  important  ques- 
tion to  determine  the  form  in  which  it 
shall  be  fed.     While  it  is  not  safe  to 


follow  blindly  the  common  practice  in 
all  matters  of  feeding,  nevertheless  the 
consensus  of  opinion  of  practical  feed- 
ers is  of  immense  importance  as  deter- 
mining the  best  and  most  economical 
methods.  In  Illinois  it  appears,  from 
statistics  collected  among  the  beef 
raisers,  that  in  winter  feeding  25  per 
cent  of  the  farmers  use  shock  corn,  10 
per  cent  snapped  corn,  39  per  cent  ear 
corn,  16  per  cent  shelled  corn,  3  per  cent 
corn  and  cob  meal,  3  per  cent  corn  meal 
and  2  per  cent  silage.  In  the  summer  feed- 
ing ear  corn  is  used  by  50  per  cent  of 
the  farmers,  shelled  corn  by  36  per  cent 
and  corn  meal  by  5  per  cent.  The 
feeding  methods  of  Illinois  farmers,  as 
summarized  by  Mumford,  indicate  that 
for  the  year  around,  shock  corn  is  used 
by  17  per  cent,  ear  corn  by  43  per  cent, 
shelled  corn  by  22  per  cent  and  corn 
meal  by  4  per  cent.  With  regard  to  the 
question  of  which  method  yields  the 
.greatest  profits,  24  per  cent  of  the  Illi- 
nois farmers  replied  shock  corn,  11 
per  cent  shredded  corn  fodder,  5  per  cent 
snapped  corn  and  51 4  per  cent  shelled 
corn.  It  is  apparent  from  the  summary 
of  feeding  practices  that  only  a  very 
small  number  of  farmers  use  silage  as  a 
regular  ration  in  the  production  of  beef; 
in  fact,  only  eight  of  the  several  hun- 
dred men  who  replied  to  a  circular  of 
inquiry  mentioned  the  use  of  silage  at 
all,  and  of  these,  three  fed  it  only  to 
breeding  cattle   and   calves. 

Notwithstanding  the  inf  requency  with 
which  silage  is  used  by  the  Illinois 
farmers,  Mumford  found  in  his  ex- 
periments that  silage  compares  favor- 
ably with  ear  corn,  corn  meal,  or  corn 
and  cob  meal.  Corn  meal  and  corn  and 
cob  meal  proved  to  be  about  equally  ef- 
fective. It  was  found  in  these  experi- 
ments that  a  nitrogenous  feed  added  to 
the  corn  ration  improved  the  appetite 
and  increased  the  digestive  capacity. 
Corn  meal  proved  to  be  about  equally  ef- 
ficient for  beef  production  with  shelled 
corn,  but  no  more  so  than  ear  corn; 
while  the  best  results  obtained  from  any 
of  the  various  forms  of  corn  and  com- 
binations used  with  it  were  found  in 
feeding  ear  corn  supplemented  with  lin- 
seed meal  and  gluten  meal  or  shock  corn 
and  ear  corn.  The  net  profit  in  feeding 
steers  on  corn  in  various  forms  varied 
from  $4.13  to  $9.84  each.  The  results 
obtained  by  Mumford  in  his  long  series 
of  experiments  indicate  that  the  grind- 
ing of  corn  for  feeding  two-year-old 
steers   during  the  winter   is  not  to  be 


388 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


recommended,  since  the  profits  from  ear 
corn  were  fully  twice  as  great  as  those 
from  corn  meal.  The  profits  from  the 
use  of  shock  corn  were  approximately 
the  same  as  those  from  ear  corn,  but 
there  are  certain  advantages  in  the  use 
of  ear  corn,  since  it  has  been  harvested 
and  is  more  convenient  to  feed  in 
winter. 

It  is  obvious  from  this  discussion  that 
the  corn  center  is  practically  synony- 
mous with  the  beef  center.  As  shown  by 
Waters  in  Missouri,  eleven  prominent 
corn  states  produced  more  than  75  per 
cent  of  all  the  corn  in  the  United  States, 


was  used  was  twice  that  on  timothy  hay 
and  the  amount  of  grain  required  for 
a  pound  of  gain  was  about  one-third 
that  on  the  timothy  ration.  This  in- 
dicates the  desirability  of  using  a  ni- 
trogenous ration  with  corn.  Corn  may 
not  only  be  fed  in  the  various  forms  al- 
ready mentioned,  but  as  a  soiling  crop 
it  possesses  enormous  value.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  select  varieties  and  choose  times 
of  planting  so  that  a  continuous  crop 
will  be  secured  from  the  middle  of  June 
until  heavy  frost. 

Among  the  many  supplemental  feeds 
which    may   be    used   with   corn,   clover 


Fig.    263 FANCY    SELECTED    FEEDERS    FROM   ILLINOIS    EXPERIMENT    STATION 


and  also  60  per  cent  of  the  cattle,  milch 
cows,  horses,  mules,  hogs  and  sheep. 
These  are  the  states  also  which  produce 
the  best  finished  steers  and  the  finest 
grade  of  horses. 

The  most  effective  way  of  increasing 
the  already  high  feeding  value  of  the 
corn  plant  consists  in  supplementing 
corn  and  corn  stover  with  feeding  stuffs 
which  are  highly  nitrogenous,  and  in  us- 
ing more  generally  the  immense  crop  of 
corn  stover,  much  of  which  is  now  al- 
lowed to  go  to  waste.  In  a  comparison 
of  cowpea  hay  with  timothy  hay  as  the 
roughage  in  a  corn  ration  in  Missouri, 
the  average  daily  gain  when  cowpea  hay 


hay  has  yielded  excellent  results  in  Illi- 
nois. In  the  same  set  of  experiments, 
a  ration  of  corn,  timothy  hay  and  corn 
stover  gave  quite  unsatisfactory  results, 
since  the  amount  of  protein  in  such  a 
ration  was  too  small.  The  corn  and 
clover  hay  ration,  however,  possessed  a 
number  of  advantages,  including  ready 
availability,  the  production  of  large 
gains  and  fine  quality  of  beef. 

In  Nebraska,  Burnett  and  Smith  have 
tested  the  value  of  linseed  meal  and  al- 
falfa hay  as  supplemental  feeds  with 
corn.  The  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain 
was  $8.25  on  corn  and  prairie  hay;  $7 
on    corn,    sorghum    and    linseed    meal; 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


389 


$6.82  on  corn,  prairie  hay  and  linseed 
meal;  $6.09  on  corn,  corn  stover  and  lin- 
seed meal;  and  $6.04  on  corn  and  al- 
falfa. A  combination  of  alfalfa  hay  and 
corn  proved  to  be  exceedingly  satisfac- 
tory. 

In  Kentucky,  May  found  that  ear 
corn  was  preferable  to  corn  meal,  pro- 
vided hogs  were  allowed  to  follow  the 
steers.  When  clover  hay  was  fed  with 
corn,  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  grain 
necessary  to  properly  balance  the  ra- 
tion was  greatly  reduced.  In  rations 
where  supplemental  grain  feeds  were 
used,  dried  distillery  grains  added  to 
the  grain  ration  proved  to  be  the  most 
economic  feed. 

In  Kansas,  Cottrell  carried  on  some 
experiments  to  compare  the  value  of 
shelled  corn  and  corn  meal.  The  daily 
gain  for  each  steer  was  somewhat 
greater  in  those  fed  corn  meal.  During 
a  feeding  period  of  the  ordinary  length, 
steers  on  ground  corn  gained  23  poundb 
a  head  more  than  those  fed  whole  corn, 
and  required  62  pounds  less  grain  and 
25  pounds  less  hay  for  each  100  pounds 
of  gain.  It  appears  from  these  experi- 
ments that  8.2  pounds  of  beef  may  be 
produced  from  each  bushel  of  corn. 

Many  other  experiments  have  been 
carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  determin- 
ing the  relative  value  of  dry  and  soaked 
corn,  and  to  compare  unhusked  ears, 
corn  in  the  ear,  whole  shelled  corn  and 
corn  meal.  There  is  less  corn  in  the 
droppings  of  steers  when  the  corn  is  fed 
soaked  than  when  fed  dry.  If  it  costs 
more  than  6  cents  per  bushel  to  soak 
the  corn,  however,  it  will  not  pay.  In 
ordinary  cases,  where  the  stock  breeder 
raises  his  own  corn,  he  cannot  afford 
to  expend  any  labor  on  it  after  it  is 
mature.  It  should,  therefore,  be  fed  in 
the  ear,  without  husking.  In  that  form 
it  is  nearly  as  effective  as  corn  meal, 
and  the  cost  of  husking,  grinding  and 
handling  is  saved.  Moreover,  if  hogs 
are  allowed  to  follow  steers  in  the  feed 
lot,  all  of  the  undigested  corn  is  picked 
up  and  utilized  by  the  hogs.  About 
15  per  cent  of  the  whole  corn  passes 
through  the  intestines  in  the  manure 
and  6!/2  per  cent  of  the  corn  meal. 
Nearly  all  of  the  whole  corn  can  be  util- 
ized by  pigs,  but  practically  none  of  the 
corn  meal.  In  a  feeding  experiment  at 
the  Minnesota  experiment  station  it  was 
found  that  steers  would  eat  much  more 
corn  meal  than  they  could  digest  and 
that  it  was  thus  wasted. 


Cottonseed  meal  is  the  most  impor- 
tant nitrogenous  grain  feed  for  steers 
throughout  the  southern  states  and 
wherever  it  may  be  obtained  at  a  rea- 
sonable price.  It  is  superior,  pound  for 
pound,  to  all  other  grain  feeds  in  ef- 
fectiveness for  beef  production.  Cot- 
tonseed may  be  fed  raw,  boiled,  roasted, 
ground  or  whole.  It  may  be  used  as  the 
only  concentrated  feed  in  a  ration,  or, 
better  still,  with  corn,  kafir  corn  or 
some  other  carbonaceous  feed.  Neither 
cottonseed  nor  cottonseed  meal  is  a  safe 
feed  if  allowed  to  become  rancid  or  dark 
colored.  The  meal  should  be  perfectly 
fresh  and  of  a  bright,  yellow  color.  Cot- 
tonseed may  be  used  as  a  complete  ra- 
tion  for  steers,  the  mpa!  constituting  the 
concentrated  part  of  the  ration  and  the 
hulls  serving  as  a  coarse  fodder.  These 
materials  have  been  mixed  in  a  commer- 
cial feed  known  as  cottonseed  feed, 
and  as  sold  on  the  market  is  supposed  to 
contain  four  parts  hulls  and  one  part 
meal. 

In  Iowa,  satisfactory  results  have 
been  obtained  from  the  use  of  cottonseed 
meal,  when  it  was  gradually  increased 
from  1-5  of  a  pound  to  1.4  pounds 
daily.  In  Illinois,  about  7  per  cent  of 
the  beef  raisers  use  cottonseed  meal. 
The  largest  amount  of  this  substance 
used  by  any  feeder,  as  reported  in  re- 
plies to  a  circular  letter,  is  9  pounds 
daily,  and  the  smallest  amount  1  pound, 
with  an  average  of  4  pounds.  No  un- 
favorable report  was  made  by  Illinois 
feeders  on  the  use  of  cottonseed  meal; 
on  the  contrary  they  report  that  it 
causes  more  rapid  gains,  quicker  finish 
and  gives  a  smoother  form  to  the  steers 
than  the  corn  and  roughage  alone.  When 
corn  is  high,  cottonseed  meal  appears 
to  be  even  more  economical  than  corn. 

In  Mississippi,  Lloyd  found  that  the 
shrinkage  in  steers  fed  shelled  corn,  cot- 
tonseed meal  and  sorghum  hay  for  a  pe- 
riod of  120  days  was  37  pounds  to  the 
animal,  while  the  steers  dressed  59  per 
cent.  Cottonseed  meal  produced  a  fine 
quality  of  meat  and  proved  to  be  a 
profitable  feed. 

In  Oklahoma,  Burtis  found  that 
where  cottonseed  is  to  be  used  in  the  fat- 
tening ration  for  cattle,  the  maximum 
amount  should  be  8  pounds  a  day,  and 
that  4  to  6  pounds  is  more  satisfactory. 
It  is  desirable  to  mix  the  cottonseed 
meal  with  some  other  grain  in  order  to 


390 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


avoid  the  possibility  of  the  steers  get- 
ting off  feed.  The  use  of  a  little  cot- 
tonseed meal  mixed  with  kafir  corn, 
wheat  or  other  feed  stuff  appears  to  add 
to  the  palatability  of  the  ration,  and 
therefore  to  secure  a  thorough  mastica- 
tion of  the  feed.  Corn  mixed  with  cot- 
tonseed produces  results  almost  equal  to 
wheat  and  is  cheaper.  In  Oklahoma,  it 
has  been  found  necessary  to  add  cotton- 
seed meal  to  the  grain  ration  in  order  to 
obtain  the  most  economic  results.  At 
the  Oklahoma  station,  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent rations  have  been  successfully 
used  containing  cottonseed  meal.  These 
rations  included  cottonseed  meal  in 
quantities  varying  from  3  to  7  pounds 
a  day,  in  addition  to  alfalfa  hay  or  prai- 
rie hay  and  shelled  corn  or  kafir  corn 
meal.  The  results  obtained  in  Okla- 
homa indicate  that  when  corn  costs  as 
much  or  even  one-third  more  than  cot- 
tonseed meal  it  is  still  profitable  to  re- 
place a  portion  of  the  cottonseed  meal 
with  corn. 

According  to  observations  made  by 
Craig  and  Marshall  in  Texas,  it  ap- 
pears that  cottonseed  meal  and  hull3 
constitute  the  most  generally  used  ra- 
tion in  the  cotton  belt  and  correspond 
in  effectiveness  and  economy  to  a  com- 
bination of  corn  and  alfalfa  in  the  corn 
belt.  In  a  series  of  tests  at  the  Texas 
experiment  station,  the  steers  ate  5^2 
pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  and  22x/2 
pounds  of  hulls  daily,  and  gained  2.2 
pounds  a  day.  At  the  usual  price  for 
cottonseed  meal  and  hulls,  a  pound  of 
meat  was  produced  for  4  cents. 

Cottonseed  meal  is  not  only  used 
throughout  this  country,  but  has  also 
been  tested  by  many  feeders  in  England 
and  in  continental  Europe.  In  Eng- 
land, cottonseed  meal  has  been  found 
somewhat  lower  in  feeding  value  than 
decorticated  cotton  cake. 

Complaint  is  often  made  that  the 
profitable  feeding  of  beef  cattle  in  the 
south  is  impossible  and  in  some  southern 
localities  the  farmers  have  been  slow 
in  realizing  the  benefits  and  profits  of 
cattle  feeding.  Smith  and  Bray  have 
recently  shown  that  beef  cattle  may  be 
fed  at  a  fine  profit  on  home-grown  prod- 
ucts in  Mississippi.  The  hay  used  in 
these  experiments  was  a  mixture  of  al- 
falfa and  Johnson  grass  and  the  grains 
included  corn  meal,  bran  and  cottonseed 
meal.  The  steers  which  received  cot- 
tonseed meal  and  hulls  were  given  6  to 
8  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  and  about 


25  pounds  of  cottonseed  hulls  daily.  The 
results  indicate  that  a  ration  of  cotton- 
seed meal  and  hulls  is  superior  to  a 
mixed  ration  of  corn  meal,  bran  and  cot- 
tonseed meal;  while  the  mixed  ration 
had  more  variety  it  was  more  expensive. 

In  Alabama,  Duggar  found  that  steers 
on  a  ration  of  cottonseed  and  cotton- 
seed meal  gained  2.23  pounds  a  day, 
while  on  cottonseed  and  shredded  corn 
stover  the  gain  was  only  1  pound  a  day. 
The  amount  of  cottonseed  fed  in  these 
experiments  varied  from  4.8  pounds  to 
D1/^  pounds  a  day.  The  amount  of 
shrinkage  in  steers  shipped  short  dis- 
tances was  less  in  those  which  received 
cottonseed  meal  than  those  which  re- 
ceived cottonseed. 

In  North  Carolina,  good  gains  have 
been  obtained  on  an  exclusive  diet  of 
cottonseed  meal  and  hulls  for  a  period 
of  81  days,  the  meal  and  hulls  being 
fed  in  a  proportion  of  1 :4.  These  ma- 
terials may  be  used  for  different  pur- 
poses in  proportion  ranging  from  l:ll/2 
up  to  1:7.  The  ratio  1  :iy2  is  well 
adapted  for  the  purpose  of  rapid  fatten- 
ing. In  further  experiments  in  Texas, 
cottonseed  meal  and  hulls  proved  equal 
or  superior  to  any  other  available  grain 
ration.  Eoasted  or  boiled  cottonseed 
was  found  more  palatable  and  less  laxa- 
tive than  raw  seed,  but  the  latter  gave 
the  most  economic  gains.  The  best 
ratio  of  meal  and  hulls  for  cheapness 
was  1 :5  or  1:6;  and  for  rapid  gains 
1 :3.  The  quality  of  the  beef  is  not  in- 
fluenced in  any  pronounced  manner  by 
the  use  of  cottonseed  meal,  but  the  tal- 
low is  whiter  than  on  other  grain  rations. 

In  Arkansas,  cottonseed  has  proved 
to  be  the  cheapest  and  best  grain  for 
cattle.  The  whole  seed  is  as  good  as 
meal  and  hulls  for  a  fattening  period  of 
60  days,  but  in  longer  periods  of  feed- 
ing, the  large  quantity  of  oil  in  the 
whole  seed  causes  a  loss  of  appetite. 
Cottonseed  hulls  should  be  fresh  and 
from  dry  seed,  since  otherwise  they  may 
cause  serious  scouring.  Dry  hay  is  of 
benefit  in  preventing  scouring.  In  Ar 
kansas,  a  ration  containing  8  pounds 
of  cottonseed  meal  and  25  pounds  of 
hulls  gives  resiilts  equal  to  grain  feed- 
ing. The  relative  value  of  cottonseed 
and  other  grains  has  been  studied  in 
Mississippi,  where  it  appears  that  1 
pound  of  cottonseed  meal  is  equal  to 
1.66  pounds  of  cottonseed  or  1.9  pounds 
of  corn.  In  Mississippi,  rations  of  5V2 
pounds  a  day  have  been  used  for  long 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


391 


periods  without  any  harm,  but  T1/^ 
pounds  was  found  to  be  slightly  too 
much. 

In  a  further  series  of  tests  in  Okla- 
homa, cottonseed  proved  to  be  less  sat- 
isfactory when  fed  alone  than  when 
combined  with  other  grain.  In  general, 
it  may  be  said  that  cottonseed  meal  rare- 
ly affects  the  health  of  steers,  except 
when  fed  in  excess,  or  for  long  periods 
during  hot  weather.  Cattle  may  lose 
appetite  if  fed  cottonseed  meal  in  too 
large  rations,  but  are  not  seriously  af- 
fected. 

Throughout  the  northern  states,  cot- 
tonseed meal  has  been  found  effective 
when  fed  with  some  other  grain;  for 
example,  corn  in  the  ratio  of  1 :4.  In 
Tennessee,  cottonseed  meal  gave  best 
gains  when  mixed  with  corn  meal  in  the 
ratio  of  1  '.lVi. 

Dried  distillery  grains — This  feeding 
stuff  has  not  been  extensively  used  in 
fattening  steers.  In  Kentucky,  May 
tested  dried  distillery  grains  in  fatten- 
ing steers.  It  proved  to  be  the  most 
economical  of  the  various  rations  which 
were  tried,  and  less  grain  was  required 
for  a  pound  of  gain  when  distillery 
grains  entered  largely  into  the  ration. 
Distillery  grains  may  be  made  more  suit- 
able as  a  feed  for  steers  by  drying  rather 
than  by  feeding  directly  from  the  still 
as  slop.  On  the  basis  of  German  ex- 
perience with  this  material,  it  appears 
that  the  excessive  amount  of  water  in 
distillery  slop  is  unfavorable  to  the 
quality  of  the  meat. 

Gluten  feed  has  already  been  re- 
ferred to  as  a  by-product  of  corn.  It 
may  be  used  as  a  supplemental  feed  with 
corn,  since  it  contains  a  high  percen- 
tage of  protein.  According  to  Englisn 
experience,  gluten  feed  is  superior  to  a 
mixture  of  cottonseed  meal  and  ground 
wheat  for  fattening  steers.  It  may  be 
fed  in  rations  of  5  to  6  pounds  daily, 
and  often  costs  less  than  an  equally  ef- 
fective mixture  of  various  grains.  In 
some  English  feeding  experiments  glu- 
ten meal  has  given  a  greater  profit  than 
mixtures  of  cottonseed  meal,  barley  and 
linseed  meal.  Gluten  feed  compares 
well  with  oats  and  mixed  grains  of  ail 
sorts. 

In  Iowa,  where  gluten  feed  was  used 
as  a  supplemental  meal  in  a  grain  ration, 
the  amount  was  gradually  increased 
from  1-5  of  a  pound  to  4  pounds  daily. 
In  a  lot  of  steers  fed  in  this  manner, 
the  average  daily  gain  was  2,98  pounds 


and  the  cost  of  gain  was  $9.65  a  hun- 
dred pounds.  Gluten  meal  may  be  used 
in  the  same  quantities  and  for  the 
same  purpose  as  gluten  feed.  In  the 
Iowa  experiments  just  referred  to,  Ken- 
nedy and  Marshall  found  that  steers  on 
a  ration  containing  corn  and  gluten 
meal  gained  2.92  pounds  a  day,  and  that 
the  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain  was 
$9.34. 

Horse  chestnuts — According  to  Schil- 
ler, horse  chestnuts  may  be  cracked  and 
fed  to  cattle  in  rations  of  20  pounds. 
Their  feeding  value  is  high,  but  they 
have  a  constipating  effect  and  potatoes 
should  be  fed  with  them  to  overcome 
this  disadvantage.  Horse  chestnuts  are 
considerably   improved  by  steaming. 

Kafir  corn  may  be  substituted  for 
corn  in  fattening  rations  for  steers. 
Kafir  corn  appears  to  be  inferior  to  corn 
in  feeding  value.  In  Kansas,  its  effect- 
iveness proved  to  be  lower  than  that  of 
corn  and  its  fat  was  less  digestible.  Both 
red  and  white  kafir  corn  are  equally 
suitable  for  steers.  As  a  rule,  corn 
meal  is  better  digested  than  kafir  corn 
meal.  At  the  Kansas  experiment  sta- 
tion, it  was  found  that  5y2  per  cent  of 
corn  meal,,  12  per  cent  of  red  kafir  corn 
and '14  per  cent  of  white  kafir  corn  meal 
passed  away  in  the  manure.  The  red 
kafir  corn  is  slightly  superior  to  the 
white  variety,  according  to  Kansas  ex- 
perience. In  Oklahoma,  10  per  cent 
more  kafir  corn  meal  than  corn  meal 
was  required  to  produce  a  given  gain. 
Apparently,  the  digestibility  of  kafir 
corn  is  somewhat  improved  by  soaking 
and  the  material  is  enough  more  effect- 
ive when  ground  to  pay  for  grinding 
in  all  cases.  «* 

Linseed  meal — This  material  is  fed 
to  steers,  as  well  as  other  farm  animals, 
for  its  beneficial  effect  on  the  health, 
as  well  as  for  its  nutritive  value.  In 
Scotland,  linseed  meal  has  given  better 
gains  than  corn  or  cottonseed  meal.  A 
narrow  ration  is  preferred  by  those  feed- 
ers to  a  wide  ration,  and  this  is  obtained 
by  the  use  of  linseed  meal.  It  is  recom- 
mended by  Scotch  feeders  that  the  ra- 
tion should  become  narrow  as  the  feed- 
ing period  progresses  by  increasing  the 
amount  of  linseed  meal.  In  Iowa,  ex- 
cellent results  have  been  obtained  from 
linseed  meal  by  gradually  increasing  the 
amount  fed  to  steers  from  1-5  of  a  pound 
to  4  pounds  daily,  in  addition  to  19 
pounds  of  corn.  It  appears  from  statis- 
tics collected  in  Illinois  that  21  per  cent 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


of  the  beef  raisers  of  that  state  use 
linseed  meal  in  fattening  steers.  The 
amount  used  a  day  ranges  from  1-5  of 
a  pound  to  6  pounds,  with  an  aver- 
age of  2.2  pounds  for  all  cattle  and  3 
pounds  for  fattening  steers.  In  the 
opinion  of  Illinois  feeders,  the  great 
value  of  linseed  meal  toward  the  close 
of  the  fattening  period  is  noted  in  the 
improvement  of  the  finish  of  the  steer 
and  as  an  aid  to  digestion.  Some  feed- 
ers use  it  only  when  stock  is  out  of 
condition ;  others,  when  corn  is  high,  but 
many  men  use  it  in  all  cases.  In  most 
instances  it  should  be  fed  in  small  quan- 
tities as  a  part  of  the  grain  ration,  for 
the  reason  that  it  is  usually  rather  ex- 
pensive. In  Iowa,  linseed  meal  has  been 
found  inferior  to  corn  for  steers  at  pas- 
ture, partly  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
it  is  somewhat  laxative  and,  together 
with  grass,  makes  the  bowels  too  loose. 
Similarly  in  Ohio,  it  proved  inferior  to 
gluten  meal  under  the  same  conditions. 
In  a  test  made  at  the  Kansas  experiment 
station,  an  exclusive  diet  of  linseed  meal 
did  not  give  as  good  results  as  com 
meal  alone,  or  as  a  well-balanced  ration. 

Oats — In  Montana,  oats  has  been 
tested  for  fattening  steers,  used  as  the 
only  grain,  or  mixed  with  equal  parts 
of  wheat  and  barley,  all  chopped  to- 
gether. The  mixed  grain  ration  proved 
superior  to  any  kind  of  grain  used 
alone.  When  the  efficiency  of  the  mixed 
grain  ration  was  estimated  at  100,  oats 
was  placed  at  84.  In  the  test  in  ques- 
tion, the  lot  which  received  mixed  grains 
gained  281  pounds  during  a  feeding 
period  of  ordinary  length,  while  those 
which  received  oats  gained  only  188 
pounds  during  the  same  period.  While 
the  individual  difference  is  not  great,  it 
would  amount  to  $352  in  a  bunch  of 
100  steers. 

In  other  experiments  with  oats,  this 
grain  did  not  give  satisfactory  results 
in  fattening  steers.  Nevertheless,  prac- 
tical farmers  obtain  fine  profits  from 
oats  when  fed  in  connection  with  other 
grains.  In  recent  years  oats  have  been 
fed  to  steers  less  extensively  than  bar- 
ley and  wheat,  this  condition  being  due 
to  the  relatively  high  price  of  oats  and 
the  demands  for  this  grain  in  horse 
feeding.  In  Texas,  oats  were  found  to 
be  equal  to  corn  chops  for  fattening 
steers,  while  in  some  experiments  in 
Wyoming,  chopped  oats  were  fed  to 
steers  at  a  loss.  According  to  Cana- 
dian experience,  oats  in  the  sheaf  possess 


a  smaller  feeding  value  than  wild  rye 
grass.  In  Canada,  oatmeal  has  been  fed 
to  steers  and  was  found  to  be  inferior  to 
wheat  for  fattening  purposes. 

Peas — In  Canada  and  the  northern 
tier  of  states,  peas  enter  into  the  ration 
of  nearly  all  the  domestic  animals  and 
have  been  largely  used  for  steers.  Pea 
meal  in  Toronto  was  found  to  be  infe- 
rior to  corn  meal,  while  in  a  later  test 
it  gave  greater  but  more  expensive 
gains.  Peas  and  oats  mixed  have  been 
found  in  Canada  to  be  inferior  to  wheat 
or  oatmeal.  Pea  meal  constitutes  a  por- 
tion of  the  mixed  meal,  which  is  almost 
universally  used  in  fattening  steers  in 
Canada.  Moreover,  the  large  cattle  feed- 
ing companies  use  peas  or  pea  meal  ex- 
tensively and   report  good  results. 

Rice  products — According  to  Fraps 
at  the  Texas  experiment  station,  the  use 
of  rice  hulJs  in  large  quantities  is  at- 
tended with  some  danger,  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  the  hulls  are  composed  of 
numerous  sharp-pointed  fibers,  which 
irritate  the  stomach  walls.  It  is  re- 
ported that  a  cattle  company  in  Texas 
attempted  to  use  rice  hulls  as  a  roughage 
for  cattle,  but  had  to  give  it  up  for 
the  reason  that  the  animals  vomited 
after  the  continued  use  of  this  feed.  In 
some  localities  rice  hulls  are  used  for 
fuel  rather  than  feed.  Rice  polish  con- 
tains much  less  crude  fiber  and  is  com- 
paratively rich  in  carbohydrates,  while 
rice  bran  is,  according  to  its  analysis, 
somewhat  better  than  corn  or  corn  meal 
and  nearly  equal  to  oats  or  wheat.  It 
appears  as  the  result  of  experiments  thus 
far  carried  on,  that  rice  hulls  have  a 
very  low  feeding  value,  while  rice  pol- 
ish is  perhaps  superior  to  corn,  as  is 
also  a  good  quality  of  rice  bran. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  given 
to  rice  products  by  the  Texas  experiment 
station.  In  one  set  of  experiments,  in 
1903,  rations  were  fed  to  steers  contain- 
ing cottonseed  meal,  rice  hulls,  rice  bran, 
cottonseed  hulls  and  molasses.  In  1904, 
rice  bran  and  cottonseed  meal  were 
used  as  the  grain  ration  for  five  different 
lots  of  steers,  in  which  the  effective- 
ness of  sorghum  hay,  cowpea  hay,  pea- 
nut hay,  alfalfa  hay  and  cottonseed 
hulls  were  compared.  In  steer  rations, 
the  use  of  rice  bran  was  found  to  be 
inferior  to  cottonseed  meal.  The  sub- 
stitution of  double  the  weight  of  rice 
bran  for  a  part  of  the  cottonseed  meal 
in  the  ration  proved  more  profitable 
.  than  the  addition  of  rice  bran  to  a  full 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


393 


cottonseed  meal  ration.  From  the  use 
of  rice  polish  in  rations  of  2  to  2V2 
pounds  a  clay,  no  digestive  disturbances 
were  noted,  and  the  gain  in  weight  was 
satisfactory.  In  fact,  when  rice  polish 
was  substituted  for  a  part  of  the  cotton- 
seed meal,  the  cost  of  the  gain  was 
somewhat  reduced,  and  the  rate  of  gain 
increased.  Rice  hulls,  however,  in  all 
experiments  in  Texas,  have  proved  to  be 
unsatisfactory,  whether  mixed  with  cot- 
tonseed meal,  rice  bran,  molasses  or 
other  feeds. 

Eye — In  a  steer  feeding  experiment 
in  Idaho,  the  grain  ration  for  one  part 
of  the  fattening  period  consisted  of  one 
part  chopped  rye,  one  part  bran  and  two 
parts  chopped  wheat.  The  rate  of  gain 
during  this  period  was  not  so  good  as 
when  chopped  wheat  was  fed  without  the 
addition  of  rye.  A  number  of  other 
variations  were  made  in  the  combina- 
tion of  rye  with  different  farm  grains 
and  it  appeared  to  be  an  easy  matter 
to  use  too  much  rye.  The  chopped  rye 
was  not  well  relished  by  the  steers. 

Soy  bean  meal — In  Kansas,  Cottrell 
fed  soy  bean  meal  to  steers  by  scattering 
the  meal  over  other  grain  in  the  feed 
boxes.  At  the  beginning  of  the  feeding 
period,  the  soy  bean  meal  was  given  in 
rations  of  ^  pound  a  day,  but  this 
quantity  was  slowly  increased,  until 
after  10  days  the  steers  received  4 
pounds  a  head  daily  and  the  corn  ration 
was  slightly  reduced.  The  soy  bean 
meal,  however,  proved  to  be  too  laxative 
and  the  ration  was  reduced  again  to  1 
pound  a  day.  As  soon  as  the  digestive 
disturbances  were  corrected,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  increase  the  ration  again, 
but  with  unsatisfactory  results.  After 
continued  trials  to  obtain  good  results 
with  this  feed  during  a  period  of  26 
days,  it  was  finally  dropped  entirely 
from  the  ration.  While  the  soy  bean 
meal  interfered  with  the  gains  in  steers, 
it  appeared  to  make  them  shed  their 
coats  early  and  had  a  beneficial  influence 
in  other  ways. 

Velvet  beans — In  Florida,  Taliaferro 
tested  the  value  of  velvet  beans  in  pods 
when  fed  with  cowpea  hay.  The  steers 
were  allowed  to  have  all  the  cowpea  hay 
they  would  eat  and  received  in  addition 
3  bushels  of  velvet  beans  in  the  pod 
daily  The  percentage  of  dressed  weight 
was  somewhat  less  than  when  cassava 
and  cottonseed  meal  were  used,  and  it 
appears  that  velvet  beans  alone,  with 
cowpea  hay  as  the  roughage,  are  infe- 


rior to  rations  in  which  cassava  occu- 
pies an  important  place. 

Wheat — While  wheat  should  never 
constitute  the  whole  or  even  the  major 
part  of  the  grain  ration  for  steers,  it 
may  be  used  when  the  market  price  is 
low.  A  number  of  experiment  stations 
and  feeders  have  investigated  the  feed- 
ing value  of  wheat  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  maximum  market  price 
at  which  wheat  could  be  fed  with  a 
profit.  In  Minnesota,  it  was  found  that 
wheat  could  be  profitably  fed  to  steers 
when  the  market  price  was  not  higher 
than  47  ^  cents  a  bushel.  In  Idaho 
French  found  that  steers  on  a  chopped 
wheat  ration  produced  a  pound  of  meat 
for  every  3.4  pounds  of  wheat  consumed. 
The  profit  from  feeding  wheat  to  steers 
was  found  to  be  quite  attractive,  and 
it  appears  that  chopped  wheat  is  an  ex- 
cellent grain  ration  when  combined  with 
corn  silage  and  hay.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, it  is  best  to  feed  wheat  for  only  a 
part  of  the  fattening  period,  changing 
to  barley  and  oats  or  peas  in  order  to 
prevent  the  steers  from  getting  off  feed. 
In  Colorado,  wheat  with  or  without 
sugar  beets  has  been  found  to  produce 
good  gains  in  steers.  The  shrinkage  as 
a  result  of  shipping  was  greater  than 
with  corn-fed  steers,  but  less  than  in 
those  on  a  barley  ration.  Ground  wheat 
appeared  to  be  superior  to  ground  bar- 
ley. In  Canada,  wheat  bran  proved  to 
be  more  valuable  for  feeding  purposes 
than  whole  wheat  or  wheat  flour,  and  in 
this  test  the  new-process  bran  gave  the 
best  results.  In  Maryland,  however,  the 
new  and  old-process  bran  proved  to  be 
of  equal  value.  In  Oregon  and  Penn- 
sylvania, wheat  used  alone  was  found 
to  be  less  effective  than  when  mixed 
with  corn  or  some  other  grain.  In  Ore- 
gon, wheat  has  been  tested  as  a  steer 
feed  in  the  sheaf.  Steers  appeared  to 
do  better  than  pigs  on  sheaf  wheat,  but 
the  gains  are  costly  and  the  steers  do 
not  mature  quite  as  rapidly  as  on 
ground  wheat.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  frozen  wheat  has  about  as  high  a 
feeding  value  as  uninjured  wheat,  and 
on  account  of  its  low  market  price  may 
be  fed  with  profit.  The  economy  of 
feeding  wheat  in  any  form  to  steers  de- 
pends upon  the  market  price.  In  Wyom- 
ing, cracked  wheat  in  one  feeding  ex- 
periment appeared  to  be  used  at  a  finan- 
cial loss. 

At  the  Montana  experiment  station, 
Linfield  found  wheat  to  be  superior  to 


394 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


either  oats  or  barley  and  almost,  if  not 
quite,  equal  to  a  mixed  ration.  Wheat 
also  produced  meat  at  a  very  economic 
rate,  the  gains  costing  5  cents  a  pound 
on  a  wheat  ration  and  8  cents  on  an 
oat  ration.  It  was  found  necessary, 
however,  to  make  a  change  in  the  ration 
after  two  months,  since  by  that  time 
the  cattle  had  a  smaller  appetite  for 
wheat. 

In  Canada,  the  use  of  frozen  wheat 
and  corn  silage  in  fattening  steers  re- 
sulted in  good  gains  and  an  excellent 
quality  of  beef.  English  feeders  have 
found  that  wheat  may  be  profitably  used 
to  replace  linseed  meal.  Moreover,  in 
Nebraska,  wheat  showed  a  feeding  value 


corn  ration.  The  gains  on  the  wheat 
ration  exceeded  those  on  a  corn  ration 
by  16  pounds  a  head  in  a  feeding  exper- 
iment of  23  weeks. 

Different  grains  compared — Many  of 
the  agricultural  experiment  stations  in 
this  country  and  in  Canada  have  made 
comparative  tests  of  the  feeding  value 
of  different  grains  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  best  economy  in  feed- 
ing steers  in  different  localities.  At 
Toronto,  a  comparison  of  corn,  peas  and 
oats  for  steers,  which  also  received  roots, 
silage  and  hay,  showed  that  the  daily 
gain  was  greatest  on  corn,  followed  by 
peas  and  oats;  while  the  cost  of  gain 
was  least  on  corn  and  greatest  on  oats 


Fig.     264 MONTANA     STEERS     READY     FOR    MARKET 


5  per  cent  greater  than  corn,  and  hogs 
following  steers  fed  on  wheat  made 
profitable  gains. 

In  Oklahoma,  good  gains  were  pro- 
duced on  a  ration  of  11 V2  pounds  of 
wheat  meal  and  3V2  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal,  and  4  pounds  of  prairie  hay 
with  wheat  straw.  It  is  believed,  how- 
ever, that  the  gains  would  have  been 
greater  and  more  profitable  if  alfalfa 
had  been  used  as  a  part  of  the  ration. 

In  England,  a  comparison  of  wheat 
and  corn  for  steers  showed  that  corn 
meal  made  more  rapid  gains  and  at  less 
cost  than  wheat  meal.  A  similar  com- 
parison, by  Burnett  and  Smith  in  Ne- 
braska showed  that  steers  required  11  4-5 
pounds  of  feed  for  a  pound  of  gain  on 
a  wheat  ration  and  I2V3  pounds  on  a 


and  the  total  cost  for  the  whole  feeding 
period  from  October  1  to  June  1  was 
$20.75  each  steer  on  corn,  $22.50  on  peas 
and  $25.10  on  oats. 

Perhaps  the  best  grains  for  beef  pro- 
duction in  the  corn  belt  are  corn,  kafir 
corn  and  linseed  meal;  in  the  northern 
and  western  states,  corn,  peas,  barley, 
wheat  and  linseed  meal,  and  in  the 
south,  cottonseed  meal,  corn,  kafir  corn 
and  cowpeas.  According  to  the  data 
furnished  by  numerous  experiments  with 
different  kinds  of  grain  for  steers,  it 
appears  that  a  mixed  grain  ration  is 
more  effective  than  the  use  of  any  single 
grain. 

Light,  medium  and  heavy  grain  ra- 
tions compared — The  beef  raiser  has  not 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


395 


only  to  decide  what  are  the  most  effect- 
ive and  economic  grains  and  the  best 
combinations    in    which    to    feed    them, 
but  also  the  amounts  which  may  be  fed 
with  the  best  results  and  greatest  profits. 
This  problem  has  been  studied  by  Ken- 
nedy and  others  at  the  Iowa  experiment 
station.      After    the    steers    had    been 
brought  to  a  proper  feeding  condition, 
the    rations    were    gradually    increased 
until  one   lot   received   16,   one    19    and 
one  21  pounds   daily  each  head.     The 
grain  was  shelled  corn,  but  later  on  in 
the  experiment  supplemental  feeds,  such 
as   gluten    feed   and   other    nitrogenous 
materials,  were  added  to  bring  the  steers 
more  rapidly  to   a  fine  finish.     On   the 
light  grain  ration,  the  amount  of  grain 
required   $£>r   each   pound   of    gain   was 
10.95  pounds,  and  the  amount  of  rough- 
age 9  pounds;  while  the  average  cost  of 
each  pound  of  gain  was  9  cents.     On  a 
medium  grain  ration  each  pound  of  gain 
required  the  consumption  of  IIV2  pounds 
of  grain   and  8V2  pounds  of  roughage, 
and  cost  9.1  cents.     On  the  heavy  grain 
ration  each  pound  of  gain  required  12 
pounds    of    grain    and    6Yz    pounds    of 
roughage,  and  cost  9.2  cents. 

Gains  can  be  made  more  economically 
with  a  light  or  medium  grain  ration 
than  with  a  heavy  one;  but  in  a  feeding 
period  of  189  days,  it  is  not  possible  to 
finish  cattle  on  light  or  medium  grain 
rations  so  as  to  bring  the  top  market 
price.  The  difference  in  the  selling  price 
of  cattle  fed  a  heavy  grain  ration  is 
more  than  enough  to  offset  the  cheaper 
gains  made  by  steers  on  light  and  me- 
dium rations,  so  that  in  the  end  the 
greater  economy  is  found  in  the  heavy 
rations.  Judging  from  the  gains  made 
by  hogs  following  the  various  lots  of 
steers,  it  seems  that  the  grain  was  more 
perfectly  digested  by  the  steers  which 
received  the  light  and  medium  rations. 
In  Kentucky,  good  results  were  ob- 
tained by  increasing  the  rations  during 
the  fattening  period,  so  that  at  the  end 
of  the  period  the  steers  were  receiving 
from  20  to  24  pounds  daily  of  ear  corn 
or  corn  and  cob  meal ;  or,  when  supple- 
mental feeds  were  added  to  the  corn,  13 
to  20  pounds  of  corn  meal  and  2  to  6 
pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  or  4  pounds 
cottonseed  meal  and  4  pounds  bran. 

Shaw  attempted  to  determine  the  most 
economic  ration  of  barley  for  fattening 
steers  in  connection  with  clover  hay  as 
roughage.  It  is  believed  as  a  result 
of   this    experiment   that    when    alfalfa 


or  clover  hay  is  used  as  the  roughage, 
not  more  than  ^  pound  of  barley  or 
a  similar  grain  to  each  100  pounds  of 
live  weight  is  necessary  to  produce  the 
most  satisfactory  results.  The  extra 
gains  derived  from  the  use  of  heavy 
grain  rations  sometimes  fail  to  compen- 
sate for  the  extra  cost  of  the  ration. 

Grain  mixed  with  the  roughage — Ac- 
cording to  the  experience  of  Cottrell, 
the  feeding  of  grain  and  roughage 
mixed  seems  to  prevent  scouring  in 
steers.  When  the  grain  and  roughage 
are  fed  separately,  the  steer  chews  his 
grain  but  little,  swallows  it  quickly  and 
none  of  it  is  brought  up  for  mastication. 
Since  starch  constitutes  a  large  part  of 
corn  and  most  other  grains,  a  consider- 
able part  of  this  material  must  pass 
through  the  intestines  undigested.  On 
the  other  hand,  Cottrell  insists  upon  the 
point  that  when  grain  is  mixed  with 
the  roughage,  the  steer  is  compelled  to 
spend  more  time  in  chewing  his  ration 
and  that  some  of  the  grain  is  brought 
up  again  with  the  rough  material  and 
more  thoroughly  masticated.  It  is  be- 
lieved, therefore,  that  "the  steer  gains 
more  from  each  bushel  of  grain  eaten, 
better  digestion  keeps  his  body  in  better 
health,  and  scouring  is  avoided."  Cot- 
trell, therefore,  recommends  that  the 
feed  of  the  steer  be  so  mixed  that  every 
mouthful  contains  some  corn  and  some 
roughage. 

Grain  stubble  fields — In  harvesting 
cereals,  some  of  the  grain  falls  upon  the 
ground.  This  is  a  total  loss  unless  it 
can  be  harvested  by  domestic  animals. 
The  common  practice  of  turning  stock 
into  stubble  fields  rests  on  a  good  foun- 
dation. In  Montana,  it  was  found  that 
stubble  fields  are  worth  ..bout  $1.50  to 
the  acre  for  grazing  purposes.  Pigs  are 
perhaps  more  successful  in  collecting  the 
scattered  grain  than  steers,  but  all  do- 
mestic animals  succeed  in  getting  con- 
siderable valuable  material  out  of  the 
stubble  fields. 

Condimental  feeds — A  great  differ- 
ence of  opinion  prevails  regarding  the 
feeding  value  of  proprietary,  tonic  and 
condimental  feeds,  which  are  so  exten- 
sively advertised  in  agricultural  jour- 
nals and  elsewhere.  These  feeds  have 
been  repeatedly  analyzed  in  this  coun- 
try and  in  Europe  and,  as  a  rule,  chemi- 
cal analysis  shows  that  their  nutritive 
value  is  not  high  enough  to  warrant  the 
prices  which  are  ordinarily  charged  for 
them.     In   Scotland,  condimental  feeds 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


were  found  to  be  considerably  inferior  to 
oats,  pound  for  pound,  for  cattle,  but 
some  benefit  was  derived  from  the  ad- 
dition of  equal  parts  fenugreek,  cara- 
way, coriander  and  aniseed. 

At  the  Iowa  experiment  station,  Ken- 
nedy and  Marshall  carried  on  an  ex- 
tensive series  of  experiments  with  11 
lots  of  steers,  in  which  linseed  meal, 
gluten  meal,  gluten  feed,  germ  oil  meal, 
dried  blood,  and  certain  stock  foods  were 
compared.  One  lot  of  steers  also  re- 
ceived corn  and  grass  without  any  sup- 
plemental feed.  The  average  cost  of 
feeding  the  steers  during  a  fattening 
period  of  the  usual  length  was  least  on 
a  corn  ration  and  greatest  on  a  ration  of 
corn    and    linseed    meal.      The    selling 


ceived  corn  and  linseed  meal,  and  corn 
and  gluten  feed,  and  lowest  in  the  lot 
fed  on  corn  and  this  stock  food. 

The  two  chief  claims  made  by  the 
manufacturers  of  proprietary  feeds  are, 
that  their  preparations  contain  a  high 
amount  of  nutriment  and  also  exercise 
a  beneficial  medicinal  action.  It  has 
been  shown  by  hundreds  of  experiments, 
however,  that  by  proper  combination  of 
grain  feeds  the  necessary  amount  of 
nutrients  can  be  furnished  in  as  avail- 
able form  at  a  much  lower  price.  In 
fact,  well  balanced  rations  may  easily 
be  compounded  on  any  farm  by  the  use 
of  home-grown  feeds.  Then  too,  the 
claims  for  the  medicinal  effect  of  pro- 
prietary feeds  are  always  overestimated, 


Fig.  265 — ROLL  HUSKER  CORN  SHREDDER 


price  of  the  steers  by  the  hundredweight 
was  highest  in  the  lot  which  received 
corn  and  gluten  meal  and  lowest  in 
those  which  received  corn  and  one  of  the 
stock  foods.  The  net  profits  to  the  steer 
were  highest  on  the  ration  of  corn  and 
gluten  meal  and  lowest  on  a  ration  of 
corn  and  this  stock  food,  being  $17.99 
and  $5.52  respectively.  A  ration  of 
gluten  meal,  corn  and  wheat  straw  re- 
turned a  profit  of  $3.50  a  steer  more 
than  a  ration  of  corn  and  wheat  straw. 
In  this  set  of  experiments  it  was  esti- 
mated that  the  price  obtained  for  corn  a 
bushel  in  the  form  of  beef  was  $1.04  on 
the  ration  of  corn  and  gluten  meal,  and 
only  70%  cents  on  the  ration  of  corn 
and  the  stock  food  referred  to.  The 
dressed  weights  in  the  various  lots  of 
steers  were  highest  in  those  which  re- 


for  the  reason  that  they  contain  no  un- 
usual or  unknown  drugs  and  these  drugs 
may  be  obtained  in  a  pure  form  of  regu- 
lar druggists  at  a  much  lower  price  than 
must  be  paid  for  them  in  the  form  of 
proprietary  feeds. 

Roughage  for  steers — A  part  of  the 
ration  for  steers  must  always  consist  oi 
forage  plants  and  roots.  This  part  of 
the  ration  may  be  supplied  in  the  form 
of  pasture,  by  soiling,  and  by  feeding 
hay,  silage  or  roots  in  stalls  or  feed  lots. 
Recently  the  importance  of  this  portion 
of  the  ration  has  been  shown  more  clearly 
than  ever  before,  so  that  more  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  it  if  the  greatest 
profits  are  to  be  derived  from  fatten- 
ing steers.  Immense  quantities  of  corn 
fodder  are  allowed  to  go  to  waste  or  are 
burned    up,    notwithstanding    the    fact 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


397 


that  this  material  is  equal  in  feeding 
value  to  most  of  the  hay  which  is  so 
highly  treasured,  as  a  coarse  fodder. 
The  greatest  changes  in  rations  for 
steers  have,  however,  been  brought  about 
in  consequence  of  the  discovery  of  the 
high  feeding  value  of  leguminous  hays. 
As  already  indicated,  these  materials 
may  take  the  place  of  a  considerable 
part  of  the  nitrogenous  grain  ration  and 
may  thus  lower  the  cost  of  the  ration 
to  a  great  extent. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  we  dis- 
cuss the  feeding  value  of  the  more  im- 
portant forms  of  coarse  forage  which 
have  been  used  in  feeding  steers. 

Alfalfa — Throughout  the  western 
states,  and  recently  to  an  increasing  ex- 
tent in  the  eastern  and  southern  states, 
alfalfa  is  gaining  favor  as  a  coarse 
forage  for  steers.  In  Kansas,  the  use  of 
alfalfa  has  little  less  than  revolutionized 
the  methods  of  steer  feeding  and  the 
beef  raiser  has  learned  that  by  means 
of  corn  and  alfalfa,  both  of  which  are 
grown  on  his  ranch,  he  may  produce  the 
finest  quality  of  beef  at  the  least  possible 
cost. 

Cottrell  made  a  comparison  of  the 
feeding  value  of  whole  and  cut  alfalfa 
hay.  It  was  found  that  it  cost  about 
30  cents  a  ton  for  the  labor  of  cutting 
and  handling  alfalfa  hay,  in  addition  to 
the  cost  of  machinery  and  its  opera- 
tion. The  amount  of  grain  and  hay  re- 
quired for  a  given  gain  was  greater  with 
the  whole  hay  than  when  cut  in  short 
lengths.  During  a  feeding  period  of 
tbe  ordinary  length,  the  steers  gained  7 
pounds  a  head  more  on  cut  hay  than  on 
whole  hay,  and  ate  47  pounds  less  grain 
and  37  pounds  less  hay  for  each  100 
pounds  of  gain.  In  other  experiments 
in  Kansas,  the  great  feeding  value  of  a 
combination  of  alfalfa  hay  and  corn  was 
clearly  brought  out.  Beef  produced  on 
a  ration  containing  these  two  common 
farm  feeds  was  of  unusually  good  qual- 
ity and  ranked  high  when  judged  by  ex- 
perts. The  excellent  quality  and  flavor 
of  the  meat  were  believed  to  be  directly 
due  to  the  use  of  alfalfa  and  corn. 
These  feeds  were  found  to  give  satisfac- 
tory results  and  fine  profits,  not  only 
in  the  case  of  well-bred  beef  steers,  but 
also  with  dairy  steers  and  scrubs. 

Likewise  in  New  Mexico,  the  cattle- 
men are  finding  that  the  present  range 
methods  of  cattle  raising  are  unprof- 
itable. The  grass  is  destroyed  by  over- 
grazing,  and    according   to   careful    es- 


timates from  50  to  100  acres  of  such 
range  land  are  required  for  maintain- 
ing each  steer  annually.  If  alfalfa,  how- 
ever, is  planted  ©n  all  land  where  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  water  can  be  secured 
for  irrigation,  the  productiveness  of  the 
land,  in  so  far  as  feeding  material  for 
beef  is  concerned,  is  greatly  increased. 
It  was  found  that  a  fine  quality  of  beef 
could  be  produced  on  alfalfa  hay  alone. 
It  is  recommended  by  Vernon  that 
alfalfa  hay  should  be  stacked  in  the 
field,  since  this  is  the  cheapest  method 
of  handling  it,  and  a  larger  percentage 
of  leaves  remain  on  the  stems  than  by 
any  other  method  of  treatment.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  cost  of  100  pounds  of 
gain  on  alfalfa  hay  alone  averaged 
from  $2.25  to  $6.25,  depending  on  the 
market  price  of  alfalfa.  The  return  in 
beef  for  each  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  was 
about  $10.75  or  $32.10  an  acre. 

Craig  found  that  alfalfa  hay  was  an 
excellent  coarse  feed  to  use  with  corn, 
but  was  unsatisfactory  as  an  addition 
to  a  ration  of  rice  bran  and  cottonseed 
meal,  for  the  reason  that  both  of  these 
grain  feeds  are  highly  nitrogenous,  and 
the  three  together,  therefore,  make  a  too 
narrow  ration.  The  steers  which  re- 
ceived alfalfa  and  corn  and  cob  meal 
ate  daily  11  pounds  of  the  meal  and  17 
pounds  of  alfalfa,  gaining  2V2  pounds  in 
weight;  on  this  ration  the  cost  of  a 
pound  of  beef  was  4  cents. 

Otis  tested  the  value  of  alfalfa  on 
calves,  yearlings,  two-year-old  and  three- 
year-old  steers,  the  grain  ration  being 
corn  or  kafir  corn.  It  appeared  during 
these  experiments  that  by  feeding  an 
abundance  of  alfalfa  and  corn  silage,  it 
is  possible  to  produce  rapid  gains  in 
steers,  and  to  finish  them  in  a  fine  mar- 
ket condition.  The  value  of  alfalfa  hay 
was  clearly  demonstrated  as  a  means  of 
balancing  a  grain  ration  of  corn  or 
kafir  corn.  Otis,  therefore,  recommends 
that  alfalfa  be  planted  much  more  ex- 
tensively than  at  present,  and  that  corn 
be  also  harvested  in  the  form  of  silage. 
It  is  believed  that  these  two  crops  may 
be  confidently  depended  upon  and  will 
enable  the  feeder  to  produce  an  excellent 
quality  of  beef,  even  if  other  grain  feeds 
should  largely  fail  him. 

In  a  subsequent  test  at  the  Kansas  ex- 
periment station,  Erf  compared  alfalfa 
hay  alone  with  a  mixture  of  alfalfa  and 
prairie  hay,  in  a  ration  containing  corn 
and  cob  meal,  and  with  a  little  cottonseed 
meal  added  toward  the  end  of  the  feed- 
ing period.    The  average  daily  gain  per 


398 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


steer  during  the  whole  feeding  period 
from  January  to  April  was  2.3  pounds 
on  a  mixture  of  alfalfa  and  prairie  hay, 
and  2.8  pounds  on  alfalfa  alone.  The 
amount  of  grain  consumed  per  100 
pounds  of  gain  was  715  pounds  on  the 
mixture  of  alfalfa  and  prairie  hay,  and 
only  578  pounds  on  the  alfalfa  alone. 
The  total  profit  per  steer  was  more  than 
twice  as  much  when  the  alfalfa  was  fed 
alone  as  when  it  was  mixed  with  prairie 
hay.  The  alfalfa  and  corn  and  cob  meal 
appeared  to  constitute  an  excellent  ra- 
tion for  fattening  and  Erf  believes  that 
this  combination  will  give  better  results 
than  where  a  greater  variety  of  roughage 
is  used. 

Throughout  the  region  where  alfalfa 
is  extensively  grown,  it  is  the  most  im- 
portant hay  for  cat  Lie.  In  Colorado,  1 
pound  of  alfalfa  hay  proved  equal  to 
2.7  pounds  of  corn  silage  and  about 
equal  to  corn  fodder,  pound  for  pound. 
In  feeding  steers  a  greater  profit  was 
derived  from  alfalfa  than  from  either 
corn  fodder  or  silage.  Alfalfa  silage  has 
been  tested  in  Utah  and  proved  in- 
ferior to  corn  silage,  but  in  the  same 
experiments,  alfalfa  hay  was  superior 
to  timothy  or  wild  hay.  At  the  Nevada 
experiment  station  it  was  found  that 
from  15  to  21  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  are 
required  for  1  pound  of  gain  in  two- 
year-old  steers. 

Widtsoe  and  Merrill  found  that  al- 
falfa cut  just  before  blooming  produced 
greater  gains  in  steers  than  when  cut  in 
full  bloom  or  one  week  later.  The  early 
cutting  of  both  the  first  and  second  crop 
proved  to  be  superior.  In  order  to  se- 
cure the  greatest  feeding  value,  alfalfa 
should  be  cut  between  medium  bloom 
and  the  first  full  flower.  In  Utah,  the 
third  crop  was  found  to  have  the  highest 
feeding  value,  pound  for  pound,  followed 
by  the  first  and  second  crops.  Com- 
parisons of  the  feeding  value  of  different 
parts  of  the  plant  show  that  the  leaves 
are  from  two  to  four  times  as  nutri- 
tious  as  the  stems. 

Brome  grass  hay — This  forage  is  not 
grown  in  quantities  sufficient  for  tise  in 
steer  feeding,  except  in  Canada  and 
parts  of  the  northwest.  In  Canada,  it 
has  been  found  that  cattle  require  more 
corn  fodder  than  brome  grass  hay  for  the 
same  gain  in  weight,  but  that  corn  fod- 
der gives  the  greater  profit.  Brome  grass 
appears  to  be  about  equal  in  feeding 
value  to  western  rye  grass.  In  some  ex- 
periments it  has  proved  superior  to  tim- 


othy and  is  well    worth    feeding    as   a 
roughage  for  steers. 

Buffalo  grass  hay — This  forage  may 
also  be  fed  wherever  it  is  grown  in  suf- 
ficient quantities  to  make  its  harvesting 
economical.  At  the  Kansas  experiment 
station,  buffalo  grass  hay  was  found  to 
be  better  than  prairie  hay  and  far  su- 
perior to  timothy.  On  the  range,  this 
grass  is  recognized  as  an  excellent  for- 
age, whether  in  the  green  or  dry  state. 
Cattle  are  fond  of  it,  and  will  become  fat 
on  buffalo  grass  alone,  if  the  grazing  is 
good. 

Chess  is  often  fed  to  steers,  but  very 
few  experiments  have  been  made  to  de- 
termine its  value.  At  the  Oregon  ex- 
periment station,  chess  proved  inferior 
to  clover  hay,  but .  was  valuable  as  a 
maintenance  ration  in  wintering  cattle. 
The  threshed  grain  from  chess  is 
screened  out  in  cleaning  wheat  and  in 
this  form  is  fed  extensively.  For  most 
animals,  however,  except  poultry,  it 
should  be  ground  before  feeding. 

Clover — In  the  central  and  eastern 
states,  clover  occupies  the  position  in 
steer  rations  which  is  filled  by  alfalfa 
in  the  west.  At  the  Tennessee  experi- 
ment station,  the  first  crop  of  clover  was 
found  to  possess  a  greater  feeding  value 
and  was  better  relished  than  the  second 
crop,  which  caused  slobbering.  In  Mis- 
sissippi cheaper  gains  were  made  from 
clover  hay  than  from  shredded  corn 
stalks,  cowpea  or  crab  grass.  In  Indi- 
ana, steers  made  better  gains  on  chopped 
than  on  whole  clover  hay. 

The  feeding  value  of  the  different 
kinds  of  clover  is  practically  the  same, 
although  in  some  experiments  alsike 
clover  has  been  found  to  be  superior  to 
the  other  varieties.  All  kinds  of  clover 
hay  are  used  in  feeding  steers,  includ- 
ing red,  crimson,  alsike,  white  and  other 
less  common  varieties.  Red  clover  is 
grown  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  the 
other  kinds  and  is  ordinarily  referred 
to  when  no  particular  kind  of  clover  is 
specified. 

Corn — Throughout  the  corn  belt,  corn 
furnishes  perhaps  the  chief  coarse 
fodder  for  steers.  It  may  be  fed  in  the 
form  of  corn  fodder,  corn  stover,  pulled 
fodder,  shredded  corn  stalks,  corn  shives, 
silage,  or  as  a  soiling  crop.  As  a  rule, 
corn  may  be  most  economically  har- 
vested and  fed  in  the  form  of  silage. 

Among  the  beef  feeders  in  Illinois, 
the  use  of  corn  stalks  is  a  matter  of 
great  importance  and,  for  this  reason, 
Mumford    collected    statistics    regarding 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


the  methods  of  feeding  this  '  material. 
Among  the  feeders  who  gave  a  detailed 
account  of  the  use  of  corn  stalks,  80 
per  cent  pastured  them  off  in  the  fall 
or  cut  part  of  them  for  shock  corn  and 
pastured  the  remainder.  About  12  per 
cent  of  the  beef  raisers  plow  under  all 
the  corn  stalks,  and  some  of  them  burn 
the  stalks.  It  appears  that  the  com- 
mon practice  in  Iowa  and  Indiana  is  to 
pasture  off  the  corn  stalks  in  the  field, 
or  plow  them  under.  Considerable  nu- 
triment may  be  obtained  from  corn 
stalks  by  pasturing,  but  it  is  quite  in- 
excusable to  plow  them  under,  since 
numerous      careful     experiments      have 


amount  of  gain.  In  Arizona,  corn  fod- 
der was  found  about  equal  to  alfalfa. 

At  the  Maryland  experiment  station, 
corn  fodder  gave  the  best  results  when 
shredded,  moistened  and  mixed  with  the 
grain  ration.  It  was  then  more  digesti- 
ble, better  relished  and  eaten  more  com- 
pletely. In  this  experiment,  corn  fodder 
showed  twice  the  feeding  value  of  cot- 
tonseed hulls,  and  corn  shives  proved 
superior  to  shredded  corn,  fodder  corn, 
stover  or  timothy  hay. 

Mumford  found  that  steers  which  re- 
ceived silage  appeared  to  have  larger 
frames  and  on  that  account  seemed  to 
be  more  thinly  fleshed  than  the  steers 


Fig.   266 PRIME   STEERS   FROM  ILLINOIS   EXPERIMENT    STATION 


shown  that  their  feeding  value  is  quite 
sufficient  to  warrant  harvesting  and  car- 
ing for  them  with  as  much  attention  as 
is  given  to  hay. 

In  Colorado,  one  pound  of  corn  fodder 
proved  to  be  equal  to  about  2V2  pounds 
of  corn  silage  in  feeding  value.  At  the 
Iowa  experiment  station,  corn  fodder 
was  found  to  be  superior  to  timothy  hay, 
corn  silage  or  sorghum  silage. 

In  experiments  at  the  Illinois  station, 
the  digestibility  of  corn  fodder  and  corn 
silage  in  steer  rations  was  found  to  be 
practically  the  same.  The  fodder  gave 
larger  gains  in  yearling  heifers  than 
did  silage.  Heifers  fed  silage  ate  more 
and  required    more    feed    for   a    given 


which  were  fed  on  shock  corn.  Sum- 
marizing the  results  obtained  in  sum- 
mer and  winter  feeding,  however,  it  was 
found  that  steers  fed  on  shock  corn 
made  better  gains  than  those  on  silage. 
In  Virginia,  Soule  carried  on  a  num- 
ber of  feeding  experiments  w^h  silage 
and  corn  stover,  as  a  feed  for  steers. 
The  steers  which  received  silage  gained 
nearly  y2  a  pound  daily  a  head  more 
than  the  other  lots  of  steers  and  finished 
in  better  condition.  It  appears  from  this 
set  of  experiments  that  a  reasonable 
amount  of  succulence  in  the  ration  is 
a  good  thing.  Of  the  various  rations 
which  were  tested  in  these  experiments, 
that  containing  silage,  corn  and  cob 
meal  and  linseed  meal  gave  the  greatest 


400 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OP  LIVE  STOCK 


gains.  The  silage  was  eaten  with  the 
greatest  relish  and  there  was  absolutely 
no  loss;  whereas,  with  stover,  the  loss 
amounted  to  15V2  per  cent,  and  with 
timothy  hay,  4  per  cent. 

In  Illinois,  only  a  small  proportion  of 
beef  raisers  use  silage  as  a  regular  part 
of  the  ration  for  steers.  In  fact,  in  sta- 
tistics collected  by  Mumford,  only  eight 
feeders  mentioned  the  use  of  silage.  The 
men  who  were  using  silage  most  exten- 
sively fed  it  to  young  steers  and  in 
largest  amount  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fattening  period,  withdrawing  silage 
from  the  ration  several  weeks  before  the 
cattle  are  finished.  It  is  unquestionable 
that  the  liberal  use  of  silage,  especially 
during  the  early  part  of  the  fattening 
period,  has  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the 
cattle  and  puts  them  in  condition  to 
utilize  economically  the  heavy  grain 
feeds  which  are  given  them  in  the  later 
stages  of  forcing. 

A  thorough  comparison  was  made  be- 
tween silage  and  corn  stover  at  the  Illi- 
nois experiment  station.  In  feeding  5  1-3 
acres  of  silage  to  calves,  8V2  acres  of 
other  crops  were  used  at  the  same  time; 
while  in  feeding  5  1-3  acres  of  shock 
corn,  only  5x/2  acres  of  other  crops  were 
fed.  The  labor  in  feeding  silage  is 
somewhat  greater  than  in  feeding  shock 
corn.  Thus,  Mumford  found  that  it 
requires  one-third  longer  to  feed  an 
acre  of  silage  than  an  acre  of  shock  corn. 
The  average  amount  of  beef  produced  in 
this  set  of  experiments  from  an  acre  of 
silage  was  385.35  pounds,  with  oats  and 
hay  as  a  supplemental  feed;  whereas, 
from  shock  corn,  the  amount  of  beef 
produced  was  337.9  pounds,  a  difference 
of  about  471/2  pounds  an  acre  in  favor 
of  the  use  of  silage.  With  regard  to 
the  economy  of  harvesting  corn  in  the 
form  of  silage  and  corn  stover,  Mum- 
ford found  that  the  cost  of  harvesting 
and  feeding  was  about  twice  as  great 
for  silage  as  for  shock  corn. 

In  the  experiments  under  discussion 
the  steers  were  followed  by  hogs.  It  was 
found  that  when  silage  was  used,  97^2 
per  cent  of  the  total  meat  produced  was 
beef  and  2V2  per  cent  pork;  whereas, 
with  shock  corn,  only  84  per  cent  was 
beef  and  about  16  per  cent  pork.  It  is 
obvious,  therefore,  that  if  shock  corn 
is  used,  the  steers  should  be  followed  by 
hogs  in  order  to  avoid  the  total  loss  of 
what  the  steers  waste. 

Among  various  rations  which  were 
tested  at  the  Massachusetts  experiment 
station,  silage  with  bran  and  gluten  meal 


gave  the  best  and  cheapest  gains.  Ill 
North  Carolina,  the  most  rapid  gains 
were  produced  on  silage  with  cottonseed 
meal.  Reasonable  gains  were  obtained 
from  corn  silage  fed  in  rations  of  44 
pounds  for  11  days,  followed  by  soy 
bean  silage  in  rations  of  45  pounds  for 
46  days.  In  Ohio,  silage  has  been 
found  more  palatable  for  steers  than 
corn  fodder,  and  likewise  in  Texas, 
silage  proved  superior  to  dry  fodder  in 
feeding  value.  In  Utah,  however,  dry 
corn  fodder  proved  more  effective  than 
silage.  In  experiments  carried  out  in 
Virginia,  much  cheaper  gains  were  ob- 
tained from  corn  silage  than  from  hay, 
while  in  Wisconsin,  silage  with  a  heavy 
grain  ration  proved  to  be  exceedingly 
effective,  35V2  pounds  of  silage  making 
1  pound  of  gain.  The  silage  from  1 
acre  produced  700  pounds  of  beef. 

Cowpea  hay — In  the  southern  and 
western  states  and  territories,  where  this 
forage  is  produced  on  an  extensive  scale, 
it  has  been  found  to  be  an  effective  feed 
for  steers.  In  Missouri,  cowpea  hay  with 
corn  produced  daily  gains  in  steers  of 
2.6  pounds,  as  compared  with  1.6  pounds 
on  timothy  and  1.9  pounds  on  clover  and 
corn  fodder.  Both  the  cowpea  hay  and 
the  clover  hay  gave  a  superior  market 
finish  and  a  finer  coat  than  timothy  or 
corn  fodder,  with  corn  as  the  grain  feed. 
Cowpea  hay  in  Arkansas  is  considered 
the  cheapest  and  best  forage  for  cattle. 
It  was  found  more  readily  digestible 
than  clover  hay  in  Illinois.  At  the 
Tennessee  experiment  station,  Soule  fed 
6  to  10  pounds  of  cowpea  hay  daily  a 
steer,  in  the  place  of  3  to  5  pounds  of 
cottonseed  meal.  This  substitution  wa3 
made  with  excellent  results.  In  ra- 
tions containing  a  large  amount  of  suc- 
culence, however,  cowpea  hay  is  not 
so  satisfactory,  for  the  reason  that  the 
steers  cannot  then  be  induced  to  eat 
enough  of  it.  Together  with  grain,  cow- 
pea hay  may  be  fed  in  rations  of  20 
pounds  a  day,  and  2  to  3  pounds  of  cow- 
pea hay  may  be  estimated  as  equal  to  1 
pound  of  cottonseed  meal. 

At  the  Texas  experiment  station, 
Craig  did  not  find  so  high  feeding  value 
for  cowpea  hay.  It  appeared  that  in  a 
ration  of  rice  bran  and  cottonseed  meal, 
cowpea  hay  could  not  be  added  in  large 
quantities  with  satisfactory  results. 
A  ration,  however,  containing  large 
amounts  of  cottonseed  meal  and  rice 
bran  is  already  highly  nitrogenous  and 
could  best  be  balanced  with  corn  stover 
or  some  other  carbonaceous  feed. 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


401 


Johnson  grass — This  grass  is  con- 
sidered of  great  value,  or  a  curse,  de- 
pending on  whether  a  system  of  stock 
farming  is  pursued  or  cultivated  crops  to 
be  marketed  as  such.  In  Mississippi,  an 
experiment  was  carried  out  to  deter- 
mine the  relative  feeding  value  of  John- 
son grass  hay  as  compared  with  cotton- 
seed hulls.  It  appeared  that  1  pound  of 
Johnson  grass  hay  was  equal  to  1.2 
pounds  of  hulls,  giving  a  value  of  $10 
a  ton  to  the  hay,  when  hulls  are  worth 
$8.33. 

Kafir  corn  stover — In  tests  at  the 
Oklahoma  experiment  station,  this  for- 
age proved  to  be  somewhat  inferior  to 
alfalfa  hay,  but  equal  to  corn  stover. 
Kafir  corn  stover  was  found  to  be  infe- 
rior to  corn  fodder.  In  Kansas,  however, 
corn  stover  and  kafir  corn  stover  ap- 
peared to  have  equal  feeding  value.  This 


is  offensive  to  animals  if  eaten  in  large 
quantities.  Tannin  interferes  with  the 
digestion  and  in  some  cases  causes  ex- 
cessive thirst  and  constipation.  The 
average  amount  of  tannin  in  the  various 
kinds  of  oaks  in  the  arid  regions  is 
about   10  per  cent. 

Pastures — The  kind  and  quality  of 
pastures  used  for  beef  animals  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  United  States  show  a 
great  variation.  The  pasture  may  be 
uncultivated  for  years  and  may  contain 
nothing  but  native  grasses  in  scattered 
bunches  and  not  forming  a  complete 
sod.  On  the  other  hand,  some  system  of 
rotation  may  be  adopted,  according  to 
which  the  pasture  land  is  from  time  to 
time  plowed  up,  cultivated  to  various 
crops,  then  used  as  a  meadow  and  fi- 
nally allowed  to  run  to  pasture  again.  In 
the  range  areas  of  the  far  western  states, 


Fig.    267 — CATTLE    GRAZING    ON    SALT    BUSHES   ON  ALKALI   LAND 


forage  is  not  raised  in  sufficient  quanti- 
ties to  make  it  an  important  steer  feed, 
except  in  parts  of  the  southwest. 

Oak  leaves — On  many  of  the  west- 
ern ranges,  particularly  in  the  more  arid 
parts  of  Utah,  Nevada  and  California, 
range  cattle  derive  considerable  food 
from  oak  brush.  The  scrub  oaks,  of 
which  a  number  of  species  grow  in  this 
region,  are  low  and  much  branched  and 
furnish  an  abundance  of  foliage.  A 
study  of  oak  leaves  as  forage  was  carried 
on  at  the  California  experiment  station 
by  Mackie.  It  was  found  that  the  decid- 
uous oaks  carry  a  higher  nutritive  value 
than  live  oaks,  and  are  better  relished  by 
cattle,  horses  and  sheep.  Only  sheep  and 
goats  thrive  on  the  live  oaks.  Cattle 
eat  not  only  the  leaves  of  scrub  oaks, 
but  also  the  small  twigs  and  at  times 
kill  the  bushes.  Oak  leaves  cany  a 
considerable    amount   of   tannin,   which 


the  beef  raisers  depend,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, for  a  maintenance  ration  upon 
the  native  grasses  which  are  exceedingly 
nutritious. 

According  to  Mumford,  it  appears 
that  in  Illinois,  about  55  per  cent  of  the 
beef  raisers  use  blue  grass  pasture,  25 
per  cent  timothy,  15  per  cent  clover, 
and  small  numbers  use  redtop,  rye,  cow- 
peas,  orchard  grass  and  other  grasses. 
The  carrying  capacity  of  pasture  varies 
according  to  the  quality  and  quantity 
of  the  forage.  In  the  case  of  ordinary 
pasture  land,  about  2  acres  are  required 
for  each  steer  during  the  summer.  In 
general,  however,  the  amount  may  be  put 
down  as  being  from  1  to  4  acres.  Year- 
ling steers  and  calves  require  less  acre- 
age of  pasture.  The  time  for  returning 
cattle  to  pasture  varies  in  different  parts 
of  the  country.  In  the  corn  belt  it 
ranges  from  April  1  to  June  1,  but  is 


402 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


usually  about  the  first  of  May.  In  the 
corn  belt,  cattle  are  ordinarily  removed 
from  pasture  during  September,  but 
may  in  some  cases  be  allowed  to  remain 
until  October  or  even  December.  Where 
cattle  are  finished  for  market  in  the 
early  fall,  they  are  sometimes  removed 
from  the  pasture  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  grazing  season  and  heavily  fed 
on  grain  with  soiling  crops  or  some 
other   succulent   food. 

Tke  question  at  once  arises  in  connec- 
tion with  pasturing  steers  whether  they 
shall  be  fed  grain  during  this  time  or 
not.  This  matter  has  been  studied  in  a 
number  of  states  with  results  which  are 
fairly  in  harmony,  although  differing 
somewhat  in  certain  respects.  Burnett 
investigated  this  subject  in  Nebraska, 
where  it  was  found  that  when  steers  are 
to  be  sent  to  market  in  early  winter, 
there  is  more  profit  in  keeping  them  on 
pasture  during  the  summer,  with  grain. 
Where,  however,  the  steers  are  to  re- 
ceive a  grain  ration  during  the  winter 
and  marketed  in  the  spring,  it  is  more 
economic  to  keep  them  on  pasture  dur- 
ing the  previous  summer  without  grain. 
In  the  use  of  pasture  for  steers  which 
are  being  fattened  for  market,  close 
watch  should  be  kept  of  the  steers  to  see 
that  they  are  receiving  enough  coarse 
forage  in  addition  to  their  grain  to  make 
constant  and  fairly  uniform  gains.  Any 
falling  off  in  weight  or  check  in  their 
growth  indicates  that  the  pasture  is 
poor. 

In  Alabama,  Duggar  and  others  made 
observations  on  the  gains  produced  by 
scrub  cattle  on  the  ordinary  pastures  in 
that  state.  The  plants  chiefly  eaten  by 
the  cattle  were  broom  sage,  crab  grass, 
swamp  grasses,  switch  cane  and  les- 
pedeza.  The  daily  gains  made  by  cat- 
tle on  such  pastures  varied  from  0.28  to 
0.82  of  a  pound,  and  the  total  gain  for  a 
pasturaere  season  of  210  days  varied 
from  59  to  172  pounds,  with  a  beef 
value  varying  from  $1.48  to  $4.30.  The 
increase  of  different  classes  of  cattle 
during  a  pasture  season  of  seven  months 
varied  from  8  to  51  per  cent  of  their 
weight.  During  the  winter  season,  cat- 
t}e  kept  on  southern  pastures  are  al- 
most sure  to  lose  in  weight,  for  the 
reason  that  the  common  grasses  lose 
nearly. all  of  their  nutriment  as  a  result 
of  the  frequent  rains. 

In  Mississippi  Hutchinson  and  Lloyd 
kept  cattle  on  cotton-field  and  woodland 
pasture  carrying  more  or  less  Johnson 


grass  and  fall  oats.  The  breeding  cattle 
kept  in  fine  condition  and  young  ani- 
mals made  quite  heavy  gains.  In  gen- 
eral it  has  been  observed  that  young 
animals  gain  more  rapidly  on  pasture 
than  older  steers.  In  order  that  pas- 
ture may  give  the  greatest  results  in  beef 
production,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
overstock  it  at  any  time.  In  Mississippi, 
it  appeared  that  Bermuda  grass,  white 
clover  and  lespedeza  stood  heavy  grazing 
better  than  other  grasses.  K,  however, 
the  cattle  were  changed  at  suitable  in- 
tervals, Johnson  grass  and  alfalfa  were 
found  to  furnish  excellent  grazing  for 
long  seasons.  Two-year-old  steers  which 
had  been  carried  through  the  winter  on 
a  maintenance  ration  and  were  in  rather 
thin  flesh,  gained  242  pounds  in  178 
days  on  ordinary  pasture,  or  at  the  rate 
of  1.3  pounds  daily.  The  pasture  was 
found  to  carry  one  animal  for  each  1.1 
acres  for  the  period  of  seven  months. 
On  poorer  pasture  land,  however,  about 
2%  acres  were  required  for  each  steer. 

Pearl    millet    or    pencillaria.       This 
plant  was  for  a  number  of  years  adver- 


Fig.     2G8 — SINGEING     THE     SPINES     FROM 

CACTI     THAT     THEY     MAY     BE     EATEN 

BY    CATTLE 

tised  in  a  pompous  manner  as  produc- 
ing enormous  yields  of  forage  of  un- 
usual feeding  value.  The  few  tests 
which  have  been  made  with  it,  however, 
indicate  that  the  claims  for  pearl  millet 
have  been  greatly  exaggerated.  At  the 
Kansas  experiment  station,  Haney 
tested  pearl  millet  stover  as  compared 
with  kafir  corn  stover  as  a  roughage 
for  cattle.  The  pearl  millet  was  some- 
what overripe  when  cut  and  a  few  of 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


403 


the  leaves  had  fallen.  The  cattle  which 
received  pearl  millet  did  not  thrive  well, 
but  their  appetites  remained  in  good 
condition.  The  value  of  the  pearl  millet 
appeared  to  be  considerably  less  for 
feeding  purposes  than  kafir  corn. 

Peanut  hay — This  coarse  material, 
while  produced  in  large  quantities,  is 
seldom  fed  to  steers.  Craig  and  Mar- 
shall have  fed  peanut  hay  to  steers  at 
the  Texas  experiment  station,  and  found 
that  it  was  unsatisfactory  when  fed  with 
rice  bran  and  cottonseed  meal,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  it  contains  a  high  percent- 
age of  protein  and  should  therefore  be 
used  in  a  more  carbonaceous  ration.  It 
appears  that  peanut  hay  is  of  consider- 
able feeding  value. 

Prickly  pear — On  the  southwestern 
desert  ranges  of  Arizona,  New  Mexico, 
Texas  and  Colorado,  various  species  of 
prickly  pear  cacti  have  attracted  atten- 
tion as  forage  plants.  On  account  of  the 
spines  which  these  plants  carry,  it  is 
necessary  to  singe  or  otherwise  treat 
them  to  remove  the  spines  before  they 
can  be  eaten.  Horses  understand  how 
to  roll  the  cacti  under  their  feet  so  as 
to  break  off  the  spines  and  prepare  the 
material  for  food.  With  cattle  and 
sheep,  however,  the  case  is  different, 
since  these  animals  do  not  understand 
how  to  remove  the  spines.  In  order  to 
utilize  prickly  pear  more  extensively,  va- 
rious methods  of  singeing  by  means  of 
wood  fires  or  gasoline  blowers  have  been 
adopted  and  a  number  of  feeding  experi- 
ments have  been  carried  on.  It  ap- 
pears that  for  cows  from  40  to  100 
pounds  of  prickly  pear  may  be  used  per 
day.  Oxen  may  be  worked  on  an  ex- 
clusive prickly  pear  ration  of  125  to  200 
poimds  per  day. 

Rye — Steers  are  often  allowed  to 
graze  on  green  rye.  One  of  the  advan- 
tages of  rye  is  that  it  springs  up  early 
in  the  season  and  thus  furnishes  a  suc- 
culent green  food  in  advance  of  the  or- 
dinary pasture  grasses.  In  Alabama, 
it  has  been  found  that  rye  will  be  eaten 
clean  by  cattle,  even  if  it  is  allowed  to 
reach  the  height  of  2  feet  before  the 
cattle  are  turned  on  it.  Duggar  found 
that  cattle  would  make  gains  of  l1/^ 
pounds  a  day  on  rye  pasture. 

Rye  grass — This  wild  grass  is  cut  for 
hay  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  If 
allowed  to  get  too  ripe  before  cutting,  it 
is  a  coarse  grass  and  unpalatable.  Rye 
grass  is  also  subject  to  infestation  with 
ergot  and  should  not  be  used  for  feed 
when  the  heads  contain  too  much  of  this 


fungus.  The  Canadian  feeders  have 
found  that  rye  grass  is  equal  to  oats  in 
the  sheaf  for  fattening  steers. 

Silage — In  discussing  the  corn  plant 
as  a  coarse  forage  for  steers,  mention 
has  already  been  made  of  the  use  of 
corn  silage  in  fattening  cattle.  Silage 
is  not  used  as  extensively  for  steers  as 
for  dairy  cows,  but  appears  to  give  good 
results  wherever  it  has  been  thoroughly 
tested.  A  number  of  mixed  forms  of 
silage  have  been  used  in  different  locali- 
ties with  considerable  success.  In  Mary- 
land, a  silage  containing  corn,  sorghum 
and  soy  beans  in  rations  of  40  pounds 
a  day  proved  to  be  more  than  a  main- 
tenance ration  for  winter.  According 
to  Canadian  experience,  the  cost  of  gain 
on  Robertson's  mixture  is  considerably 
less  than  on  straight  corn  silage.  Refer- 
ence is  made  under  sorghum  and  other 
plants,  as  well  as  corn,  to  their  use  in 
the  form  of  silage. 

Sorghum — This  plant  is  fed  to  steers 
as  a  coarse  forage  wherever  it  is  grown 
on  a  commercial  scale.  In  Arizona,  it 
proved  to  be  nearly  equal  to  alfalfa,  and 
in  Iowa,  sorghum  silage  appeared  to  be 
as  effective  as  corn  silage  in  fattening 
steers,  but  was  not  so  well  relished.  A 
test  of  this  matter  in  New  Mexico 
showed  that  all  of  the  non-saccharine 
sorghums  were  readily  eaten  by  cattle 
and  were  preferred  in  many  cases  to  al- 
falfa hay.  Sorghum  as  a  soiling  crop 
was  found  to  produce  rapid  gains  in  ex- 
periments carried  on  in  Tennessee.  In 
Texas,  it  was  found  that  steers  shrunk 
least  on  shipping  after  being  fed  on 
sorghum  and  cottonseed  meal  and  hulls 
with  corn  chops. 

In  Texas,  it  has  been  found  that 
sorghum  hay  in  a  ration  of  cottonseed 
meal  and  rice  bran,  gives  results  about 
equal  to  cottonseed  hulls,  1  pound  be- 
ing equal  to  1.02  pounds  of  the  hulls. 
The  gains  in  weight  in  steers  fed  on  cot- 
tonseed hulls  as  compared  with  sor- 
ghum hay  were  slightly  in  favor  of  the 
hulls. 

Soy  beans — Soy  bean  silage  may  be 
fed  to  cattle  in  winter  in  rations  of  25 
to  30  pounds  a  day  with  a  grain  ration  of 
1  to  2  pounds  cottonseed  meal,  and  5 
pounds  of  corn  meal.  This  ration  pro- 
duces rapid  gains  in  weight  and  also 
maintains  the  health  of  the  cattle  in  ex- 
cellent condition.  In  Illinois,  soy  bean 
silage  proved  to  be  as  digestible  as 
clover  hay. 

Straw — Spelt  straw  is  not  extensively 
grown,  except  in  limited  areas  and  for 


404 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LITE  STOCK 


this  reason  has  not  been  fed  or  tested 
extensively  as  a  ration  for  fattening 
steers.  In  Canada,  spelt  straw  was 
found  to  possess  about  half  the  feeding 
value  of  ordinary  hay.  Straw  of  va- 
rious kinds  may  profitably  be  fed  with 
leguminous  forage  plants  and  other  hays 
and  grain.  When  mixed  with  legu- 
minous hay,  there  may  be  a  considerable 
saving  in  the  cost  of  the  ration.  The 
feeding  value  of  all  kinds  of  straw,  how- 
ever, should  be  understood  as  being 
somewhat  less  than  that  of  good  hay. 
Steers  ordinarily  eat  straw  more  freely 
if  allowed  the  liberty  of  a  yard.  Oats 
furnish  the  best  straw.  Oat  straw  mixed 
with  silage  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  2 
constitutes  an  excellent  roughage  for 
steers.  In  Canada,  steers  made  a  cheaper 
gain  on  a  ration  containing  wheat  straw 
than  where  hay  was  used. 

Timothy — On  account  of  the  great  de- 
mand which  almost  everywhere  exists 
for  timothy  hay,  as  a  feed  for  horses, 
farmers  can  sell  this  material  for  city 
use  at  a  price  which  is  really  in  ex- 
cess of  its  feeding  value  for  steers  or 
other  animals.  When  this  is  the  case,  it 
may  be  good  farm  practice  to  sell  tim- 
othy and  feed  other  cheaper  but  equally 
valuable  rough  forage  to  the  steers. 
In  Iowa,  timothy  proved  to  be  inferior 
to  corn  fodder  in  fattening  steers,  but 
somewhat  better  than  sorghum  silage. 
For  the  maintenance  of  young  steers, 
about  20  pounds  daily  are  required  for 
each  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight.  There 
appears  to  be  no  difference  in  the  feed- 
ing value  of  early  and  late  cut  timothy 
hay.  In  Utah,  timothy  proved  equally 
digestible,  whether  fed  green  or  in  the 
form  of  dry  hay.  It  proved,  however, 
to  be  inferior  to  wild  hay.  According  to 
experience  in  Illinois,  timothy  is  not 
equal  to  clover  hay  for  steers  and  tends 
to  the  production  of  intestinal  fat. 

Vetch  hat — Several  varieties  of  vetch 
are  used  as  a  coarse  forage  for  all  kinds 
of  farm  stock.  According  to  experi- 
ments in  Oregon,  vetch  hay  is  about 
equal  to  clover  hay  for  steers.  It  may 
be  fed  to  steers  in  combinations  and  pro- 
portions such  as  have  been  recommended 
for  other  leguminous  hays. 

Miscellaneous — According  to  statis- 
tics collected  in  Illinois,  a  great  variety 
of  coarse  fodders  are  used  in  fat- 
tening steers.  About  34  per  cent  of  the 
beef  raisers  use  clover  hay  as  roughage, 
31  per  cent  corn  fodder,  11  per  cent  hay 
(kind  not  specified),  6  per  cent  timothy; 
while  others  use  corn  stover,  straw,  blue 


grass  hay,  cowpea  hay,  alfalfa,  redtop, 
sorghum,  millet,  native  hays,  sheaf  oats 
and  silage.  It  is  obvious  from  the  above 
discussion  of  the  kinds  of  roughage  used 
for  steers  that  this  matter  may  be  left  to 
the  discretion  of  the  individual  feeder, 
since  the  market  price  and  the  conven- 
ience of  obtaining  different  forms  of 
coarse  fodders  will  vary  in  each  case.  In 
general,  however,  it  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  the  great  superiority  of  legumi- 
nous hays  as  roughage,  since  these  ma- 
terials furnish  protein  in  the  cheapest 
form  in  which  it  can  be  obtained,  and, 
therefore,  serve  to  balance  rations  con- 
taining corn,  the  cheapest  grain  feed 
for  steers. 

Cut  vs.  uncut  hay — Much  difference 
of  opinion  prevails  regarding  the 
economy  of  cutting  hay  for  steers.  Most 
hays  are  more  effective  when  cut  than 
when  left  long.  The  same  is  true  for 
many  of  the  roots  commonly  fed.  The 
decision  of  the  question  of  whether  these 
shall  be  cut  or  not  must  depend  on  the 
cost  of  cutting  in  each  individual  case. 
According  to  Canadian  experience,  the 
cost  of  gain  was  70  cents  less  a  100 
pounds  on  cut  than  on  uncut  hay. 

Roots  for  steers — Many  experiments 
have  shown  the  necessity  of  some  form 
of  succulence  in  the  ration  for  steers. 
This  may  be  supplied  in  the  form  of 
roots,  and  all  kinds  of  roots  may  be  fed 
with  satisfactory  results.  All  roots 
should  be  sliced  or  pulped.  The  English 
beef  raisers  make  large  use  of  roots  and 
consider  them  a  necessary  element  of 
the  ration.  Until  recently,  however, 
feeders  have  paid  little  attention  to  them 
in  steer  rations  and  many  beef  raisers 
have  considered  them  as  quite  unimpor- 
tant. In  Canada,  sugar  beets,  mangels, 
turnips  and  other  roots  are  extensively 
used  and  have  proved  satisfactory.  About 
a  ton  of  roots,  together  with  500  pounds 
of  hay  and  400  pounds  of  pea  meal,  are 
necessary  for  the  production  of  100 
pounds  of  beef.  When  roots  are  com- 
pared with  silage  as  a  means  of  furnish- 
ing succulence  to  the  ration  for  steers, 
the  results  are  always  in  favor  of  silage, 
for  the  reason  that  this  material  con- 
tains grain  and  is  therefore  of  a  higher 
feeding  value.  Roots  are  especially  val- 
uable in  steer  feeding  during  the  early 
part  of  the  fattening  period.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  fattening  period,  however, 
the  quantity  should  be  diminished,  since 
-  otherwise  the  meat  may  be  less  firm  than 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


405 


it  should  be.  Eoots  may  be  fed  in  ra- 
tions of  from  50  to  60  pounds  a  day  to 
each  steer. 

In  England,  it  has  been  found  that  a 
daily  ration  of  56  pounds  of  rutabagas 
is  equally  good  and  cheaper  than  when 
half  of  the  root  ration  is  replaced  by 
2%  pounds  clover  hay,  x/z  pound  mo- 
lasses and  V2  pound  corn  meal.  The 
English  feeders  commonly  believe  that  all 
steers  in  process  of  fattening  should  re- 
ceive roots  at  least  to  the  extent  of  28 
pounds  a  day,  and  that  a  ration  of  56 
pounds  is  profitable.  The  daily  gain  of 
steers  on  turnips,  mangels  and  silage  in 
a  number  of  English  experiments  was 
found  to  be  about  the  same. 

Some  of  the  roots  which  have  been 
most  extensively  fed  to  steers  may  be 
briefly  discussed  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. 

Carrots — Nearly  all  farmers  believe 
in  the  nutritive  and  medicinal  value  oi 
carrots  for  farm  animals.  They  are  fed 
less  extensively  to  steers,  however,  than 
to  dairy  cows  or  sheep. 

Cassava — This  root  has  been  fed  to 
steers  at  the  Florida  experiment  station, 
where  it  is  claimed  that  beef  was  pro- 
duced on  it  at  a  cost  of  1  cent  a  pound. 
Cassava  appeared  to  give  greater  gains 
and  a  larger  percentage  of  dressed  weight 
than  cottonseed  meal  or  corn  meal,  and 
the  profit  from  feeding  cassava  was 
greater  than  from  corn,  but  less  than 
from  cottonseed  meal.  These  results, 
however,  require  substantiation,  since 
they  seem  to  indicate  too  high  a  feed- 
ing value  for  cassava  as  judged  by  its 
chemical  analysis.  In  Florida,  cassava 
has  been  fed  in  rations  of  30  pounds  a 
day,  or  in  the  form  of  cassava  pulp  in 
rations  of  18  pounds  a  day.  The  steers 
fed  on  cassava  or  cassava  pulp  dressed 
51  per  cent.  It  appeared  from  the 
Florida  experiments  that  velvet  beans 
alone  with  the  roughage  are  inferior  to 
a  ration  containing  full  feeds  of  cassava. 
The  cassava  pulp  from  starch  factories 
is  a  valuable  feeding  stuff,  but  at  the 
usual  price  of  $6  a  ton  is  less  econom- 
ical than  the  whole  cassava  root. 

Potatoes — In  recent  years  the  price 
of  potatoes  has  been  too  high  to  allow 
of  their  being  fed  extensively  to  steers. 
Whenever  potatoes  are  low,  however, 
they  are  used  as  one  of  the  important 
elements  in  steer  rations  in  ordinary 
farm  practice,  but  very  few  experiments 
have  been  made  to  test  their  exact  value 
for  this  purpose.     It  has  been  found  in 


Germany  that  potatoes  may  be  safely 
and  profitably  fed  to  steers  in  rations 
of  60  pounds  a  day  in  combination  with 
clover  hay  and  linseed  meal. 

Sugar  beets — Recently  the  use  of 
sugar  beets  and  particularly  sugar  beet 
pulp  has  become  a  general  practice 
among  beef  raisers.  It  is  most  profit- 
able to  sell  the  sugar  beets  to  the  fac- 
tory and  buy  pulp  for  feeding.  For 
this  reason,  pulp  is  fed  far  more  ex- 
tensively than  sugar  beets.  Some  of  the 
large  cattle  feeding  companies  use  it  on 
an  extensive  scale,  after  having  found 
that  its  feeding  value  and  medicinal 
properties  are  more  important  and 
more  effective  in  steer  fattening  than 
would  appear  from  an  analysis  of  the 
material.  In  early  experiments  in  Colo- 
rado, sugar  beets  were  found  to  have  a 
feeding  value  of  $3  a  ton.  In  Wyoming, 
when  used  in  rations  of  14  pounds  a 
day  with  alfalfa  hay,  sugar  beets  made 
profitable  gains.  Beet  leaf  silage  has 
also  been  used  to  a  considerable  extent, 
but  according  to  German  experiments  it 
does  not  possess  much  feeding  value. 

At  the  Colorado  experiment  station, 
Carlyle  and  others  made  a  number  of 
tests  to  determine  the  conditions  under 
which  sugar  beet  pulp  could  be  most 
profitably  fed  to  steers,  in  connection 
with  the  use  of  alfalfa  and  home-grown 
grains.  In  one  set  of  experiments,  all 
the  steers  were  given  alfalfa  hay  and 
sugar  beet  pulp  ad  libitum,  while  some 
of  the  steers  received  corn  and  others 
barley  and  oats.  It  appeared  from  these 
experiments  that  where  an  abundance  of 
beet  pulp  and  alfalfa  hay  were  fed,  a 
grain  ration  of  5  pounds  a  day  produced 
a  rapid  and  satisfactory  gain.  The  steers 
which  received  grain  ate  98  pounds 
of  pulp  and  11  pounds  of  hay  daily, 
while  those  that  had  no  grain  consumed 
123  pounds  of  pulp  and  12.5  pounds  of 
hay  daily.  Carlyle  recommends  that  in 
feeding  pulp,  great  cleanliness  should 
be  observed  and  the  troughs  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  daily  after  feeding. 
In  the  coldest  weather  of  winter  it  is 
recommended  that  beet  pulp  should 
never  be  fed  in  the  afternoon  or  even- 
ing. It  must  be  remembered  that  sugar 
beet  pulp  has  a  laxative  effect.  Cattle 
appear  to  be  particularly  fond  of  pulp 
from  the  silo,  preferring  this  to  fresh 
pulp.  In  order  to  ensile  pulp,  it  should 
be  placed  in  the  silo  direct  from  the 
sugar  factory,  in  a  perfectly  fresh  state. 


406 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  another  set  of  experiments  in  Col- 
orado, alfalfa  hay  was  fed  to  all  the 
steers  ad  libitum,  while  beet  pulp  was 
tested  with  regard  to  its  feeding  value 
with  the  hay  and  ground  corn.  In  this 
test,  3.2  pounds  of  sugar  beet  pulp  were 
found  to  equal  in  feeding  value  1  pound 
of  the  hay.  Sugar  beet  pulp  at  ordi- 
nary prices  appears  to  be  cheaper  and 
better  than  ground  corn  in  connection 
with  an  alfalfa  ration  for  mature  steers. 
When  alfalfa  hay  is  worth  $5  a  ton, 
sugar  beet  pulp  may  be  estimated  at 
$1.50  a  ton.  It  was  found  as  a  result 
of  careful  experiments  that  steers  would 
gain  nearly  a  pound  a  day  more  on  a 
ration  of  alfalfa,  corn  and  beet  pulp 
than  on  a  ration  of  hay  and  corn  or  hay 
and  beet  pulp. 

In  another  test  of  this  matter  at  the 
Colorado  experiment  station,  it  was 
found  that  during  a  fattening  period  of 
ordinary  length,  steers  on  a  ration  of 
alfalfa  hay  and  beet  pulp  returned  a 
profit  of  $16.60  a  head,  while  on  beet 
pulp,  hay  and  corn,  a  profit  of  $15.45 
was  obtained  and  on  beet  pulp,  barley, 
hay  and  oats,  a  profit  of  only  $12.55. 

In  Michigan,  it  appears  that  one  ton 
of  sugar  beet  pulp  equals  421  pounds 
of  corn  stover,  274  pounds  of  mixed  hay 
and  69  pounds  of  mixed  grain  for  feed- 
ing steers.  In  another  test  in  Michigan, 
better  results  were  obtained  from  the 
sugar  beet  pulp,  indicating  an  even 
higher  efficiency. 

In  Utah,  it  was  found  that  steers 
would  make  a  pound  of  gain  from  HV2 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  and  3V/2  pounds 
of  sugar  beet  pulp,  at  a  cost  of  2.8  cents 
a  pound.  When  the  sugar  beet  pulp  was 
fed  ad  libitum  with  alfalfa  hpy  it 
showed  a  feeding  value  of  $1.85  a  ton. 

A  stock  feeder  in  Logan,  Utah,  found 
sugar  beet  pulp  a  very  profitable  ma- 
terial and  estimates  its  value  at  $2.50  a 
ton.  His  feeding  operations  have  been 
so  successful,  from  a  financial  stand- 
point, that  arrangements  are  being  made 
for  more  extensive  operations  in  the 
future.  His  system  consists  in  feeding 
alfalfa  and  sugar  beet  pulp  regularly, 
twice  daily,  in  open  yards  and  no  more 
is  given  than  will  be  eaten  up  in  a  few 
hours. 

In  accustoming  animals  to  sugar  beet 
pulp,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  begin  with 
a  small  quantity  and  gradually  increase 
until  a  full  feed  is  reached.  At  the  be- 
ginning, the  amount  may  be  10  pounds 
a  day  for  steers  and  increased  to  40  to  80 


pounds,  together  with  grain  and  alfalfa 
hay.  If  the  animals  show  any  hesita- 
tion in  eating  pulp,  it  may  be  mixed 
with  grain  at  first,  and  thus  rendered 
more  palatable. 

Dried  blood — Although  cattle  are  nor- 
mally vegetarian  in  habit,  they  may  be 
induced  to  eat  animal  food.  Animal  ma- 
terial is  most  frequently  fed  mixed  with 
grain  or  molasses  in  order  to  render  it 
more  palatable.  The  quantity  of  dried 
blood  fed  to  steers  should  not  exceed 
about  1  pound  a  day,  as  a  rule.  At  the 
Iowa  experiment  station,  Kennedy  fed 
one  lot  of  steers  on  corn  in  various 
forms,  wheat  straw  and  dried  blood,  be- 
ginning with  a  ration  of  1-6  of  a  pound 
a  day,  and  gradually  increasing  to  IV2 
pounds  daily.  This  ration  gave  an 
average  daily  gain  of  2.4  pounds  a  steer, 
at  an  average  cost  of  11  cents  a  pound  of 
gain.  It  will  be  seen  by  this  experiment 
that  the  cost  of  producing  beef  on  ani- 
mal feeds  is  likely  to  be  rather  high. 
Blood  meal  may  also  be  used  in  steer  ra- 
tions at  the  rate  of  1  1-5  pounds  daily, 
but  will  ordinarily  increase  the  cost  of 
gain.  Likewise  bone  meal  of  good 
quality  may  be  fed  to  steers,  and  is 
readily  digested  by  them. 

Molasses — In  Utah,  molasses  was 
compared  with  pulp  in  rations  of  8 
pounds  a  day.  It  was  found  to  have  a 
feeding  value  of  $2.35  a  ton  and  was 
well  relished  by  steers.  It  may  be  used 
in  rations  of  4  to  8  pounds  a  day.  The 
use  of  molasses  and  sugar  in  feeding 
farm  animals  is  increasing  rapidly,  but 
has  given  better  results  with  horses 
and  mules  than  with  cattle.  Steers, 
however,  appear  to  be  able  to  utilize  mo- 
lasses and  sugar  economically.  In  Scot- 
land, it  has  been  found  as  a  result  of 
one  series  of  feeding  tests,  that  sugar, 
in  rations  of  1  to  2  pounds  a  day,  has  a 
tendency  to  check  the  growth  of  steers 
and  put  them  off  feed.  Molasses  has 
been  fed  much  more  extensively  in  Eu- 
rope than  in  this  country.  In  Texas, 
it  did  not  appear  to  improve  a  ration 
containing  silage,  and  in  Kansas,  it  was 
found  to  be  of  little  value  in  fattening 
steers.  In  France,  however,  sugar  was 
found  serviceable  in  making  hay  more 
palatable. 

FEEDING    METHODS    AND    MISCEL- 
LANEOUS MATTERS  IN  BEEF 
PRODUCTION 

There  remains  for  consideration  a 
number  of  important  subjects  concern- 
ing the  methods  of  feeding  and  various 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


407 


factors  which  influence  the  development 
of  steers,  the  quality  of  beef  and  the 
profit  to  be  derived  from  feeding. 

Fattening  season — According  to  sta- 
tistics collected  by  Mumford  in  Illinois, 
40  per  cent  of  the  beef  raisers  of  that 
state  believe  that  they  can  fatten  beef 
most  advantageously  in  the  summer, 
while  26  per  cent  prefer  fall,  20  per  cent 
spring  and  14  per  cent  winter.  Not- 
withstanding this  apparent  preference 
for  the  summer  season,  61  per  cent  of 
the  beef  raisers  stated  that  they  had 
found  winter  feeding  profitable.  The 
time  of  year  at  which  steers  are  put  on 
full  feed  varies  with  different  farmers, 


ing  period,  however,  may  be  set  down  as 
about  six  months. 

Shaw  found  that  a  satisfactory  in- 
crease in  weight  was  not  attained  when 
steers  were  fed  on  a  forcing  ration  dur- 
ing a  short  period  and  that  on  this  ac- 
count such  feeding  resulted  in  consider- 
able waste  of  the  meal.  In  this  test, 
feeding  periods  of  84  and  140  days  were 
compared.  It  was  found  that  steers  on 
a  light  meal  ration  for  140  days  gave  a 
profit  of  $6.75  a  head  more  than  those 
fed  84  days  on  an  excessively  heavy 
ration.  Steers  which  were  forced  to  the 
limit  were  more  likely  to  get  off  feed. 

In   Tennessee,  Soule  has  found  that  so 


Fig.    269 — MODEL    CATTLE    FARM    WITH    CEMENT  SILO  AND  RESERVOIR 


but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  pre- 
ferred season  is  September  to  Novem- 
ber. As  a  rule,  it  is  necessary  to  occupy 
from  15  to  30  days  in  a  preliminary 
period,  during  which  the  cattle  are 
gradually  brought  up  to  full  rations. 

Length  of  the  fattening  period — The 
length  of  the  fattening  period  will  vary 
in  different  cases,  according  to  the  age 
of  the  animals,  their  condition  at  the 
beginning  of  the  period  and  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  fed.  As  a  rule,  steers 
require  about  six  months  for  the  attain- 
ment of  a  proper  market  finish ;  in  some 
instances  from  seven  to  nine  months 
may  be  necessary,  while  occasionally 
satisfactory  results  are  obtained  in  three 
months.    The  usual  length  of  the  fatten- 


long  as  animals  are  making  a  daily  gain 
of  iy2  to  2  pounds,  the  fattening  period 
can  be  continued  at  a  profit. 

Number  of  feeds  a  day — There  is  lit- 
tle to  be  said  on  this  point,  since  nearly 
all  beef  raisers  feed  twice  a  day  and 
find  this  more  satisfactory,  convenient 
and  economic  than  any  other  system 
which  can  be  adopted. 

Size  of  the  ration — In  feeding  year- 
lings in  winter,  a  considerable  percent- 
age of  beef  raisers  give  all  the  corn  that 
the  cattle  will  eat,  while  many  use  about 
a  peck  of  corn  or  a  slightly  smaller 
quantity.  When  the  yearlings  are  kept 
on  grass  in  siimmer,  about  one  peck  of 
corn  a  day  is  a  perfectly  satisfactory 
ration,  or  ^  bushel  corn  and  oats  and 


408 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


5  pounds  linseed  meal.  With  two-year- 
olds  in  winter,  some  feeders  give  all  the 
corn  they  will  eat,  while  the  majority 
feed  about  ^2  bushel.  If  mixed  grain 
rations  are  fed,  the  following  will  be 
found  satisfactory:     One  peck  of  corn, 

6  pounds  oats  or  bran  and  6  pounds  cot- 
tonseed meal ;  all  the  corn  that  the  steers 
will  eat,  5  pounds  of  bran  and  5  pounds 
of  linseed  meal;  1-3  bushel  of  corn  and 
5  pounds  cottonseed  meal.  Two-year- 
olds  in  summer,  on  grass,  will  eat  from 
1  peck  to  1-3  bushel  of  corn.  Many 
feeders,  however,  find  it  quite  satisfac- 
tory to  give  all  the  corn  the  steers  will 
eat,  without  measuring  it  accurately. 

Daily  gain — The  average    daily    gain 
for  steers  cannot  be  stated  without  qual- 


Illinois,  different  men  estimate  that 
from  4  to  20  bushels  of  corn  are  nec- 
essary for  the  production  of  100  pounds 
of  meat  on  calves  in  winter;  from  5 
to  30  bushels  on  yearlings  in  winter 
and  from  5  to  25  bushels  in  summer; 
from  5  to  40  bushels  on  two-year-olds 
in  winter  and  from  6  to  37  bushels  in 
summer.  It  is  obvious  from  these  es- 
timates of  farmers  that  too  little  at 
tention  is  given  to  the  matter,  since  it 
is  quite  impossible  that  the  effectiveness 
of  corn  and  other  grain  feeds  should 
vary  so  enormously  as  indicated  by  these 
figures.  On  a  basis  of  more  than  100 
feeding  experiments  involving  over  750 
steers,  it  has  been  found  that  the  follow- 
ing amounts  of  different  grains  are  re- 


Fig.  270 TRACK  AND  CAR  FOR  CARRYING  FEED  TO  THE  FEED  RACKS 


ification,  since  the  gain,  as  will  presently 
be  explained,  depends  on  a  number  of 
factors,  particularly  age,  and  the  length 
of  the  feeding  period.  The  daily  gain, 
as  shown  by  statistics  based  on  more 
than  50,000  steers,  ranges  from  1.2  to 
2.3  pounds  a  day.  In  many  instances, 
however,  a  considerable  higher  gain  is 
obtained.  According  to  the  reports  of 
Illinois  feeders,  the  average  gain  for 
cattle  in  the  summer  on  grass  is  2 
pounds  and  in  winter  2.2  pounds  a  day. 
Feed  required  for  100  pounds  gain — 
Throughout  the  discussion  of  individ- 
ual feeds  used  in  fattening  steers,  men- 
tion has  been  made,  in  most  instances, 
of  the  amount  of  these  feeds  required 
for  a  pound  of  gain.  A  common  say- 
ing among  farmers  is,  that  "a  bushel  of 
corn  will  make  5  pounds  of  beef."    In 


quired  for  the  production  of  100  pounds 
of  beef:  817  pounds  mixed  grain,  911 
pounds  peas,  914  pounds  barley,  1,028 
pounds  corn,  1,032  pounds  oats,  1,058 
pounds  kafir  corn,  or  1,090  pounds 
wheat.  Steers  should  gain  about  2 
pounds  a  day  on  a  ration  of  30  to  50 
pounds  of  silage  or  roots,  8  to  12  pounds 
of  grain  and  hay  or  straw  ad  libitum. 

Amount  of  roughage — This  is  a  diffi- 
cult point  on  which  to  make  a  specific 
recommendation,  since  the  majority  of 
beef  raisers,  perhaps  95  per  cent,  allow 
steers  all  the  roughage  they  will  eat 
during  the  whole  fattening  period.  Per- 
haps one-half  of  the  beef  feeders  follow 
the  practice  of  changing  the  roughage 
in  the  ration  from  time  to  time,  in 
order  to  induce  the  steers  to  eat  as 
much  as  possible.     The  more  roughage 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


409 


that  is  utilized  by  steers,  the  less  grain 
will  be  required  for  putting  them  in 
market  condition. 

Length  of  fattening  period  and  cost 
of  gain — It  has  been  repeatedly  demon- 
strated that  the  cost  of  gain  increases 
with  the  length  of  the  fattening  period. 
Thus,  in  a  set  of  experiments  carried 
out  by  Georgeson,  it  was  found  that  the 
amount  of  grain  required  for  100  pounds 
of  gain  in  a  feeding  period  of  182  days 
was  1,000  pounds,  while  for  a  feeding 
period  of  56  days,  the  amount  was  only 
730  pounds.  It  is  obvious  that  the  steer 
should  be  sold  at  the  earliest  moment 
at  which  he  is  fit  for  market,  since  the 
expense  of  producing  further  gains  in- 
creases until  a  point  is  reached  where 
the  cost  of  gain  is  too  high  to  permit 
of  further  profit  from  feeding.     In  fact, 


short  before  the  steers  are  in  prime  con- 
dition, otherwise  the  greatest  profit  can- 
not be  obtained  from  the  outlay  which 
has  already  been  made  in  feed  and  labor. 

Taking  a  feeding  period  of  average 
length  as  a  basis  on  which  to  formulate 
a  general  statement  of  the  requirements 
of  a  beef  steer  for  100  pounds  of  gain, 
it  may  be  said  that  1,000  pounds  oi" 
grain  and  500  pounds  of  roughage  in 
the  form  of  corn  stover  and  hay  will 
produce  100  pounds  of  meat,  but  these 
amounts  will  have  to  be  increased  in  the 
estimate  if  the  feeding  period  is  unduly 
prolonged.  The  cost  of  feeding  per  100 
pounds  of  gain  in  beef  steers,  ranges 
from  $4  to  $12,  depending  on  the  quality 
of  the  steers  and  the  kind  of  feed. 

Feeding  steers  loose  and  tied — It  is 
of  importance  to  determine  the  relative 


Fig.    271 FEED    YARD    AND    SHEDS.    COURTESY    KANSAS    EXPERIMENT    STATION 


during  the  last  stages  of  the  fattening 
period,  the  cost  of  gain  is  nearly  always 
greater  than  the  price  received  for  the 
steer  when  finished.  The  necessity  for 
putting  on  this  expensive  meat  lies  in 
the  fact  that  otherwise  a  high  market 
price  cannot  be  obtained  and  the  econ- 
omy of  the  apparently  wasteful  process 
is  obvious  when  it  is  remembered  that 
the  value  of  the  whole  carcass  is  greatly 
increased  by  the  finishing  touches  put 
on  during  the  last  stages  of  the  fatten- 
ing period. 

In  a  comparison  of  feeding  periods  of 
117  days  and  160  days  for  steers,  in 
Canada,  it  was  found  that  the  cost  of 
100  pounds  of  gain  in  the  shorter  period 
was  $12.75  and  in  the  longer  period 
$10.53.  This  apparent  exception  to  the 
rule  just  stated  indicates  clearly  that 
the  fattening  period  should  not  be  cut 


profits  obtained  in  feeding  steers  loose 
and  tied,  in  stanchions  or  otherwise.  In 
a  test  carried  on  in  Canada  during  a 
feeding  period  of  129  days,  loose  steers 
gained  311  pounds  and  tied  steers  275 
pounds.  The  gain  in  the  loose  steers 
cost  $4.76  a  100  pounds  and  $5.39  in 
tied  steers,  while  the  daily  gain  in  the 
latter  was  1.6  pounds  and  in  the  former 
1.8  pounds. 

At  the  Mississippi  experiment  station, 
Smith  found  that  stable  fed  steers  made 
greater  gains  than  those  which  were 
kept  in  open  yards.  In  good  weather 
the  latter  gained  more  rapidly  than 
those  which  were  kept  in  the  stable  and 
made  less  trouble  in  the  way  of  care. 

Heavy  vs.  light  steers — While  con- 
siderable difference  of  opinion  prevails 
regarding  *he  profits  to  be  derived  from 


410 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


heavy  and  light  types  of  steers,  the  ma- 
jority of  feeders  prefer  the  heavy  steers. 
In  Canadian  experiments,  it  has  been 
[found  that  there  is  more  profit  in 
heavy  than  in  light  steers. 

Value  of  succulence  in  the  ration — A 
number  of  experiments  have  been  made 
to  determine  the  importance  of  adding 
succulence  to  the  ration  in  the  form  of 
silage,  soiling  crops  or  roots.  In  Ten- 
nessee, dry  rations  were  compared  with 
succulent  rations,  corn  stover  being  fed 
against  silage.  It  appeared  from  these 
experiments  that  the  animals  which  re- 
ceived a  succulent  ration  did  much 
better  than  those  which  were  fed  on  the 
dry  ration.  The  rate  of  gain  was  more 
rapid  on  the  succulent  ration  and  a 
greater  economy  was  observed,  as  well 
as  a  superior  quality  of  beef. 

Age  and  cost  of  gain — It  has  been 
shown  beyond  question  in  almost  innu- 
merable experiments  that  the  rate  of 
gain  decreases  with  the  increase  in  the 
age  of  the  animal,  and  that  the  cost  of 
the  gain  correspondingly  increases.  This 
fact  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  early 
maturing  beef  breeds  and  the  produc- 
tion of  baby  beef  in  order  to  get  the 
greatest  amount  of  meat  from  a  given 
amount  of  feed. 

According  to  statistics  compiled  from 
experiments  with  more  than  50,000  cat- 
tle ranging  in  age  from  six  months  to 
four  and  one-half  years,  it  appears  that 
the  average  daily  gain  decreases  grad- 
ually from  2.3  pounds  in  yearlings  to 
1.2  pounds  in  five-year-olds.  At  the 
Colorado  experiment  station,  the  daily 
gain  in  five-year-olds  was  1  pound;  in 
two-year-olds,  1.7  pounds,  and  in  year- 
lings, 2.2  pounds.  In  the  same  experi- 
ment, the  five-year-olds  required  3,600 
pounds  of  hay  for  100  pounds  of  gain, 
the  two-year-olds,  1,300  pounds,  and  the 
yearlings,  900  pounds.  In  young  calves, 
a  pound  of  gain  has  been  produced  for 
each  1^2  to  2  pounds  of  dry  matter  fed 
in  the  ration.  The  required  amount 
gradually  increases  until «  adult  age, 
when  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter are  consumed  for  each  pound  of 
gain.  In  Alabama,  18-year-old  oxen 
were  fed  at  a  loss,  while  young  steers 
made  excellent  gains  on  the  same  feed- 
ing stuffs.  Likewise,  at  the  Maryland 
experiment  station,  it  has  been  found 
that  dairy  cows,  six  years  old  or  less, 
may  be  fattened  at  a  fair  profit  while 
cows  eight  to  10  years  old  or  older  must 
be  fed  at  a  loss. 


Similarly  in  Colorado,  North  Caro- 
lina, Oklahoma  and  other  states,  as  well 
as  in  Canada,  more  profit  has  been 
found  in  two-year-old  than  in  three-year- 
old  steers.  At  the  Central  Experimental 
Farms  in  Ottawa,  the  cost  of  100  pounds 
of  gain  was  as  follows:  In  calves,  $4.89; 
in  yearlings,  $7.23;  in  two-year-olds, 
$7.45;  in  three-year-olds,  $13.75.  It  has 
also  been  determined  by  a  series  of  ex- 
periments in  Canada,  that  the  total 
feed  required  for  a  calf  for  a  period  of 
203  days  averages  about  $13.80;  for  a 
yearling,  $18.20;  for  a  two-year-old, 
$18.96;  and  for  a  three-year-old,  $22.82. 

Home-grown  vs.  purchased  feeds — 
The  concentrated  grain  feeds  constitute 
the  greatest  element  of  expense  in  con- 
nection with  the  production  of  beef.  It 
is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  great  impor- 
tance to  determine  how  and  to  what  ex- 
tent these  expensive  feeds  may  be  sup- 
plemented by  crops  grown  on  the  farm. 
Since  the  most  expensive  element  of 
grain  feeds,  as  well  as  other  materials  in 
the  steer  ration,  is  the  protein,  it  is  ob- 
viously necessary  to  produce  this  ma- 
terial in  ordinary  farm  crops  in  order 
to  make  a  saving  in  the  ration.  A 
majority  of  beef  feeders  have  found  it 
profitable  to  raise  all  of  the  feed  used 
for  their  steers,  or  as  nearly  all  as  their 
farm  acreage  will  allow.  A  considerable 
percentage  of  beef  producers  buy  corn, 
linseed  meal,  bran,  patent  stock  foods, 
cottonseed  meal,  oats,  shorts,  middlings, 
gluten  meal,  brewers'  grains,  hay  and 
even  straw.  About  one-half  of  those 
who  purchase  feed  for  their  steers  buy 
corn,  while  the  other  half  buy  milling 
products  of  one  sort  or  another.  It  has 
been  shown  by  numerous  experiments, 
however,  as  indicated  above,  that  by 
growing  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  clover  or 
other  leguminous  crops,  this  material 
may  be  used  to  supplement  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  grain  ration,  with  a 
great  saving  in  the  feed  bill. 

Methods  of  increasing  returns  from 
beef  cattle — In  New  England,  some  of 
the  best  and  most  progressive  feeders 
state  that  the  best  way  to  increase  the 
profits  from  beef  production  consists  in 
a  use  of  better  bred  steers,  better  rations, 
and  better  pastures.  In  Illinois,  a  sum- 
mary of  the  replies  of  639  beef  producers 
to  the  question  of  how  to  increase  the 
profits  from  the  business,  indicates  that 
the  vast  majority  of  them  believe  this 
desired  end  is  to  be  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  a  larger  number  of  well-bred  cat- 
tle,     A    more    intelligent    use    of   feeds. 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


411 


better  care  of  cattle,  better  pasture,  bet- 
ter shelter,  and  extermination  of  flies 
and  lice  are  also  mentioned  as  important 
factors.  A  significant  fact  which  ap- 
pears in  the  belief  of  beef  producers,  as 
well  as  packing  house  men,  is  that  the 
necessity  of  the  use  of  better  blood  in 
beef  herds  is  being  more  and  more  gen- 
erally recognized.  The  use  of  better 
animals  and  the  more  rational  use  of 
feeding  stuffs  are  the  two  main  lines 
along  which  the  beef  producer  must 
work  in  order  to  increase  his  profits. 
These  facts  are  being  recognized  not  only 
in  the  corn  belt,  where  for  years  the 
finest  quality  of  beef  has  been  produced, 
but  also  in  the  south,  where  lately  the 
character  of  beef  herds  is  being  consid- 
erably improved.  Thus,  Duggar,  in 
Alabama,  considers  that  the  essentials  to 
the  highest  profit  in  beef  production  in 
that  state  are  the  use  of  better  bred  bulls 
of  beef  breeds ;  the  employment  of  better 
trained  men  as  feeders,  the  production 
of  cowpeas,  sorghum  and  other  well 
known  farm  feeds  and  the  improvement 
of  pastures. 

Shelter—On  the  point  of  shelter,  the 
opinions  of  different  men  are  widely 
apart;  some  believe  that  during  the  fat- 
tening period,  if  this  operation  is  car- 
ried on  in  winter,  steers  are  particularly 
susceptible  to  the  influence  of  cold 
weather,  and,  therefore,  should  be  pro- 
tected against  exposure  to  cold;  while 
others  take  the  opposite  view,  that  the 
best  results  are  obtained  only  when 
steers  are  allowed  to  live  under  natural 
conditions,  including  exposure  to  the 
cold  weather  of  winter.  The  results  of 
numerous  experiments  undertaken  to 
obtain  evidence  on  this  controversy  are 
not  all  uniform  in  their  tendency,  but 
recently  the  preponderance  of  evidence 
is  in  favor  of  allowing  the  steers  con- 
siderable freedom  in  yards  and  not  pam- 
pering them  unnecessarily.  In  Scot- 
land, certain  feeders  have  found  that 
cold  weather  retards  the  growth  of 
young  cattle,  and  therefore  recommend 
that  the  barns  be  heated  in  February. 
In  Illinois,  this  matter  has  been  thor- 
oughly studied  by  Mumford.  When  the 
ground  of  feeding  yards  is  dry  and 
open  sheds  furnished  under  which  the 
cattle  can  take  refuge  from  severe  winds 
and  rain  storms,  the  best  possible  con- 
ditions are  secured  for  the  production  of 
beef.  The  chief  protection  which  cat- 
tle seem  to  need  in  winter  may  be  se- 
cured in  the  form  of  cheap  sheds  or 
Windbreaks. 


In  one  experiment  in  Minnesota,  Shaw 
found  that  steers  fed  in  a  shed,  as  com- 
pared with  others  fed  inside,  consumed 
about  2  pounds  more  food  a  day,  at  an 
increased  cost  of  1.7  cents,  but  made  a 
greater  gain  and  a  higher  net  profit  of 
1.72  cents  during  a  feeding  period  of 
140  days. 

In  a  series  of  feeding  operations  car- 
ried on  by  Burnett  in  Nebraska,  it  ap- 
peared that  the  largest  gains  were  cheap- 
est, and  that  all  strikingly  large  gains 
were  made  in  steers  fed  in  box  stalls 
in  a  shed.  During  a  feeding  period  of 
the  ordinary  length,  the  average  gain  of 
some  of  the  steers  fed  in  a  shed  was  444 
pounds,  as  compared  with  350  pounds 
each,  as  the  average  for  the  whole  lot. 
The  steers  kept  in  open  sheds  gained 
somewhat  less  than  those  in  box  stalls. 

At  the  Pennsylvania  experiment  sta- 
tion, Mairs  and  others  carried  on  a  se- 
ries of  tests  extending  over  a  period  of 
three  years.  The  plan  of  these  experi- 
ments was  to  compare  feeding  in  a  large 
pen  or  box  stall  in  a  basement,  with 
feeding  in  a  yard  adjoining  a  barn,  with 
an  open  shed  for  protection.  During 
the  feeding  period  the  temperature 
ranged  from  4  to  11°  below  zero  F.  Dur- 
ing the  first  two  years  the  results  were 
not  so  much  in  favor  of  open  yard 
feeding  as  in  the  third  test.  On  the 
whole,  however,  the  actual  amount  of 
food  eaten*  by  steers  outside  was  less 
than  that  required  by  those  kept  inside. 
The  gains  made  by  steers  in  process 
of  fattening  were  not  increased  by  warm 
quarters,  and  it  appears,  therefore,  that 
it  is  impossible  to  have  stables  too  cold 
for  fattening  steers  in  the  climate  of 
Pennsylvania,  provided  the  steers  are 
kept  dry  and  well  bedded.  It  is  a  com- 
paratively simple  matter  to  prevent  out- 
door yards  from  becoming  muddy  by 
the  use  of  soft  coal  cinders,  gravel, 
drainage,  and,  if  necessary,  by  paving. 
A  shed  in  a  well-drained  yard,  covered 
with  the  proper  surface  material,  can  be 
kept  practically  as  dry  as  the  interior 
of  a  barn,  provided  enough  bedding  is 
used  and  the  manure  is  removed  at  fre- 
quent intervals.  If,  on  account  of  the 
nature  of  the  soil  or  the  slope  of  the 
land,  any  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
keeping  the  yard  dry,  it  is  essential  that 
it  be  paved,  or  otherwise  treated  so  as  to 
prevent  it  from  becoming  muddy. 

In  Canadian  experience,  steers  have 
made  much  better  gains  loose  in  the 
yards  than  in  barns.    If,  however,  steers 


412 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


are  to  be  kept  in  open  yards  at  all,  it  is 
better  to  leave  them  loose  all  the  time, 
rather  than  to  confine  them  for  a  part 
of  each  day. 

On  the  basis  of  statistics  collected 
among  beef  raisers  in  Missouri,  it  ap- 
pears that  60  per  cent  prefer  an  open 
shed,  21  per  cent  an  open  lot,  and  19 
per  cent  barn  feeding.  With  steers,  as 
with  other  domestic  animals,  health  and 
vigor  are  important  considerations,  and 
in  order  to  obtain  these  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  abandon  the  use  of  close  barns 
and  confinement.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
pamper  steers  to  excess,  since  if  raised 
under  outdoor  conditions  they  are  fully 
able  to  withstand  the  ordinary  sever- 
ity of  a  northern  climate. 

Salt — An  abundant  supply  of  salt 
should  always  be  accessible  to  steers. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  steers  re- 
quire about  1  ounce  a  day  for  each 
1,000  pounds  of  live  weight.  Wherever 
range  steers  are  salted  at  regular  inter- 
vals, or  given  free  access  to  chunks  of 
rock  salt,  they  thrive  better  than  where 
they  are  left  to  satisfy  their  appetites 
in  this  direction  by  eating  alkali. 

The  form  in  which  salt  is  supplied 
to  steers  is  a  matter  which  can  well  be 
left  to  the  convenience  and  preference 
of  the  individual  beef  raiser.  If  an 
excessive  amount  of  salt  be  added  to  the 
feed,  it  leads  to  drinking .  too  much 
water  and  a  consequent  excessive  urina- 
tion. In  Kansas,  when  salt  boxes  were 
placed  in  each  feed  lot  and  kept  filled 
with  loose  barrel  salt,  the  results  were 
satisfactory  in  all  respects.  According 
to  statistics  collected  by  Mumford,  in  Il- 
linois, it  appears  that  85  per  cent  of  the 
beef  raisers  use  barrel  salt,  7  per  cent 
rock  salt,  and  8  per  cent  both  kinds  of 
salt.  Many  farmers  use  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  salt  and  wood  ashes.  As 
a  result  of  mixing  these  materials,  the 
steers  are  induced  to  eat  the  salt  slowly, 
and  the  mineral  substances  in  wood 
ashes  are  believed  to  be  beneficial.  Of 
the  Illinois  beef  raisers,  about  65  per 
cent  keep  salt  constantly  before  the 
steers  during  the  feeding  period,  while 
35  per  cent  feed  it  at  regular  intervals. 

Water — The  manner  in  which  water  is 
supplied  to  the  steers  will  vary  according 
to  the  arrangement  which  each  farmer 
devises  for  the  feed  lot.  In  Kansas, 
Cottrell,  in  his  experiments  with  steers, 
allowed  them  to  have  free  access  to 
water  at  all  times.    The  water  was  sup- 


plied in  tanks  and  kept  in  a  pure  and 
wholesome  condition.  During  the  cold- 
est weather  of  winter  the  water  was 
warmed  and  maintained  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  50°.  The  cost  of  heat- 
ing water  in  winter  was  found  to  be 
about  one-tenth  of  a  cent  a  day  for 
each  steer,  and  the  care  of  the  heaters 
was  a  very  simple  matter.  It  appeared 
that  warming  the  water  enough  to  take 
off  the  chill  was  profitable.  In  Illinois, 
it  appears,  according  to  Mumford,  that 
17  per  cent  of  the  beef  raisers  consider 
it  advisable  to  warm  water  for  steers 
during  winter;  the  remaining  83  per 
cent,  however,  do  not  warm  the  water 
any  more  than  is  required  to  keep  it 
from  freezing  in  open,  exposed  tanks. 

In  Pennsylvania,  it  was  found  that 
animals  which  had  water  before  them 
all  the  time  showed  a  better  appetite 
than  steers  which  were  watered  but  once 
a  day.  A  self-watering  device  saved 
considerable  work,  and  appeared  to  ef- 
fect economy  in  the  amount  of  grain 
required.  According  to  observations  in 
North  Carolina,  2x/2  pounds  of  water 
are  required  by  steers  for  each  pound  of 
dry  feed  when  the  ration  consists  of 
cottonseed  meal  and  hulls.  Steers  re- 
quire an  abundance  of  water  at  regular 
intervals,  or  in  a  constant  supply;  other- 
wise they  become  nervous  and  do  not 
make  satisfactory  gains.  It  is  inadvis- 
able, however,  to  attempt  to  make  the 
steer  drink  more  than  a  normal  amount 
of  water. 

Breeds  most  in  favor  with  farmers — 
It  is  a  delicate  matter  to  make  a  choice 
among  breeds  of  cattle  for  beef  produc- 
tion. Each  breed  has  its  ardent  cham- 
pions and  the  claims  for  each  breed  are 
strongly  urged.  The  strong  and  weak 
points  of  the  different  breeds  of  beef 
cattle  have  already  been  discussed.  In 
Illinois,  according  to  Mumford,  about 
50  per  cent  of  the  beef  raisers  prefer 
Shorthorns,  20  per  cent  Herefords,  18 
per  cent  Angus,  and  the  remainder  keep 
other  breeds  and  grade  stock  by  prefer- 
ence. A  considerable  number  of  these  men, 
however,  state  that  there  is  no  particular 
choice  among  the  true  beef  breeds.  Mum- 
ford argues  that  the  apparent  greater 
popularity  of  the  Shorthorns  is  best  in- 
terpreted as  meaning  that  the  average 
Illinois  farmer  has  a  better  opportunity 
to  become  familiar  with  them  than  with 
most  other  breeds  of  beef  cattle,  for  the 
reason  that  they  are  most  numerous  in 
Tlinois  and  neighboring  states. 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


413 


In  a  comparison  of  different  breeds  in 
Kentucky,  it  appeared  that  Shorthorn 
grades  made  a  pound  of  gain  on  each 
10.88  pounds  of  grain  and  Angus  grades 
on  each  11.85  pounds  of  grain.  Dur- 
ing recent  years  the  Angus  has  carried 
away  some  of  the  chief  prizes  at  fat 
stock  shows,  and  in  block  contests,  and 
many  packers  consider  that  the  Angus 
is  better  fitted  than  other  breeds  to 
maintain  a  smooth,  symmetrical  form 
without  the  development  of  lumps  of  fat 
and  without  becoming  patchy  or  irregu- 
lar, even  to  a  considerable  age. 

Beef  vs.  dairy  type — If  there  is  any 
point  in  beef  production  which  is  con- 
sidered by  beef  raisers  as  thoroughly  es- 
tablished, it  is  that  the  beef  type  of  ani- 
mal is  better  adapted  for  the  profitable 
production  of  a  fine  quality  of  beef  than 
is  the  dairy  type.  This  point  has  been 
tested  in  numerous  experiments  and 
has  been  submitted  to  the  final  judg- 
ment of  the  butcher  in  an  examination 
of  the  meat  on  the  block.  At  the  Iowa 
experiment  station,  Kennedy  and  others 
found,  in  a  comparative  feeding  experi- 
ment, that  the  Angus  required  9.18 
pounds  of  grain  and  4.1  pounds  of 
roughage  for  each  pound  of  gain,  at  a 
total  cost  of  8  cents  a  pound  of  meat; 
the  Holsteins  required  8.2  pounds  of 
grain  and  3.6  pounds  of  roughage  for 
each  pound  of  gain,  at  a  cost  of  7  cents 
a  pound;  the  Jersey  required  9.2  pounds 
of  grain  and  4.4  pounds  of  roughage,  at 
a  cost  of  8  cents  a  pound  of  meat.  Com- 
paring beef  steers  in  general  with  dairy 
steers  it  was  found  that  the  cost  of  gain 
in  beef  steers  was  7.8  cents  and  in  dairy 
steers,  7.6  cents.  The  beef  type  of  steer 
made  slightly  greater  average  gains, 
while  the  dairy  steers  made  their  gains 
at  a  considerably  less  cost  a  pound.  The 
meat  produced  by  the  dairy  steers  was 
not  distributed  on  the  body  in  such  a 
way  as  to  command  the  highest  price, 
while  in  the  case  of  beef  steers,  the 
gains  were  distributed  largely  on  the 
jack,  loin  and  hindquarters,  thus  greatly 
increasing  the  weight  of  the  prime  cuts. 
The  return  from  the  slaughter  of  the 
teers,  at  wholesale  prices,  was  appar- 
ently greater  in  the  case  of  the  dairy 
steers  than  in  the  beef  steers;  but  this 
was  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  beef 
steers  were  bought  at  a  higher  price,  and 
had  to  be  handled  on  a  narrower  margin. 

The  dairy  steers  carried  25.8  per  cent 
of  valuable  cuts,  while  the  beef  steers 


carried  26.8  per  cent  of  these  cuts.  The 
dairy  steers  showed  a  higher  percentage 
of  offal,  a  lower  dressed  weight,  and  a 
higher  percentage  of  fat  on  the  internal 
organs;  while  the  beef  steers  carried  a 
higher  percentage  of  prime  cuts,  and  the 
meat  was  more  evenly  and  neatly  cov- 
ered with  outside  fat,  showing  a  su- 
perior marbling.  Moreover,  the  color 
of  the  fat  in  beef  steers  was  whiter  and 
the  lean  meat  was  a  brighter  red.  Lit- 
tle difference  was  observed,  however,  in 
the  fineness  of  the  grain  of  the  meat.  It 
was  concluded  from  this  series  of  ex- 
periments that  it  is  not  profitable  or 
desirable  to  feed  steers  of  the  dairy  type 
for  beef  purposes,  for  the  reason  that 
they  are  unsatisfactory  to  the  butcher, 
who  will  pay  considerably  more  for 
beef  steers. 

At  the  Kansas  experiment  station, 
Cottrell  found  that   Shorthorns  dressed 

63.5  per  cent;  Angus,  62.6  per  cent; 
Jerseys,   59.5   per   cent;    and   Holsteins, 

59.6  per  cent.  In  the  set  of  experiments  in 
which  these  percentages  were  obtained, 
Shorthorns  produced  28.1  per  cent  of 
high-priced  cuts;  Angus,  27.5  per  cent; 
Jerseys,  27.9  per  cent;  and  Holsteins, 
27.1  per  cent.  The  beef  steers  and 
grades,  as  a  whole,  furnished  27.8  per 
cent  of  high-priced  cuts,  and  the  dairy 
steers,  27.5  per  cent.  The  cost  of  feed- 
ing for  each  100  pounds  of  gain  was 
$15.41  for  the  Shorthorns,  $17.31  for  the 
Angus,  and  $15.16  each  for  the  Jerseys 
and  Holsteins.  A  comparison  of  Short- 
horns and  Jerseys  in  Mississippi  gave 
results  which  were  quite  satisfactory 
for  both  breeds,  but  the  butchers  to 
whom  the  meat  was  sold  stated  that  the 
Shorthorn  meat  was  worth  50  cents  to 
75  cents  a  100  pounds  more  than  that  of 
the  Jerseys. 

In  a  recent  test  at  the  Minnesota  ex- 
periment station,  a  cross  bred  Jersey- 
Holstein  steer  cost  less  to  raise  to  the 
age  of  38  months  than  a  beef  steer  at 
22  months.  The  dairy  steer  dressed  5 
per  cent  less,  but  actually  carried  a 
higher  percentage  of  loin  and  other  high- 
priced  cuts,  and,  therefore,  made  good 
for  the  smaller  percentage  of  dressed 
beef.  It  was  also  shown  that  steers  from 
Jersey  cows  and  Angus  or  Hereford 
bulls  make  excellent  baby  beef.  Such 
cross  bred  steers  closely  resemble  the 
bulls  in  color  and  form  and  may  pass, 
except  among  experts,  for  Angus  or 
Hereford.  Eecently  it  has  become  a 
quite  general  practice  to  cross  beef  bulls 


414 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


on  dairy  cows  for  the  production  of 
steers  of  the  right  form  for  the  beef 
market.  This  practice  has  the  great  ad- 
vantage that  dairying  and  beef  raising 
may  thus -be  combined  on  the  same  farm, 
in  a  most  economical  manner. 

It  is  commonly  believed  by  beef 
raisers  that  the  so-called  beef  breeds  are 
better  for  beef  production  than  dairy 
breeds  or  scrubs.  The  reasons  given 
for  this  superiority,  however,  are  often 
incorrect.  For  example,  a  comparison 
of  different  breeds  in  Michigan  showed 
no  constant  difference  in  meat  produc- 
tion between  them.  Dairy  breeds  made 
poorer  gains,  laid  on  more  fat  around 
the  internal  organs,  showed  more  shrink- 
age on  shipment,  and  a  higher  percent- 
age of  cheap  parts  than  did  the  beef 
breeds;  the  beef  breeds  of  cattle  also 
matured  earlier. 

In  a  comparative  test  in  Missouri,  the 
Shorthorns  stood  first  in  power  of  beef 
production  and  in  the  quantity  of  fat; 
the  Angus  was  first  in  palatability  of 
meat  and  in  general  excellence,  followed 
by  Shorthorns,  grades  and  Herefords. 
All  of  the  pure  breeds  and  grades  gave 
better  results  than  scrubs.  In  North 
Carolina,  however,  scrubs  proved  more 
profitable  than  grades  on  cottonseed 
meal  and  hulls.  The  matter  of  profit 
in  this  and  other  similar  cases  depends 
partly  on  the  estimated  value  of  the 
steers  at  the  beginning  of  the  fattening 
period. 

In  a  comparison  at  the  Minnesota  ex- 
periment station,  no  constant  differences 
were  observed  in  the  fattening  qualities 
of  grade  stock  from  different  breeds, 
and  in  Iowa,  Angus  and  Shorthorns 
proved  equally  good.  In  one  test  made 
in  Kansas,  Shorthorns  seemed  to  be 
slightly  superior  to  scrubs  in  economy 
of  gain  and  in  percentage  of  dressed 
weight.  In  Utah,  native  steers  gave  bet- 
ter profit,  in  some  instances,  than  pure 
breeds. 

It  is  apparent,  as  shown  by  compara- 
tive experiments,  that  100  pounds  of 
gain  may  be  produced  as  economically  by 
dairy  breeds,  grades  or  even  scrubs,  as 
by  beef  breeds.  Nevertheless,  there  are 
good  and  sufficient  reasons  for  choosing 
beef  breeds  for  beef  production.  Beef 
breeds  lay  on  fat  in  the  best  cuts  of 
steaks  and  roasts,  on  the  back,  loins, 
ribs  and  hindquarters,  while  dairy  breeds 
show  a  tendency  to  accumulate  too 
much  fat  around  the  intestinal  organs. 
The  tallow  may  constitute  as  much  as 


30  per  cent  of  the  carcass  of  the  Jersey 
steer.  Moreover,  the  contour  of  such 
animals  remain  somewhat  angular,  even 
after  they  have  been  fattened  to  the  full- 
est extent,  and  they  bring  a  smaller 
price  on  the  market. 

With  regard  to  the  experiments  in 
which  equally  good  results  were  ob- 
tained with  dairy  and  beef  breeds,  it 
should  be  stated  that  these  tests  were 
carried  out  under  such  conditions  that 
the  butcher  agreed  to  take  both  types 
of  animals  at  their  actual  value.  If, 
however,  the  butcher  or  packer  is  given 
the  choice  between  the  beef  breeds  and 
dairy  breeds,  he  will  never  hesitate  to 
choose  the  former,  for  the  reason  that 
he  well  knows  that  greater  returns  in 
beef  can  be  obtained  from  the  beef  type 
than  from  the  dairy  type. 

Southern  vs.  western  steers — Where 
the  feeder  buys  all  of  his  steers  from 
outside  sources,  or  has  opportunity  to 
feed  more  steers  than  he  can  raise  on 
his  own  premises,  he  has  two  general 
localities  outside  of  the  corn  belt  in 
which  to  look  for  young  stock  for  this 
purpose.  Some  doubt  may  be  felt  as 
to  the  relative  value  of  southern  and 
western  steers  for  feeding.  This  mat- 
ter has  been  thoroughly  tested  at  the 
Iowa  experiment  station  and  elsewhere, 
with  the  result  that  little  difference  was 
found  in  the  economy  of  buying  south- 
ern and  western  steers.  The  results  ob- 
tained from  feeding  either  of  these 
classes  of  steers  depend  far  more  on  the 
feeds  used  and  the  skill  of  the  feeder 
than  on  the  animals  themselves. 

Fat  beef,  prime  beef  and  baby  beef 
compared — In  a  comparison  of  these 
three  kinds  of  beef  by  Otis,  at  the  Kan- 
sas experiment  station,  several  points 
were  taken  into  consideration.  A  fat 
Steer  38  months  of  age  at  the  time  of 
slaughter  was  evenly  covered  with  fat 
and  of  good  symmetrical  form;  a  prime 
steer,  23  months  old  at  the  time  of 
slaughter,  also  showed  a  fine  form,  but 
less  fat;  the  baby  beef  heifer,  compared 
with  these  two  animals,  was  not  quite  as 
fat  as  might  have  been  desired,  weigh- 
ing 775  pounds.  The  dressed  weight 
was  66.5  per  cent  in  the  case  of  the  fat 
steer  65.3  per  cent  with  the  prime  steer 
and  52.7  per  cent  with  the  baby  beef 
heifer,  as  compared  with  41  per  cent  for 
a  common  canner.  The  weight  of  the 
tallow  in  the  fat  steer  was  121  pounds, 
and  in  the  prime  steer  69  pounds.     The 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


415 


color  of  the  lean  meat  in  both  the  fat 
and  prime  steers  was  perfect,  while  that 
of  the  baby  beef  was  somewhat  lighter, 
but  considerably  darker  than  that  of 
Veal.  The  color  of  the  meat  from  the 
canner  was  very  dark  red.  An  elaborate 
cooking  test  was  made  of  these  different 
kinds  of  beef.  In  the  boiling  piece  the 
baby  beef  was  considered  tender,  but 
strangely  enough  the  baby  beef  was  pro- 
nounced tough  in  the  broiling  and  roast- 
ing pieces.  The  fat  steer  received  the 
largest  number  of  votes  for  being  ten- 
der in  the  broiling  and  roasting  pieces, 
but  stood  lowest  in  the  boiling  pieces. 

With  regard  to  the  effect  of  roasting 
these  different  kinds  of  meat,  that  of  the 
fat  steer  lost  43.7  per  cent  in  the 
process,  the  prime  steer  52.8  per  cent 
and  baby  beef  47  per  cent. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
standpoints  from  which  the  breeder, 
feeder,  butcher  and  consumer  look  at 
beef  are  quite  different.  The  breeder 
is  likely  to  be  occupied  with  the  desire 
to  produce  an  animal  true  to  the  type 
of  the  breed  and  showing  no  evidence 
of  impurity.  He  should  not  loose  sight 
of  the  fact,  however,  that  the  beef  ani- 
mal is  to  be  judged  on  the  basis  of  qual- 
ity rather  than  of  breed  standards.  The 
feeder  may  occasionally  make  the  mis- 
take of  selling  his  animals  a  little  too 
soon  in  a  desire  to  make  the  operation 
of  feeding  as  profitable  as  possible.  The 
butcher,  as  has  been  shown  by  Otis  and 
others,  buys  beef  animals  for  the  amount 
of  lean  meat  which  he  is  able  to  obtain, 
especially  from  the  high  priced  cuts; 
naturally  he  wants  just  as  little  waste  as 
possible  and  must  cater  to  the  desires 
of  the  consumer.  In  other  words,  the 
consumer  dictates  to  the  butcher,  the 
butcher  to  the  feeder  and  the  feeder  in 
turn  to  the  breeder.  At  present  there 
seems  to  be  a  tendency  to  demand  more 
lean  and  less  fat,  but  numerous  cooking 
tests  have  shown  that  there  must  be 
enough  fat  on  the  outside  of  the  va- 
rious cuts  and  distributed  through  the 
fibers  of  the  meat  to  make  the  meat 
tender  and  well  flavored  when  cooked. 

Market  grades  as  related  to  their 
fattening  qualities — From  the  experi- 
ments of  Mumford  in  Illinois,  it  ap- 
pears that  more  rapid  and  larger  gains 
may  be  secured  on  good  than  on  com- 
mon grades.  The  better  the  grade  of 
cattle  the  higher  the  percentage  of 
dressed  beef  obtained.  Low  grade  cat- 
tle carrv  relatively  larger  percentages  of 


internal  fat;  while  in  high  grade  cat- 
tle the  fat  is  better  distributed,  so  as  to 
add  to  the  value  of  the  meat.  In  gen- 
eral it  may  be  stated  that  the  greater  the 
cost  of  the  feed,  the  greater  is  the  ad- 
vantage in  favor  of  better  grades  of 
beef  animals.  In  feeding  high  grade 
beef  cattle  there  is  opportunity  for  much 
greater  profit  and  also  for  greater  loss, 
if  the  operation  is  carelessly  done.  The 
factors  upon  which  the  relative  profits 
depend  are  the  grade  and  cost  of  the  cat- 
tle, price  of  feeds,  weight  of  the  cattle 
at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period 
and  length  of  the  feeding  period. 

In  a  comparison  of  scrubs  and  grade 
steers  in  Florida,  it  was  found  that  the 
gain  per  day  and  the  total  profit  was 
higher  with  the  grades  than  with  the 
scrub  steers.  The  percentage  of  profit 
however,  was  higher  with  the  scrubs 
steers,  for  the  reason  that  their  initial 
cost  was  very  low.  Grade  steers  were 
also  compared  with  scrubs,  in  Missis- 
sippi, in  an  experiment  by  Hutchinson 
and  Lloyd.  The  results  obtained  in 
this  experiment  indicate  that  it  is  de- 
sirable to  use  pure  beef  breed  sires  in 
the  southern  states,  but  that  skill  in 
feeding  is  perhaps  of  more  importance 
than  the  sires.  The  dressed  weight  in 
the  Mississippi  test  was  60  per  cent  with 
the  scrub  steers  and  60.4  per  cent  with 
the  grades;  the  scrubs  made  about  as 
good  gains  as  the  grades  and  produced 
nearly  as  large  an  amount  of  choice 
cuts.  In  a  test  of  this  matter  in  Minne- 
sota, Shaw  found  that  steers  of  the 
approved  beef  type  showed  no  superior 
capacity  of  making  gains  over  that  of 
steers  of  more  or  less  undesirable  form, 
though  the  same  breeding.  Neverthe- 
less, there  was  more  profit  in  finishing 
steers  of  the  approved  type,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  finished  product  had  a 
greater  value.  The  higher  value  of 
these  steers,  therefore  depends,  accord- 
ing to  this  experiment,  on  the  superior 
value  of  the  meat  in  the  carcass  rather 
than  on  the  greater  power  of  the  steers 
to  make  gains. 

In  a  series  of  feeding  experiments  in 
Tennessee,  Soule  and  Fain  found  that 
satisfactory  gains  were  made  when  suit- 
able rations  were  used,  even  with  native 
cattle.  The  gains  made  by  scrubs  com- 
pared very  favorably  with  those  made 
by  animals  of  better  quality,  but  the  fat 
was  not  deposited  in  the  most  valuable 
cuts  of  meat,  a  higher  percentage  of  of- 
fal was  found  at  the  slaughter  test  and 


416 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  value  of  the  animals  was  less  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  butcher.  It  is 
recommended,  therefore,  that  the  south- 
ern beef  raisers  improve  the  quality  of 
their  animals  by  the  use  of  pure-bred 
sires. 

Age  to  breed  beef  heifers — The  tend- 
ency to  secure  as  early  maturity  as  possi- 
ble is  becoming  more  and  more  pro- 
nounced and  this  leads  to  a  desire  to  get 
rid  of  animals  before  they  reach  too  high 
an  age.  In  some  instances  this  may  work 
to  a  disadvantage,  since  cows  which 
have  shown  themselves  to  be  excellent 
breeders  may  as  well  be  kept  for  this 
purpose  as  long  as  they  produce  a  vigor- 
ous calf  every  year.  In  some  in- 
stances a  tendency  is  seen  toward  breed- 
ing heifers  rather  too  young  and  there- 
fore lowering  their  vitality  and  final 
development.  According  to  statistics 
collected  by  Mumford,  in  Illinois,  about 
50  per  cent  of  the  beef  raisers  keep  heif- 
ers until  they  are  mature  before  breed- 
ing. A  number  of  beef  producers  are 
careful  to  select  only  the  best  heifers 
for  breeding,  but  unfortunately  this 
means  of  improving  the  quality  of  the 
stock  is  not  always  taken  into  account. 
About  9  per  cent  of  the  Illinois  farmers 
breed  heifers  at  12  months;  14  per  cent 
between  12  and  18  months;  17  per  cent 
at  18  months;  14  per  cent  between  18 
and  24  months;  42  per  cent  at  24 
months,  and  4  per  cent  at  an  older  age. 
The  youngest  age  for  breeding  in  com- 
mon farm  practice  appears  to  be  about 
one  year,  and  the  oldest  three  years. 

Percentage  of  pure  bred  bulls Dur- 
ing recent  years  the  advantage  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  use  of  pure  bred  sires  has 
been  forced  upon  the  attention  of  beef 
raisers,  so  that  the  use  of  such  bulls  is 
more  general  than  it  formerly  was.  Oc- 
casionally we  notice  statements  by  farm- 
ers that  the  use  of  pure  bred  sires  is  un- 
profitable, since  they  have  found  it  pos- 
sible to  obtain  about  the  same  price  for 
beef  steers  from  grade  bulls.  This, 
however,  is  not  generally  the  case,  and 
perhaps  in  all  instances  the  beef  pro- 
ducer will  find  it  to  his  financial  advan- 
age  to  use  only  pure  bred  sires,  even  if 
he  has  but  a  small  number  of  cows.  If 
the  number  of  cows  which  he  can  keep 
on  his  farm  is  too  small  to  warrant  buy- 
ing an  expensive  pure  bred  bull,  the  best 
way  to  secure  the  services  of  such  an 
animal  is  for  several  men  in  the  neigh- 
borhood to  buy  a  fine  sire  in  partnership, 
in  order  that  his  good  qualities  may  be 


transmitted  to  the  offspring  of  common 
cows. 

According  to  Mumford,  it  appears 
that  in  Illinois  87  per  cent  of  the  beef 
producers  use  pure  bred  sires;  the 
other  13  per  cent  use  grade  bulls.  The 
various  breeds  of  beef  bulls  used  for  this 
purpose  are  as  follows:  Shorthorns,  56 
per  cent;  Hereford,  19  per  cent;  Angus, 
19  per  cent;  Red  Polled,  4  per  cent; 
Polled  Durham,  1  per  cent;  Galloway,  1 
per  cent. 

Dehorning  calves_At  the  present 
time  there  is  a  demand  from  all  sides  for 
hornless  cattle.  So  strong  is  this  de- 
mand that  unusual  efforts  have  recently 
been  put   forth  to  secure  breeds  which 


Fig.    272 — USING    THE    DEHORNING    CLIP- 
PERS.    STORRS     EXPERIMENT     STATION 

are  naturally  polled.  In  this  field  the 
Angus  and  Galloway  were  pioneers,  fol- 
lowed by  the  Red  Polled  and  Polled 
Durham  and  lately  by  the  Polled  Here- 
fords.  The  Polled  Durham  is,  as  is  well 
known,  a  hornless  form  of  the  Short- 
horn, and  we  therefore  have  both  horned 
and  Polled  Shorthorns. 

The  advantages  of  dehorning  are  of 
much  importance.  The  animals  are  not 
only  rendered  more  docile  and  unable  to 
injure  one  another  in  the  feed  lot  or  pas- 
ture, but  butchers  are  willing  to  give 
a  little  more  for  polled  than  for  horned 
cattle.  This  difference  in  price  amounts 
to  enough  to  make  the  operation  of  de- 
horning profitable.  In  some  instances 
the  difference  in  price  may  reach  ^2 
cent  a  pound.  If  the  farmer  is  raising 
horned  cattle,  as,  for  example,  Short- 
horns, Herefords  and  grades  of  these 
breeds,  he  may  well  take  advantage  of  a 
simple  method  of  dehorning  calves  at  an 
early  age.  It  is  much  easier  and  also 
much  more  humane  to  dehorn  calves 
when  they  are  young,  preferably  at  the 
age  of  three  of  four  days.  The  method 
of  dehorning  has  been  well  described 
by  Otis   and  others.     The  hair  should 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


417 


be  clipped  away  from  the  horn  button 
and  a  stick  of  caustic  potash,  wrapped  in 
a  piece  of  paper,  with  one  end  free,  may 
be  moistened  on  the  free  end  and  rub- 
bed over  the  horn  button  until  the  skin 
becomes  somewhat  sensitive.  If  the  de- 
veloping horn  is  moistened  with  water 
to  which  soap  or  ammonia  has  been  add- 
ed, the  effect  of  the  caustic  potash  is 
more  immediately  observed.  The  opera- 
tion of  rubbing  the  stick  of  caustic  pot- 
ash on  the  horn  should  be  repeated  five 
to  eight  times,  but  the  whole  operation 
need  not  require  more  than  a  few  min- 
utes.   A  scab  forms  over  the  developing 


the  caustic  potash,  it  may  be  well  to 
grease  the  hair  immediately  around  the 
horn  button.  Many  patented  chemical 
dehorning  substances  are  offered  on  the 
market,  but  caustic  potash  is  the  chief 
constituent  of  nearly  all  of  them  and  it 
is  far  cheaper  to  buy  the  caustic  potash 
in  the  pure  form.  Experiments  have 
also  been  tried  in  dehorning  calves  at 
an  early  age  by  means  of  various  other 
chemical  preparations;  for  example: 
hydrochloric  acid;  sulphuric  acid  mixed 
with  sulphur,  glue  or  carbolic  acid; 
chloride  of  zinc;  and  chromic  acid  oint- 
ment   or    solution.      The    best    success, 


Fig.  273 — TEXAS  STEER  GERONIMO 


horn  within  a  few  days,  if  the  work  is 
properly  done,  and  drops  off  within  a 
month  or  six  weeks,  leaving  a  smooth 
poll 

The  best  results  from  the  use  of  caus- 
tic potash  are  secured  when  this  ma- 
terial is  applied  as  soon  as  it  is  possible 
to  locate  the  horn  button  on  the  calf's 
head.  In  case  the  first  application  is 
not  entirely  effective,  it  may  be  re- 
peated again  as  soon  as  it  is  noticed 
that  the  horns  are  growing.  Care 
should  be  exercised  in  all  cases  to  pre- 
vent the  caustic  potash  from  running 
down  in  the  hair  or  getting  into  the 
eyes.     In  order   to  limit  the   action  of 


however,  has  attended  the  use  of  caustic 
potash,  and  this  is  the  only  remedy  to  be 
recommended. 

If  steers  are  allowed  to  develop  with 
horns  of  usual  size,  it  may  be  advisable 
to  remove  the  horns  before  putting  the 
steers  in  feed  lots  for  the  fattening  pe- 
riod. The  horns  may  be  removed  by 
means  of  dehorning  clippers,  a  number 
of  which  have  been  patented,  and  are 
offered  for  sale  by  dealers  in  veterinary 
instruments.  The  dehorning  clipper 
should  remove  the  horn  at  a  ^  single 
stroke.  As  a  result  of  the  operation  the 
animals  show  a  marked  gentleness  and 
docility,    even    if    they   had    previously 


418 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


been  quite  vicious.  The  operation  of 
dehorning  adult  cattle  should  prefera- 
bly be  performed  in  mild  weather, 
neither  during  extreme  cold  nor  during 
fly  time.  If  flies  cause  trouble  by  de- 
positing eggs  in  the  wounds  where  the 
horns  are  removed,  these  wounds  may 
be  protected  by  tar  or  some  similar  ap- 
plication. 

The  removal  of  the  horns  from  adult 
cattle  has  the  effect  of  checking  their 
growth  for  a  few  days.  In  steers  some 
loss  of  weight  may  take  place.  Other- 
wise no  serious  bad  effects  are  noted, 
and  the  animals  usually  recover  entirely 
from  dehorning  within  about  two  weeks. 
In  dehorning  steers  it  is  usually  neces- 
sary to  confine  them  in  some  form  of 
chute.  In  a  dehorning  experiment 
made    in    Arizona    it    was    found    that 


and  which  cannot  be  changed  without 
legal  procedure.  Cattle  bearing  this 
brand  belong  to  the  man  whose  legal 
brand  it  is,  wherever  the  cattle  may  be 
found.  Local  and  in  some  cases  quite 
extensive  cattle  associations  have  been 
formed  to  attend  to  the  management  of 
range  cattle  in  a  more  economical  man- 
ner. In  the  spring  the  first  annual 
round-up  occurs,  at  which  time  the 
calves  are  all  branded,  each  calf  receiv- 
ing the  brand  carried  by  its  mother. 
Again  in  the  fall,  at  the  second  round- 
up, those  steers  which  are  suitable  for 
shipment  to  cattle  markets  are  cut  out 
from  the  herd,  sold,  and  returns  made 
for  them  to  the  righful  owners,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  brands  which  they  bear. 
Any  calves  which  are  found  in  the  fall 
to   have   escaped   branding   are  branded 


274 — BRANDING 


steers  lost  about  50  pounds  as  a  result 
of  the  process.  Where  the  wounds  were 
covered  with  a  coat  of  cresylic  ointment 
and  pine  tar,  flies  did  no  damage; 
otherwise  some  trouble  was  experienced 
with  fly  maggots;  a  treatment  with  the 
same  ointment  was  sufficient  to  check 
the  trouble. 

Branding — Throughout  the  western 
range  country,  conditions  prevail  which 
make  it  absolutely  necessary  to  brand 
all  cattle.  The  absence  of  fences  and 
the  fact  that  cattle  are  allowed  to  roam 
sometimes  hundreds  of  miles  from  the 
owner's  ranch  house  and  mingle  with 
the  cattle  of  other  range  men  precludes 
the  possibility  of  identifying  cattle  ex- 
cept by  the  use  of  a  brand.  In  order 
to  prevent  theft  and  irregularities  it  has 
been  found  necessary  for  each  ranchman 
to  adopt  a  brand  for  his  cattle,  which 
must   be   registered   with    state    officials 


with  a  design  adopted  by  the  associa- 
tion and  become  the  property  of  the  as- 
sociation, being  sold  to  help  in  meeting 
the  expenses  of  the  round-ups  and 
branding. 

In  branding  cattle  several  methods 
have  been  adopted.  They  may  be  roped 
singly,  without  confining  in  chutes,  and 
held  by  trained  horses,  to  which  the 
ropes  are  attached  while  the  hot  iron 
is  applied.  Some  cattlemen,  however, 
prefer  to  run  the  cattle  into  a  corral, 
from  which  they  are  passed  through  a 
regular  branding  chute,  in  which  they 
may  be  confined  by  a  swinging  gate 
while  they  are  branded.  Some  injury 
is  done  to  the  hide  by  the  process  of 
branding,  and  on  this  account  the  hide 
is  worth  somewhat  less  than  that  of  un- 
branded  cattle;  there  seems,  however, 
no  way  of  avoiding  this  slight  injury. 
On  our  western  ranges,   as  well   as  in 


TEE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


419 


Australia  and  other  countries  where 
range  conditions  prevail,  attempts  have 
been  made  to  use  a  branding  fluid,  with 
the  idea  of  avoiding  injury  to  the  hide. 
In  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  a  brand- 
ing fluid  has  been  patented  which  is 
claimed  to  give  a  legible  brand  without 
injuring  the  hide  for  tanning  purposes. 
A  test  of  this  material,  however,  showed 
that  it  produces  about  as  severe  an  in- 
jury as  the  hot  iron.  In  Arizona  an  ex- 
periment was  made  with  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  coal  tar  and  barium  sul- 
phide. An  ordinary  branding  iron  was 
dipped  into  the  liquid  and  pressed  firmly 
against  the  skin.  No  scab  formed  over 
the  area  with  which  the  iron  came  in 
contact  and  the  design  of  the  brand 
could  not  be  read.  It  was  therefore 
shown  to  be  practically  useless.  In  an- 
other test  of  this  material,  a  wooden 
branding  form  was  used  with  much 
wider  faced  letters.  The  operation  at 
first  appeared  to  be  a  success,  since 
scabs  formed  over  the  surface  of  the 
brands.  After  the  scabs  were  shed 
however,  the  hair  grew  over  a  part  of 
the  brand,  obliterating  the  design. 

Period  of  pregnancy  and  other 
physiological  data, — In  cows  the  aver- 
age duration  of  pregnancy  is  285  days, 
the  extremes  being  240  and  336  days.  It 
is  commonly  noticed  that  heifers,  small 
cows  and  old  cows  usually  calve  a  few 
days  short  of  the  average  period.  Bull 
calves  may  be  carried  two  or  three  days 
longer  than  heifer  calves.  At  the  Maine 
experiment  station,  observations  on  this 
point  showed  that  the  average  period 
for  both  bull  and  heifer  calves  was  282 
days.  The  weight  of  calves  at  birth 
varies  ordinarily  from  50  to  130  pounds. 
At  the  Maine  experiment  station,  the 
average  weight  was  found  to  be  73.6 
pounds  for  both  sexes,  the  average  for 
bull  calves  being  76.8  pounds  and  for 
heifers,  70.1  pounds. 

At  the  close  of  the  period  of  gestation 
the  cow  ordinarily  produces  one  calf,  al- 
though instances  are  known  where  two 
or  even  three  calves  have  been  produced 
at  a  single  birth.  It  is  also  worthy  of 
mention  that  a  certain  percentage  of 
cows  are  barren  for  one  or  another  rea- 
son. The  subject  of  barrenness  or  steril- 
ity and  its  treatment  has  been  taken 
up  under  Diseases  of  Cattle.  A  curious 
fact  has  been  observed  in  the  case  of 
twin  calves,  that  where  one  is  male  and 
the  other  female,  the  bull  calf  is  perfecL 
in  all  respects,  while  the  heifer  calf — 


called  in  such  cases  a  free-martin — is 
sterile;  otherwise  the  free-martin  does 
not  differ  from  normal  heifers,  and  the 
meat  is  sometimes,  though  erroneously, 
supposed  to  be  of  superior  quality.  Dur- 
ing the  last  month  or  six  weeks  of  preg- 
nancy, it  is  well  to  turn  the  cow  on 
grass,  if  in  the  spring  season,  or  to  feed 
roots,  silage  or  some  laxative  food  if  in 
winter.  The  breeding  cow  should  not 
be  either  overfat  or  too  poor.  Both  ex- 
tremes should  be  avoided,  for  the  reason 
that  the  vigor  of  the  calf  is  likely  to  suf- 
fer in  either  case.  After  calving,  it  is 
usually  best  not  to  return  the  cow  to  the 
bull  until  a  period  of  four  or  five  weeks 
has  elapsed. 

Much  speculation  has  been  indulged 
in  regarding  the  factors  which  deter- 
mine sex  and  a  great  number  of  theories 
have  been  proposed  for  explaining  this 
matter.  These  theories  have  already 
been  discussed  in  Part  I.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  say  that  none  of  them  is  satis- 
factory by  means  of  which  the  sex  of 
calves  may  be  controlled  at  will. 

Oxen  for  draft  purposes — Thus  far 
cattle  have  been  considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  meat  production,  and  in 
the  United  States  the  use  of  cattle  ex- 
cept for  beef  and  milk  purposes  is  of 
very  slight  extent.  Formerly,  however, 
oxen  were  used  much  more  extensively 
for  draft  purposes  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  the  practice  still  prevails  to  a 
limited  extent  in  many  localities.  Thus 
some  farmers  still  find  the  ox  a  very 
satisfactory  and  economic  animal  for 
performing  farm  labor,  in  New  England, 
the  central  states,  as  well  as  in  the  south, 
and,  in  fact,  here  and  there  throughout 
the  country.  In  the  early  days  the 
freighting  done  by  large  companies  in 
the  western  states  was  chiefly  by  means 
of  bull  teams  as  they  were  then  called. 
Large  wagons  or  strings  of  wagons  were 
hauled  hundreds  of  miles  by  teams  of 
eight  to  20  oxen.  In  various  foreign 
countries,  oxen  are  used  more  exten- 
sively than  in  the  United  States.  This 
practice  is  especially  common  among  the 
Latin  races.  In  India,  the  zebu  is  com- 
monly used  for  draft  purposes,  and  in 
the  Philippines,  the  caribou.  Likewise, 
in  Great  Britain  the  ox  was  formerly 
much  more  used  for  draft  purposes  than 
at  present.  Occasionally,  however,  they 
are  still  used,  especially  in  Scotland. 

A  good  ox,  for  plowing  or  other  farm 
work,  should  be  in  medium  condition. 
If  too  fat  he  is  lazy,  and  if  too  poor  is 


420 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


unable  to  exert  Lis  whole  power.  The 
value  of  the  ox  as  a  beast  of  burden  de- 
pends largely  on  his  breaking  and  train- 
ing, and  these  matters  cannot  be  dis- 
cussed in  this  connection.  The  strength 
of  the  ox,  when  properly  trained,  is  very 
great,  and  he  is  also  endowed  with  an 
unusual  amount  of  patience.  It  has 
been  found  that  oxen  are  especially 
valuable  in  hauling  loads  over  miry  or 
marshy  places  where  horses  would 
plunge  and  thus  be  unable  to  do  the 
work.  In  securing  oxen  for  a  team, 
attention  must  be  given  to  a  proper 
matching  in  size,  strength  and  temper; 
otherwise  they  may  not  work   well   to- 


The  draft  power  of  oxen  depends  on 
the  method  of  harnessing  them.  In 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
the  ordinary  method  is  by  the  use  of  a 
yoke  or  collar.  The  chief  disadvantage 
of  the  yoke  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
bows  are  ordinarily  quite  small  and  en- 
tirely uncovered  with  any  material 
which  would  protect  the  shoulders  of 
the  oxen.  It  seems  strange  that  no  form 
of  collar  was  ever  adopted  for  oxen  in 
this  country  which  might  fit  the  shoul- 
ders and  protect  them  against  the  pres- 
sure of  the  hard  bows.  In  Spain,  Por- 
tugal and  other  Latin  countries,  as,  for 
example,   in   Porto  Rico   and  elsewhere, 


Fig.   275 — A   PAIR   OF   DEVON   OXEN 


gether.  As  a  rule  beef  breeds  of  cat- 
tle are  used  for  draft  purposes,  partly 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  frame  of 
beef  animals  is  somewhat  stronger  than 
that  of  dairy  cattle.  In  some  parts  of 
continental  Europe,  however,  dairy  cows, 
even  during  the  period  of  lactation, 
are  worked  on  the  farm  and  for  other 
purposes.  The  Devon,  Hereford  and 
Sussex  are  commonly  recommended  as 
best  for  draft  purposes. 

In  caring  for  draft  oxen,  it  is  a  wise 
practice  to  wash  and  clean  the  feet  at 
the  end  of  each  day's  work,  since  other- 
wise the  hoofs  may  become  soft,  tender 
or  inflamed,  as  the  result  of  filth  which 
adheres  to  them  and  acciimulates  in  the 
cleft  between  the  two  parts  of  the  hoof. 


oxen,  as  already  indicated,  are  almost 
the  only  animals  employed  in  agricul- 
tural labor,  whether  in  the  field  or  on 
the  road,  and  in  these  countries  oxen 
are  invariably  yoked  by  the  head.  It  is 
argued  in  favor  of  this  system,  that  the 
strength  of  the  ox  lies  largely  in  his 
neck,  and  that  he  is  at  a  considerable 
advantage,  from  a  draft  standpoint,  by 
having  the  pull  come  on  the  head. 

If  oxen  are  to  be  used  year  after  year 
for  draft  purposes,  it  is  necessary,  as 
in  the  case  of  horses,  to  pay  some  at- 
tention to  the  preservation  of  the  hoofs. 
For  this  purpose,  shoeing  is  required. 
In  shoeing  oxen  more  elaborate  devices 
are  necessary  than  with  horses,  since 
they  are  spldom  trained  to  lift  the  foot 


THE  BEEF  CATTLE  INDUSTRY 


421 


or  permit  handling.  Various  devices 
have  been  used,  including  a  chute  and 
other  means  of  confining  the  animals, 
and  formerly  they  were  thrown  by  means 
of  ropes  and  shod  while  held  down.  It 
is  obviously  necessary  to  use  two  semi- 
circular shoes  for  each  hoof,  since  other- 
wise the  play  between  the  two  parts  of 
the  hoof  would  be  prevented.  Oxen 
show  no  tendency  to  the  development 
of  corns,  contraction  of  the  hoof  or  ten- 
derness of  the  frog,  as  in  horses.  Each 
half  of  the  shoe  may  be  fastened  by  three 
nails  on  the  outer  edge.  It  is  customary 
to  have  both  the  upper  and  lower  sur- 
faces of  the  shoe  smooth,  without  calks. 
The  shoes  on  the  hind  feet  are  usually 


made  thinner  than  those  in  front;  in 
fact,  some  farmers  only  shoe  the  fore 
feet. 

In  the  early  history  of  Europe  nearly 
all  of  the  horses  were  required  for  war 
purposes  and  it  was  also  considered  quite 
beneath  the  dignity  of  a  horse  to  do  any 
common  farm  labor.  The  ox  was  there- 
fore used  almost  exclusively  for  this 
purpose.  Our  modern  systems  of  farm- 
ing and  transportation,  however,  re- 
quire more  speed  and  also  animals  which 
are  more  amenable  to  discipline.  These 
desiderata  have  been  found  in  the  horse 
and  at  the  same  time  a  more  profitable 
use  for  the  beef  animal  has  been  found 
in  the  production  of  meat. 


PART    VIII 


Dairy  Cattle 


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FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


Dairying  has  long  been  assuming 
more  and  more  importance  as  a  line  of 
animal  industry,  keeping  pace  in  thi3 
respect  with  the  growth  of  large  cities 
and  the  consequent  demand  for  great 
quantities  of  milk  and  other  forms  of 
dairy  products.  In  the  northern  and 
eastern  states,  particularly,  this  develop- 
ment of  dairying  has  been  most  pro- 
nounced. In  the  early  history  of  the 
United  States,  dairying  was  of  far  less 
importance,  relatively,  than  at  present, 
largely  for  the  reason  that  there  was  no 
steady  market  for  large  quantities  of 
dairy  products  and  consequently  no  in- 
ducement for  farmers  to  keep  a  large 
number  of  cows  for  dairy  purposes.  The 
tendency  then  was  for  each  farmer  to 
milk  as  many  cows  as  were  required  for 
the  production  of  the  milk,  butter  and 
cheese  which  he  needed  for  his  own  fam- 
ily. Gradually,  however,  the  concentra- 
tion of  population  in  large  cities  fur- 
nished the  demand  for  more  dairy  prod- 
ucts and  this  was  the  business  reason 
for  the  extensive  development  which  has 
taken  place  along  this  line. 

Statistics — According  to  estimates 
made  for  1905,  the  total  number  of  dairy 
cows  in  the  United  States  was  about 
17,575,000,  worth  approximately  $482,- 
000,000.  In  the  number  of  dairy  cow3 
New  York  leads  with  1,721,000,  followed 
by  Iowa,  with  1,335,000 ;  Wisconsin  with 
1,095,000;  Pennsylvania  with  1,086,000, 
Illinois  with  995,000;  Texas  with  838,- 
000;  Minnesota  with  836,000,  and  Ohio 
with  790,000.  On  account  of  the  scar- 
city of  population  in  the  extreme  south- 
west of  the  United  States,  the  number 
of  dairy  cows  is  very  much  less,  being 
only  19,000  in  Arizona  and  16,000  in 
Nevada.  The  number  of  dairy  cows  has 
varied  from  year  to  year  in  relation  to 
the  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  United 
States,  but  this  variation  has  not  been 
great  and  at  present  there  is  approxi- 
mately one  dairy  cow  to  each  five  inhab- 

427 


itants.  This  fits  the  requirements  of 
the  case  quite  satisfactorily,  since  on  the 
farm  one  cow  of  the  modern  dairy  type 
is  sufficient  for  an  ordinary  family  of 
five  persons. 

The  importance  of  the  dairy  industry 
is  seen  not  only  from  the  number  of 
dairy  cows  and  their  value,  but  from 
the  extent  of  dairy  products;  thus,  ac- 
cording to  the  most  recent  available 
statistics,  farmers  sell  annually  about 
2,250,000,000  gallons  of  milk,  and  butter 
and  cheese  factories  buy  annually  about 
1,500,000,000  galrons  of  milk.  Within 
recent  years,  the  development  of  cream- 
eries on  a  co-operative  or  some  other 
basis  has  been  rapid  and  extensive. 
They  have  naturally  used  large  quan- 
tities of  milk,  as  just  indicated,  in  the 
manufacture  of  butter.  Contrary  to  a 
widespread  notion,  however,  there  is 
more  than  twice  as  much  butter  made 
on  farms  at  the  present  time  as  in  fac- 
tories, the  amounts  being  1,072,000,000 
pounds  on  farms,  annually,  and  420,- 
000,000  pounds  in  factories.  The  oppo- 
site tendency  is  observed  in  cheese  mak- 
ing. The  process  of  cheese  making  is 
somewhat  more  elaborate  than  that  of 
butter  making  and  requires  more  skill 
and  experience,  as  well  as  a  more  elabo- 
rate equipment  in  order  to  produce  a 
first-class  article.  At  present,  about 
16,375,000  pounds  of  cheese  are  annually 
made  on  farms,  as  compared  with  281,- 
975,000  pounds  in  factories.  The  quality 
of  butter  made  on  farms  as  compared 
with  the  factory  made  product  is  far 
better  than  the  quality  of  farm  cheese. 
This  fact  has  led  to  a  lowering  of  the 
price  of  farm  cheese  and  a  relatively 
small  quantity  is  made  on  the  farm  for 
sale.  The  average  prices  received  by 
farmers  for  dairy  products  are  8.7  cents 
a  gallon  of  milk,  42.6  cents  a  gallon  of 
cream,  17.7  cents  a  pound  of  butter  and 
9.1  cents  a  pound  of  cheese. 


428 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Relative  economy  of  milk  and  beef 
production — As  indicated  in  a  discus- 
sion of  the  beef  industry,  the  relative 
economy  in  milk  production  is  much 
greater  than  in  beef  production.  Good 
dairy  cows  produce  human  food  in  the 
form  of  milk  much  more  economically 
than  food  products  can  be  obtained  in 
the  form  of  beef,  pork  or  mutton.  Nat- 
urally, the  cost  of  production  of  milk 
and  butter  varies  greatly  in  different 
localities,  according  to  the  price  of  farm 
labor  and  feeding  stuffs,  but  the  rela- 
tive economy  of  dairy  and  beef  produc- 
tion varies  in  the  same  direction  in 
nearly  all  localities.  The  only  apparent 
exceptions  to  this  rule  are  found  in  the 
two  extremes  of  farming  conditions 
found  on  the  western  ranges  and  in  the 
neighborhood  of  large  eastern  cities.  On 
the  western  ranges  the  distance  from 
the  market  is  so  great  that  milk  could 
not  be  delivered  in  a  satisfactory  condi- 
tion and  dairying  is  practically  impos- 
sible. In  the  neighborhood  of  large  east- 
ern cities,  on  the  other  hand,  the  price 
of  land  and  the  cost  of  feeding  stuffs 
are  so  high  that  the  production  of  beef 
becomes  altogether  too  expensive  as 
compared  with  milk  production.  As 
indicated  in  discussing  the  economy  of 
beef  production,  the  amount  of  feed  re- 
quired for  the  production  of  a  pound  of 
beef  in  the  best  type  of  modern  beef 
steers  is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  ten  times 
as  great  as  the  amount  of  feed  neces- 
sary for  the  production  of  a  pound  of 
milk  by  the  modern  dairy  cow.  This 
should  indicate  without  argument  the 
great  difference  in  the  relative  economy 
of  beef  and  milk  production  in  localities 
where  conditions  are  favorable  for  both 
the  beef  and  dairy  industries.  In  Min- 
nesota, the  average  annual  cost  of  keep- 
ing a  dairy  cow  has  been  found  to  be 
about  $38,  while  in  Massachusetts  the 
average  cost  of  producing  milk  is  about 
2V->  cents  a  quart.  More  than  half  as 
much  feed  is  required  for  a  pound  of 
beef  as  for  a  pound  of  butter,  and  while 
the  cost  of  butter  production  varies 
greatly  in  different  places,  it  may  usu- 
ally be  placed  at  from  8  to  12  cents 
a  pound. 

Formation  of  dairy  herd — In  making 
a  start  in  the  dairy  business,  the  first 
great  problem  is  the  formation  of  the 
dairy  herd.  In  this  operation  the  selec- 
tion of  the  cows  and  the  bull  to  head 
the  herd  is  by  no  means  an  unimpor- 
tant matter.     It  is  ordinarily  to  be  rec- 


ommended that  a  herd  should  not  be 
composed  of  different  breeds,  but  should 
contain  only  one  pure  breed  or  grade 
animals  based  on  that  breed.  In  prac- 
tice, however,  dairy  cows  should  be  se- 
lected for  their  individual  record  rather 
than  for  their  pedigree,  color  or  form. 
For  dairy  purposes,  dairy  breeds  should 
be  chosen  rather  than  beef  breeds,  for 
the  reason  that  they  produce  milk  fat 
rather  than  body  fat  from  their  food; 
while  beef  cattle,  on  the  other  hand,  arc 
likely  to  become  fat  under  forced  feed- 
ing without  increasing  to  a  correspond- 
ing degree  their  milk  yield.  No  one, 
however,  should  allow  either  breed  or 
type  to  determine  entirely  his  choice 
of  cows  for  his  dairy  herd.  The  prime 
requisite  is  that  they  shall  give  a  large 
quantity  and  a  good  quality  of  milk. 

BREEDS   OF   DAIRY   COWS 

In  the  discussion  of  the  breeds  of 
cattle  which  may  be  used  for  beef,  a 
description  has  already  been  given  not 
only  of  the  strictly  beef  animals,  but 
also  all  of  those  breeds  which  are  com- 
monly referred  to  as  dual  purpose  cat- 
tle. Some  of  these  breeds,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  Shorthorns,  Devons,  Brown 
Swiss,  Red  Polls  and  Polled  Durhams 
are  quite  extensively  used  for  dairy  pur- 
poses and  for  a  description  of  them  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  list  of  breeds 
under  beef  cattle.  All  of  the  pure  dairy 
breeds  of  cattle  in  the  United  States 
originated  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
western  parts  of  Europe,  and  apparently 
had  a  common  origin  in  the  wild  cattle 
which  existed  in  the  forests  of  Europe 
in  early  times.  They  have  been  bred 
along  pure  lines,  however,  for  such  long 
periods  that  the  breed  type  in  each  case 
has  become  firmly  fixed  with  distin- 
guishing characteristics.  For  practical 
purposes  it  may  be  said  that  there  are 
only  three  general  types  among  the  com- 
mon dairy  breeds  which  have  been  in- 
troduced into  this  country.  The  IIol- 
steins  and  Dutch  Belted  constitute  one 
type.  They  are  relatively  large,  both 
being  black  and  white  in  color,  and  orig- 
inated in  Holland.  The  second  type  in- 
cludes the  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Ayrshire 
and  French  Canadian,  all  of  English 
origin  and  all  showing  various  mixtures 
of  red  and  white  with  other  variations 
in  their  color.  The  Kerry  cow  may  be 
mentioned  as  the  third  type  This  ani- 
mal originated  in  Ireland  and  corre- 
sponds  in  the  list  of  dairy   animals  to 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


429 


the  West  Highland  breed  in  beef  cat- 
tle. It  is  a  comparatively  small  animal 
of  great  endurance  and  capable  of  main- 
taining itself  under  conditions  of  unu- 
sual hardship  and  neglect. 

In  the  following  notes  on  these  dif- 
ferent breeds,  an  attempt  is  made  to 
state  the  relative  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  each  breed  without  preju- 
dice against  or  favor  toward  any  par- 
ticular breed.  The  champions  of  each 
breed  are  prone  to  maintain  that  their 
particular  breed  is  better  in  most  re- 
spects than  any  other  breed,  and  of 
course  not   all  of   these   claims   can  be 


1S40,  but  large  importations  did  not  take 
place  until  after  1850. 

Jerseys  are  the  smallest  in  size  of  all 
the  noted  dairy  breeds,  the  cows  ranging 
in  weight  from  700  to  1,000  pounds,  and 
the  bulls  from  1,200  to  1,800  pounds.  A 
deliberate  attempt  has  been  made  to  in- 
crease the  size  of  the  Jerseys,  so  that  in 
the  United  States  they  are  somewhat 
larger  than  in  their  native  island.  The 
color  of  Jerseys  varies  extremely,  show- 
ing all  shades  of  brown,  even  to  black, 
and  various  shades  of  yellow,  fawn,  tan 
and  cream ;  mouse  color,  light  red  and 
brindle  are  also  observed.       The  head  of 


Fig.    276 CHAMPION    YEARLING   JERSEY   BULL    AT    PAX    AMERICAN"    EXPOSITIOX 


true  at  the  same  time  and  under  the 
same  conditions.  For  different  purposes 
a  different  :election  of  breeds  should  be 
made.  Thus,  in  point  of  milk  yield, 
the  Flolsteins  probably  stand  at  the  head, 
while  in  point  of  milk  fat  the  Jerseys 
and  Guernseys  are  perhaps  superior,  and 
stand  about  on  a  par. 

Jerseys — In  point  of  numbers,  the 
Jerseys  are  considerably  in  the  lead  bf 
other  dairy  breeds  in  the  United  States. 
This  breed  originated  in  the  Island  of 
Jersey  and  has  gradually  spread 
throughout  the  dairy  regions  of  Europe 
and  America.  A  small  number  of  Jer- 
seys, then  known  as  Alderneys.  were 
introduced  into  the  United  States  before 


the  Jersey  is  small  and  usually  dished, 
and  the  muzzle,  including  the  under  lip, 
shows  a  black  or  dark  lead  color.  This 
at  once  distinguishes  the  Jersey  from 
the  Guernsey,  which  has  a  tendency  to 
show  a  buff  color  about  the  head. 

Many  breeders  prefer  solid  colors  in 
Jerseys.  The  majority  of  ihis  breed 
are  variously  marked.  The  udder  is  of 
good  size  and  ordinarily  hangs  lower 
than  in  Ayrshires,  while  the  milk  veins 
are  well  developed.  Jerseys  are  likely 
to  be  irregular  and  angular  in  outline, 
rather  quick  and  graceful  in  movement 
and  deer-like  in  appearance.  They  are 
nervous  and  excitable,  but  when  care- 
fully treated,  are  docile  and  easily  man- 


430 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


aged.  The  matter  of  temperament  in  all 
dairy  cows  may  be  said  to  be  largely  a 
question  of  breeding  and  treatment. 

Much  effort  has  been  made  in  Amer- 
ica to  increase  the  milk  yield  of  Jerseys 
while  maintaining  its  high  fat  content. 
Jersey  cows  frequently  give  3  to  4  gal- 
lons a  day,  and  many  Jerseys  produce 
300  pounds  or  more  of  butter  annually. 
A  few  animals  under  careful  test,  have 
yielded  from  9,000  to  nearly  17,000 
pounds  of  milk  in  a  year.  The  amount 
of  fat  in  the  milk  is  usually  from  4  to 
5  per  cent  and  sometimes  higher. 

Guernseys — This  breed  originated  in 
another  of  the   Channel  Islands  known 


tinct  breed  in  this  country.  The  head 
of  the  Guernsey  is  long,  the  neck  slen- 
der the  body  large  and  deep  and  the 
flanks  thin.  The  color  is  light  yellow 
and  orange  or  buff  predominating,  with 
considerable  white  in  patches  on  the 
body  and  legs.  Dark  colors  approach- 
ing brown  are  seen  on  some  cows  and 
more  frequently  on  bulls.  The  muzzle 
is  most  always  buff  or  flesh  color.  The 
horns  are  small,  curved  and  waxy,  often 
showing  a  rich  yellow  at  the  base.  One 
of  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of 
the  Guernsey  is  the  large  secretion  of 
yellow  coloring  matter  throughout  the 
skin,   but   especially   where   the   hair   is 


Fig.    277 — JERSEY   CHAMPION   AT   ST   LOUIS   DAIRY  DEMONSTRATION 


as  the  Island  of  Guernsey,  and  has  prac- 
tically the  same  origin  and  history  as 
the  Jersey.  In  the  development  of  the 
Guernseys,  however,  more  of  the  original 
characteristics  of  the  parent  stock  from 
Normandy  have  been  preserved.  At 
present,  however,  the  Guernseys  closely 
resemble  the  Jerseys  in  their  general 
conformation  and  appearance. 

The  Guernseys  were  first  introduced 
into  the  United  States,  in  numbers,  in 
about  1850,  being  grouped  together  with 
the  Jerseys  at  that  time  under  the  name 
of  Alderneys.  Between  1870  and  1S75 
the  Guernsey  was  recognized  as  a  dis- 


white  around  the  ears,  eyes  and  udder. 
The  udder  and  teats  are  well  shaped. 
While  the  Guernsey  is  of  a  nervous  tem- 
perament, the  cows  are  gentle  under 
proper  management,  and  the  bulls  are 
probably  less  likely  to  become  vicious 
than   Jersey  bulls. 

The  Guernseys  are  economic  feeders 
and  excellent  butter  producers,  the  milk 
often  showing  from  5  to  G  per  cent  of 
fat.  They  are  especially  recommended 
by  Alvord  and  others  for  butter  cows 
and  for  the  production  of  market  milk, 
where  quality  secures  a  high  price.  They 
show  great  power  of   assimilating  feed 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


431 


and  converting  it  into  milk,  but  do  not 
endure  excessive  forcing.  Guernsey 
cows  average  about  1,000  pounds  or  a 
little  more  in  weight,  and  being  slightly 
larger  than  the  Jerseys,  may  be  expected 
to  give  more  milk  than  the  latter.  On 
the  farm  a  good  Guernsey  may  be  ex- 
pected to  produce  5,000  pounds  of  milk, 
or  300  pounds  of  butter,  without  high 
feeding.  In  one  case  a  herd  of  104  cows 
averaged  318  pounds  of  butter  each  a 
year.  Recently  a  Guernsey  cow  in  Wis- 
consin made  a  new  world's  butter  rec- 
ord of  1,000  pounds  in  the  year,  under 
a  carefully  supervised  test. 

Ayrshire — This   breed   of   dairy   cows 
originated  in  the  county  of  Ayrshire,  in 


York  in  1822,  and  began  to  be  imported 
in  considerable  numbers  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  nineteenth  century.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Kerry  cow,  no  other 
breed  of  dairy  cattle  can  excel  the  Ayr- 
shire in  obtaining  a  subsistence  and 
thriving  well  on  scant  pasture  and  upon 
the  coarsest  of  forage.  "The  natural 
hardihood  of  constitution  renders  these 
cattle  admirably  adapted  to  grazing  on 
broken  and  rugged  pastures  and  in 
sterner  weather  than  would  be  conducive 
to  the  well  being  of  cows  of  some  other 
breed  "  The  purpose  of  breeding  in  the 
Ayrshire  has  been  to  secure  an  animal 
which  will  give  a  large  milk  yield  with- 
out  extravagance    of   feeding,   but   this 


Fig.     278 — CHAMPION     2-YEAR-OLD     GUERNSEY  BULL 


the  southwestern  part  of  Scotland,  and 
was  brought  to  its  present  fixed  form 
by  careful  breeding  in  that  county.  This 
is  the  most  recent  of  well  established 
dairy  breeds.  Even  the  cattle  referred 
to  as  Ayrshires  in  1825  bear  little  re- 
semblance to  the  present  breed.  The 
original  blood  for  the  production  of  this 
breed  came  from  England,  Holland  and 
the  Channel  Islands,  the  exact  methods 
used  in  the  breeding  up  of  Ayrshires 
being  somewhat  in  dispute.  There  ap- 
pears to  be  a  strong  tendency  in  modern 
Ayrshires  to  become  lighter  in  color, 
many  being  almost  white  and  showing 
some  relation  in  this  respect  to  the  wild 
white  cattle  of  the  British  parks. 

Aryshires  were  first  brought  to  New 


breed,  while  showing  the  greatest  econ- 
omy in  the  utilization  of  feed,  responds 
promptly  to  liberal  feeding. 

The  Ayrshire  cow  weighs  from  900  to 
1,100  pounds,  and  the  bull  from  1,400 
to  1,800  pounds.  They  are  short  of  leg, 
with  small  bone  and  active  movement. 
The  general  form  is  good,  without  any 
weakness  in  the  forequarters,  but  with 
an  unusually  strong  development  of  the 
hindquarters.  They  do  not  carry  any 
extra  flesh  during  the  period  of  lacta- 
tion The  face  is  in  most  cases  long 
and  straight,  and  the  horns  curve  out- 
ward, then  inward  and  up,  with  the  tips 
inclined  backward.  The  muzzle  is  usu- 
ally black,  although  white  is  permissible. 
The   prevailing  color   is  red   and  white 


432 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


in  spots,  not  mixed,  with  a  tendency  at 
present  toward  more  white.  The  red  is 
bright  and  is  frequently  compared  to 
that  of  the  shell  of  the  horse  chestnut. 
The  udder  of  the  Ayrshire  is  somewhat 
characteristic,  being  flattened  from  side 
to  side  and  extending  far  forward  and 
backward.  The  teats  are  small  and  tend 
rather  to  a  cylindrical  than  a  conical 
form.  The  Ayrshire  is  nervous  and  the 
cows  sometimes  show  a  tendency  to  be 
quarrelsome,  but  the  bulls  are  not  par- 
ticularly vicious. 

In  good  hands,  a  herd  of  Ayrshires 
should  average  5,500  pounds  of  milk  a 


Guernseys,  likewise,  are  most  exten- 
sively maintained  in  New  England,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and 
Wisconsin,  while  tbe  Ayrshires  are 
mpst  numerous  in  New  York,  Massa- 
chusetts, Vermont  and  New  Hampshire 
and  less  frequently  observed  in  the  cen- 
tral states  and  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

French  Canadian — This  breed,  while 
of  little  importance  in  the  United 
States,  is  mentioned  in  this  connection 
on  account  of  its  evident  relation  and 
origin  to  other  breeds  from  England  and 
the  Channel  Islands.  French  Canadian 
cattle  are  the  prevailing  breed  in  nearly 


Eig.  279 — GUERNSEY  COW  DOLLY  BLOOM  WITH  A  RECORD  OF  975  TOUNDS  BUTTER 

IN  ONE  YEAR 


head  annually.  In  some  noted  herds,  the 
average  yield  has  reached  nearly  7,000 
pounds  and  many  cows  have  given  from 
10,000  to  12,000  pounds  a  year.  The 
milk  fat  averages  about  4  per  cent,  and 
the  amount  of  butter  in  good  herds 
should  run  from  300  to  320  pounds  each 
a  year.  The  milk  of  the  Ayrshire  is  not 
especially  rich  in  fat,  but  is  above  the 
average  for  all  dairy  cows. 

With  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the 
breeds  thus  far  considered,  Jerseys  are 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
but  are  kept  most  numerously  in  the 
eastern  and  middle  states  and  less  ex- 
tensively in  the  West  and  South.     The 


all  of  the  counties  of  Quebec,  where  they 
have  been  bred  in  a  pure  form  for  more 
than  250  years.  In  this  country  few  of 
them  are  found  outside  of  New  York 
and  New  England  states  bordering  on 
Canada.  The  breed  is  noted  for  its 
vigor  and  ability  to  withstand  severe 
climates.  They  are  light  and  active  and 
therefore  adapted  to  rough,  hilly  pas- 
tures. The  average  weight  of  the  cow 
is  about  700  pounds,  and  when  well  fed 
she  should  yield  from  5,000  to  6,000 
pounds  of  milk  a  year.  The  milk  car- 
ries a  fat  content  of  4  to  5  per  cent. 
Their  chief  weakness  is  their  small  size 
and  slowness  of  maturing. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


m 


The  head  is  short,  the  horns  turned 
inward  somewhat  and  a  little  upward 
The  loins  are  broad,  the  legs  short  and 
fine.  The  color  of  the  cows  is  usually 
black,  black  with  a  yellow  stripe  on  the 
back  and  around  the  muzzle,  or  brown 
with  black  points;  while  the  males  are 
almost  uniformly  black,  or  occasionally 
with  yellow  stripes. 

Holstein — The  black  and  white  cattle 
of  Holland,  or  the  Holsteins,  are  one 
of  the  very  oldest  of  dairy  breeds.  Ac- 
cording- to  some  of  the  champions  of 
the  Holsteins,  this  breed  can  be  traced 


no  large  well-known  importations  took 
place  until  about  1S50.  The  character- 
istics of  the  Holsteins  are  the  large  size 
and  the  contrasting  colors,  jet  black  and 
pure  white. 

The  weight  of  Holstein  cows  ranges 
from  1,200  to  1,500  pounds,  and  the  bulls 
often  weigh  2,500.  The  black  predomi- 
nates in  some  animals  and  white  in 
others.  The  color  of  the  animal,  as  a 
whole,  may  therefore  be  either  white 
spots  on  a  black  background  or  black 
spots  on  a  white  background.  In  Amer- 
ica, breeders  show  a  tendency  to  favor 


Fig.    2S0 — A   PROUD   AYRSHIRE   BULL 


back  for  2,000  years  in  the  territory 
where  it  originated.  Holland  has  long 
been  noted  for  its  dairy  industry,  and 
the  Holsteins  and  Dutch  Belted  are  its 
two  famous  dairy  breeds.  Holsteins 
have  also  been  referred  to  as  Holland 
cattle,  North  Hollanders,  Dutch  cattle, 
Dutch  Friesians,  Holstein  Friesians  and 
by  other  names.  The  large  frame,  rela- 
tively heavy  bone,  silken  coat,  remark- 
able docility  and  enormous  milk  yield  of 
the  Holsteins  are  commonly  referred  to 
as  due  in  part  to  their  origin  in  the 
fertile  plains  of  Holland.  It  appears 
that  the  early  Dutch  settlers  in  America 
brought    their    cattle    with    them,    but 


black  rather  than  white.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  spots  varies  in  different 
animals,  but  the  black  and  white  are 
never  mixed.  As  just  indicated,  the 
Holsteins  are  the  largest  of  all  dairy 
cattle.  The  neck  is  long  and  slender, 
the  back  line  level,  the  hips  broad  and 
legs  relatively  long.  The  udder  is  large 
and  frequently  of  phenomenal  size,  with 
prominent  milk  veins  and  cone  shape 
teats. 

Both  cows  and  bulls  are  exceptionally 
gentle  and  docile.  This  breed  shows 
great  constitutional  vigor.  The  calves 
are  large  at  birth  and  grow  rapidly, 
maturing  at   an   early   age.       Holsteins 


434 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


can  utilize  profitably  more  feed  than  any- 
other  breed  o±  dairy  cows,  and  the  milk 
yield  corresponds  to  the  abundance  and 
quality  of  the  feed.  There  are  authen- 
tic instances  of  cows  yielding  100 
pounds  of  milk  or  more  a  day  and  a 
yield  of  5  to  7  gallons  a  day  is  regarded 
as  an  average  performance,  the  average 
annual  yield  being  from  7,500  to  8,000 
pounds  In  a  few  instances,  cows  have 
given  from  20,000  to  30,000  pounds  in 
a  year.  The  milk  does  not  average  as 
high  in  butter  fat  as  that  of  most  other 
breeds,  but  with  exceptional  cows  the  fat 
content  is  high.  In  point  of  numbers, 
the    Holsteins    are    second    only    to    the 


of  pure  white  encircling  the  central  part 
of  the  body.  This  belt  varies  in  width, 
but  seldom  reaches  the  shoulder  blade 
or  hip.  According  to  modern  standards, 
no  white  is  permitted  except  in  the  belt. 
In  size,  Dutch  Belted  cattle  are  about 
equal  to  the  Ayrshires;  occasionally  in- 
dividual animals  are  slightly  larger.  In 
Holland,  a  deliberate  attempt  has  been 
made  to  keep  this  breed  almost  entirely 
under  the  control  of  the  nobility.  Partly 
for  this  reason  the  breed  is  not  numer- 
ous, either  in  Europe  or  America.  It 
was  first  introduced  into  New  York 
about  1838,  but  may  possibly  have  been 
brought  over  by  settlers  somewhat  ear- 


Fig.   281 FINE   TYPE   OF  AYRSHIRE   COW 

(Courtesy  of  C  M.  Wiuslow) 


Jerseys  in  the  United  States  and  are 
kept  in  every  state  and  territory  in  the 
Union.  They  are  most  numerous  in 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Wiscon- 
sin, Illinois  and  Iowa,  about  in  the  order 
named. 

Dutch  Belted_The  Holsteins  and 
Dutch  Belted,  as  already  indicated,  both 
come  from  Holland  and  probably  have 
a  common  origin,  the  colors  being 
sharply  contrasted  black  an  white  in 
both  breeds.  While,  however,  the  black 
and  white  are  irregularly  arranged  in 
patches  on  the  Holsteins,  these  colors 
are  placed  with  great  regularity  on  the 
Dutch  Belted  cattle.  The  animals  of 
this  breed  are  jet  black  with  a  broad  belt 


Her.  At  present,  there  are  not  more 
than  a  few  hundred  registered  Dutch 
Belted  cattle  in  the  United  States,  but 
these  are  distributed  in  at  least  26  states, 
being  most  numerous  in  New  York, 
Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio. 
The  average  weight  of  cows  is  from 
1,000  to  1,200  pounds,  and  bulls  weigh 
about  1,800.  The  milk  production  of 
Dutch  Belted  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
Holsteins  and  the  quality  is  about  the 
same.  They  are  good  feeders,  maturing 
at  a  fairly  early  age,  but  are  probably 
not  quite  so  vigorous  as  Holsteins. 

Kerry  cattle — The  Kerry  cattle  orig- 
inated in  Ireland,  where  they  have  been 
bred   for    centuries,   but   without   much 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


435 


improvement  until  lately.  From  Ire- 
land they  have  been  exported  to  various 
parts  of  England,  Canada  and  the 
United  States.  The  Dexter  cattle  orig- 
inated from  crossing  the  Kerry  and  Dev- 
on, and  they  are  somewhat  larger  than 
the  Kerry  breed.  Kerry  cattle  are  the 
smallest  of  our  dairy  cows,  averaging 
from  600  to  TOO  pounds  in  weight,  and 
have  not  been  widely  tested  in  this  coun- 
try. They  yield  a  moderate  amount  of 
milk  and  are  capable  of  thriving  under 
very  adverse  conditions.  The  fat  content 
of  the  milk  is  relatively  high.  The  breed 
is  slow   in  maturing,  but  the  cows  are 


8,000  pounds  of  milk  annually,  and  the 
fat  content  is  satisfactory.  Only  a  few 
of  this  breed  have  been  imported  into 
the  United  States. 

Normandies — A  few  representatives 
of  this  breed  have  been  imported  from 
France.  The  animals  are  rather  large, 
cows  weighing  up  to  1,500  pounds,  and 
bulls  2,200.  The  color  is  brindle,  with 
spots  of  red,  reddish  brown  or  a  very 
dark  brown.  The  milk  yield  ranges 
from  4,000  to  7,000  pounds  annually 
and  the  breed  is  considered  good  for 
beef  as  well  as  dairy  purposes. 

The  above  list,  in  connection  with  the 


Fig  282 — A   GROUP   OF"  AYRSHIRES 
(Courtesy  of  C.  M.  Winslow) 


excellent  grazers  and  ratten  readily.  They 
are  vigorous,  but  their  chief  defect  is 
small  size.  As  described  by  Shaw  the 
color  is  black,  with  a  streak  of  white 
along  the  back  and  under  the  belly,  and 
sometimes  an  admixture  of  brown. 

Simmenthalers — These  cattle  come 
from  the  canton  of  Berne  in  Switzer- 
land, and  are  an  old  breed.  The  cows 
average  about  1,400  pounds  in  weight, 
while  the  bulls  weigh  from  2,200  to 
2,500  pounds.  The  color  is  a  creamy 
white,  or  white  with  large  irregular 
patches  of  light  yellow  or  cream  color. 
This  breed  is  gentle,  easily  managed  and 
much  used  in  Switzerland  for  draft  pur- 
poses.    The   cows   yield   from   6,000   to 


breeds  mentioned  under  beef  cattle,  con- 
stitutes the  most  important  types  of 
dairy  cows  in  the  United  States.  Among 
the  numerous  other  breeds  which  have 
been  developed  in  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, a  few  representatives  are  occasion- 
ally imported  into  this  country,  but  they 
are  not  of  enough  importance  to  merit 
consideration  in  this  connection. 

FEEDING  DAIRY  COWS 

"While  there  are  numerous  details 
which  must  be  learned  in  connection 
with  successful  dairying,  the  problem 
of  feeding  is  by  far  the  most  important 
and  may  well  be  considered  first.     The 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


questions  which  arise  regarding  the  de- 
tails of  feeding  apply  equally  to  all 
breeds  and  no  distinction  is  therefore 
made  in  this  regard  in  the  following 
account.  For  the  production  of  milk  in 
large  quantities,  it  is  necessary  to  feed 
liberal  amounts  of  grain  and  attention 
is,  therefore,  first  given  to  the  discussion 
of  the  relative  value  of  grains  for  dairy 
cows. 

The  best  results  cannot  be  secured  in 
dairying  without  feeding  grain.  Even 
when  the  pastures  are  in  the  best  condi- 
tion and  when  soiling  crops  are  fed  in 
large  quantities,  the  addition  of  a  lib- 


Bran — Wheat  is  seldom  fed  to  dairy 
cows  without  grinding,  but  in  the  form 
of  bran  it  is  generally  utilized  as  the 
basis  of  a  dairy  ration  and  is  an  excel- 
lent feeding  stuff,  although  it  contains 
less  protein  than  cottonseed  meal.  Soule 
has  urged  that  since  wheat  bran  costs 
nearly  the  same  as  cottonseed  meal  in 
the  South,  it  may  be  relatively  too  ex- 
pensive in  many  localities  of  that  sec- 
tion. In  Canada,  ground  wheat  has 
proved  a  wholesome  and  effective  dairy 
feed,  but  not  equal  to  mixed  meal.  In 
Vermont,  bran  was  found  about  equal 
to    buckwheat    middlings,    barley    meai, 


Fig.    283 THE    WELL-FORMED    HOLSTEIN    BULL,    MERCEDES    JULIP'S    PIETERTJe's    PAUL 

(Courtesy  of  Horace  L.  Bronson's  Star  Farm) 


eral  grain  ration  increases  the  milk 
yield.  If  cows  are  on  good  pasture,  the 
effect  of  grain  may  not  be  apparent  at 
once,  but  as  the  pasture  becomes  short 
or  dry,  the  grain  ration  may  be  grad- 
ually increased  and  will  have  uniformly 
beneficial  effects  in  cows  which  have  al- 
ready become  accustomed  to  grain  feeds. 
In  order  to  secure  the  largest  milk 
yield,  cows  should  be  stimulated  to  the 
best  possible  flow  of  milk  during  the 
early  stages  of  lactation  and  this  flow 
can  be  maintained  by  judicious  feeding 
of  grains.  In  the  following  paragraphs, 
notes  are  given  on  the  value  of  the  com- 
mon grain  feeds  used  for  dairy  cows. 


corn  meal  or  cottonseed  meal  and  in 
Colorado  this  feed  gave  greater  yields  of 
milk  than  other  grain  feeds.  In  Iowa, 
the  milk  yield  was  always  increased  by 
feeding  bran  to  cows  on  pasture,  and  in 
Maine,  wheat  meal  proved  somewhat  su- 
perior to  corn  meal.  In  Massachusetts, 
bran  was  less  effective,  in  some  in- 
stances, when  added  to  a  silage  ration. 
In  Minnesota,  ground  wheat  appeared 
to  be  equal  to  ground  barley  or  corn 
meal.  Wheat  middlings  and  bran,  mixed 
half  and  half,  were  found  more  effective 
than  bran  alone  in  tests  at  the  North 
Carolina  experiment  station.  Roller 
bran   proved    equal    to    corn   meal    and 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


437 


nearly  equal  to  linseed  meal  in  Wiscon- 
sin and  was  a  more  economical  feed  than 
either.  In  Denmark,  tests  of  wheat 
bran  for  dairy  cows  snowed  it  to  be  su- 
perior to  mixed  barley  and  oats. 

A  comparison  of  bran  and  cottonseed 
meal  was  made  by  Michaels,  in  South 
Carolina,  1  pound  of  cottonseed  meai 
being  substituted  for  2  pounds  of  bran 
in  the  daily  ration.  The  substitution 
slightly  increased  the  production  of  but- 
ter and  effected  a  small  saving  in  the 
cost  of  the  ration.  The  fertilizer  value 
of  the  manure  was  somewhat  higher 
when   cottonseed  meal  was  used.     Otis 


an  effective  and  desirable  dairy  feed. 
In  Minnesota,  ground  barley  proved 
equal  to  ground  wheat  or  corn  meal. 
The  Maine  experiment  station  noted  the 
fact  that  barley  as  well  as  peas  made 
a  rather  soft  butter. 

In  New  York,  it  has  been  found  that 
either  malt  sprouts  or  brewers'  grains 
may  be  substituted  for  oats  or  peas  for 
milch  cows.  A  test  in  Wisconsin  showed 
that  malt  sprouts  were  slightly  inferior 
to  cottonseed  meal  or  corn  meal.  Much 
attention  has  been  given  in  Massachu- 
setts to  the  feeding  value  of  malt  sprouts 
for  cows.     This  product  may  be  fed  in 


Fig.    284 COLANTHA    4th's    JOHANNA,  THE    HOLSTEIN    COW    WITH    A    RECORD    OF 

110.833   POUNDS    OF   BUTTER-FAT,   OR   AN  EQUIVALENT  OF    129.3   POUNDS   COM- 
MERCIAL   BUTTER   IN    30   DAYS 
(Courtesy  W.  J.  Gillett  of  Wisconsin) 


suggests  that  when  corn  is  high,  ground 
wheat  may  be  used  as  a  feed  for  dairy 
cows.  This  investigator  fed  ground 
wheat  in  the  place  of  corn  and  bran  and 
obtained  good  results.  When  the  amount 
of  nutriment  in  bran  is  considered,  it 
is  often  cheaper  than  corn  and  in  some 
cases  may  be  fed  as  the  exclusive  grain 
ration.  It  is  usually  best,  however,  to 
mix  it  with  other  grains,  except  when 
they  are  too  high  in  price. 

Barley  and  its  "by-products — Like 
wheat,  barley  is  an  economical  dairy 
feed  whenever  the  price  which  may  be 
obtained  for  it  is  not  too  high.  In 
Germany,   barley  meal  has   been   found 


rations  of  2  pounds  or  more  to  replace  a 
slightly  smaller  quantity  of  gluten  meal 
in  the  ration.  Malt  sprouts  contain  25 
per  cent  of  protein,  and  are  quite  read 
ily  digestible.  They  may  constitute  one- 
third  of  the  grain  ration  and  when  used 
in  that  quantity  are  an  economical  dairy 
feed,  as  shown  by  Lindsey.  Malt  sprouts 
absorb  a  large  quantity  of  water  and  it 
is  recommended  that  they  be  moistened 
before  feeding  if  more  than  2  pounds  are 
used.  They  are  bulky  and  occasionally 
cows  do  not  relish  them  at  first. 

Brewers'  grains  are  used  more  ex- 
tensively in  feeding  dairy  cows  than  any 
other   farm   animal.     A   few   objections 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


have  been  made  against  the  quality  of 
the  milk  from  brewers'  grains,  but  as 
a  rule  no  bad  results  are  noted.  In 
Connecticut,  brewers'  grains  have  been 
fed  in  rations  of  ld1^  pounds  with  good 
results,  while  in  Massachusetts,  they 
proved  to  be  an  excellent  substitute  for 
wheat  bran.  They  contain  about  one- 
third  more  protein  than  wheat  bran,  and 
visually  produce  more  live  weight  in  the 
cows  and  a  larger  quantity  of  milk  of 
better  quality  than  is  obtained  from 
bran.  As  compared  with  the  latter  feed, 
brewers'  grains  are  slightly  more  eco- 
nomical. Corn  meal  may  be  advanta- 
geously used  as  a  part  of  the  ration  with 
brewers'  grains. 

In  the  dry  form,  brewers'  grains  may 
be  fed  in  rations  of  2  to  5  pounds  daily, 


large  scale  to  milch  cows  in  this  country. 
In  Scotland,  horse  beans  were  found  to 
produce  a  good  quality  of  butter.  In 
Massachusetts,  soy  bean  meal  made 
more  and  richer  milk,  and  butter  of  a 
better  color  and  quality  than  cottonseed 
meal;  although  the  butter  from  cotton- 
seed meal  was  firmer,  it  was  inferior 
in  texture.  On  account  of  the  great  im- 
portance of  soy  beans  in  a  general  sys- 
tem of  farming  in  the  South,  they  have 
been  quite  thoroughly  tested  for  dairy 
purposes,  and  good  results  have  been 
obtained  from  them  in  Kentucky  and 
elsewhere. 

Buckwheat — This  grain  has  been  most 
extensively  fed  to  dairy  cows  in  New 
England  and  in  the  north  central  states. 
In  Vermont,  buckwheat  middlings  pro- 


Fig.  2S5 — the  "big  four"  holsteins  from  star  farm 

(Courtesy  Horace  L.  Bronson) 


and  in  such  rations  are  perfectly  satis- 
factory in  their  effect  on  the  health  of 
the  animals,  and  the  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  the  milk.  If  brewers'  grains  are 
fed  wet,  the  daily  ration  should  be  from 
20  to  25  pounds.  The  wet  grains  con- 
tain from  75  to  77  per  cent  of  water, 
and  may  usually  be  jfurchased  at  from 
7  to  10  cents  a  bushel.  In  New  Jersey, 
it  has  been  found  that  4  pounds  of  wet 
brewers'  grains  equal  1  pound  of  the  dry 
grains.  While  no  bad  results  in  the 
quality  of  the  milk  have  been  noted 
when  this  material  has  been  judiciously 
fed  in  this  country,  neither  wet  nor 
dried  brewers'  grains  made  good  butter 
in  certain  tests  which  were  carried  out 
in  Scotland. 

Beans — The  common  varieties  of  field 
and  garden  beans  are  rarely  fed  on  a 


duced  4  per  cent  more  milk  than  corn 
and  bran,  but  3  per  cent  less  than  cotton- 
seed or  linseed  meal.  The  quality  of 
the  milk  from  buckwheat  was  about 
equal  to  that  from  other  feeds.  Subse- 
quent tests  confirmed  these  results  and 
showed  that  milk  from  buckwheat  mid- 
dlings contained  more  fat  than  that 
from  any  other  feeds  used  in  the  com- 
parison. The  middlings  made  a  firmer 
butter  than  any  other  grain  ration. 
Buckwheat  middlings  should  be  mixed 
with  other  feeds,  since  they  may  not  be 
well  relished  alone.  In  New  Hamp- 
shire, ground  buckwheat  has  been  found 
excellent  for  milk  production,  and  in 
New  Jersey,  buckwheat  bran  free  from 
hulls  appeared  to  be  about  equal  to  buck- 
wheat middlings.  At  the  Pennsylvania 
experiment  station,  buckwheat  middlings 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


439 


proved  equal  to  dried  brewers'  grains. 
During  the  past  two  years,  Hills,  at 
the  Vermont  experiment  station,  has 
tested  India  wheat  as  a  grain  feed  for 
milch  cows.  This  is  a  variety  of  buck- 
wheat not  much  planted  in  the  United 
States,  and  seems  not  to  be  a  popular 
crop.  In  composition,  India  wheat  is 
rather  irregular,  but  its  protein  content 
is  somewhat  higher  than  whole  buck- 
wheat or  buckwheat  flour.  Hills  con- 
siders that  it  is  not  well  suited  as  a 
grain  feed  for  narrowing  the  ration.    In- 


shows  the  high  efficiency  and  economy 
for  which  this  grain  is  noted  in  feeding 
for  other  purposes.  It  may  be  fed  un- 
husked  and  this  is  perhaps  the  cheapest 
method  which  the  farmer  can  adopt.  Or- 
dinarily, however,  shock  corn  is  put 
through  a  feed  cutter  before  feeding 
to  milch  cows.  If  corn  has  been  husked 
or  shelled  for  a  long  time  it  becomes 
too  hard  and  should  then  be  ground.  All 
dairy  cows  greatly  relish  corn  meal  and 
on  this  account  it  is  sometimes  fed  to, 
excess.     It   should   preferably  be    mixed 


"Fig.     286 PRIZE-WINNING     DUTCH     BELTED   BULL 


dia  wheat  is  freely  eaten  in  rations  of 
2  or  3  pounds  a  day,  and  produces  no 
bad  effects.  The  meal  from  India  wheat 
does  not  keep  well,  apparently  on  ac- 
count of  its  high  moisture  content.  It 
seems  to  be  a  good  substitute  for  wheat 
bran,  cottonseed  meal  or  linseed  meal, 
pound  for  pound,  when  fed  in  rations  of 
less  than  3  pounds  a  day.  In  the  ex- 
periments carried  on  by  Hills,  India 
wheat  appeared  to  have  more  effective- 
ness in  milk  production  than  would  be 
expected  from  its  chemical  composition. 
Corn — In  the  production  of  milk,  corn 


with  bran,  shorts,  linseed  meal  or  cot- 
tonseed meal  for  dairy  cows. 

In  recent  experiments  by  Otis,  it  ap- 
peared that  when  corn  is  worth  10  cents 
a  100  pounds  for  milk  production, 
barley  is  worth  11  cents,  broom  corn 
seed  9  cents,  cowpeas  23  cents,  lin- 
seed meal  37  cents  and  cottonseed  meal 
47  cents.' 

It  has  already  been  stated  that_  corn 
should  not  be  fed  as  the  only  grain  to 
milch  cows.  In  Maryland,  Patterson 
found  that  the  profits  were  in  favor  of 
feeding    a    balanced    ration    of    mixed 


440 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


grains  rather  than  corn  meal  alone.  The 
cows  remained  more  healthy,  in  better 
breeding  form  and  in  better  condition 
for  the  succeeding  year  when  the  corn 
ration  was  balanced  with  other  grains. 
Although  the  small  farmer  may  not  al- 
ways have  suitable  grams  for  balancing 
the  ration,  the  dairyman  will  find  it 
uniformly  profitable  to  do  so.  In  many 
experiments  corn  meal  has  proved  su- 
perior to  whole  corn.  In  one  instance, 
corn  meal  gave  9  per  cent  more  milk 
than  whole  corn,  and  it  was  observed 


A  great  variety  of  milling  feeds  and 
by-products  are  obtained  from  corn  and 
all  of  them  have  been  used  in  dairy  ra- 
tions with  good  results.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania cerealine  was  found  ■  equal  to 
dried  brewers'  grains  or  buckwheat  mid- 
dlings. Gluten  meal  has  everywhere 
proved  to  be  a  valuable  dairy  feed.  It 
yielded  excellent  results  in  Vermont, 
and  various  other  states,  as  well  as  in 
Europe.  Atlas  gluten  meal  was  found 
to  make  more  milk  and  sustain  the 
weight  of  cows  better  than  a  mixture  of 


Fig.    287 — CHAMPION   DUTCH   BELTED   AT  NEW    YORK    STATE    FAIR 


that  57  per  cent  of  corn  fed  in  the  ear 
passed  through  the  intestines  undigested. 
Corn  meal  is  not  always  satisfactory 
when  fed  with  dry  hay,  but  no  objection 
can  be  raised  on  this  score  if  silage  is 
added  to  the  ration. 

According  to  a  number  of  German 
experiments,  corn  proved  more  effective 
for  milk  production  than  wheat  bran 
or  cottonseed  meal,  and  in  Denmark, 
corn  was  found  nearly  equal  to  a  mix- 
ture of  barley,  oats  and  corn.  These 
experiments,  however,  are  not  in  har- 
mony with  the  usual  results  obtained 
by  American  dairymen. 


corn  meal  and  bran.  The  butter  from 
gluten  meal  may  be  slightly  inferior  to 
that  obtained  from  corn  meal,  bran,  cot- 
tonseed meal  or  linseed  meal,  but  fre- 
quently the  butter  from  gluten  meal 
tests  high.  In  Maine,  it  was  found  that 
gluten  meal  could  be  substituted  for  cot- 
tonseed meal,  but  that  it  must  be  used 
in  slightly  larger  quantities.  In  this 
test  also  the  butter  was  somewhat  soft- 
ened by  the  gluten  meal. 

Germ  feed  has  been  found  in  Ver- 
mont to  have  the  same  feeding  value  as 
a  mixture  of  corn  meal  and  bran,  while 
sugar    meal     and     cream    gluten    meal 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


441 


proved  more  nutritious  than  this  mix- 
ture and  increased  the  fat  content  of 
the  milk.  Chicago  maize  feed  also 
proved  superior  and  corn  germ  feed 
about  equal  to  the  mixture. 

Atlantic  gluten  flour  when  fed  in 
large  quantities  has  little  effect  on  the 
quantity  or  quality  of  the  milk.  Sugar 
meal  will  produce  about  8  per  cent  more 
milk  and  27  per  cent  more  butter  than 
corn  and  cob  meal.  As  already  indicated 
it  has  been  found  in  Maine,  Michigan, 
New  Hampshire,  and  elsewhere,  that  all 
gluten  feeds  which  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  oil  have  a  tendency  to  soften 
the  butter. 


Hominy  feed  has  been  thoroughly 
tested  by  Hills  in  Vermont.  It  appears 
that  when  2  to  3  pounds  of  this  feed  are 
substituted  for  an  equal  weight  of  bran 
in  an  8-pound  ration,  the  amount  of  milk 
is  increased  4  per  cent,  and  the  amount 
of  butter  1  per  cent.  As  compared  with 
cottonseed  meal,  hominy  feed  produced 
more  milk,  but  of  a  poorer  quality.  In 
fact,  the  quality  of  the  milk  was  so  badbj 
affected  as  to  cause  an  unusual  drop  in 
the  fat  content. 

Cottonseed  meal — This  is  an  excellent 
dairy  feed'  and  may  be  fed  everywhere 
with  fine  results,  if  proper  precautions 
are    exercised.      Otis    and    others    have 


Fig.    288 — A   PRIZE-WINNING   KERRY   COW 


In  Kentucky,  May  found  that  gluten 
meal  gave  better  results  with  corn  and 
cob  meal  than  with  ground  corn.  The 
amount  of  milk  obtained  was  somewhat 
greater  when  gluten  meal  was  substi- 
tuted for  bran  with  a  ration  containing 
liberal  quantities  of  corn  and  cob  meal. 
Germ  meal  frequently  shows  a  fatten- 
ing tendency.  When  mixed  with  bran, 
germ  meal  has  proved  somewhat  su- 
perior to  a  ration  of  gluten  meal  and 
corn  meal.  In  New  York,  wet  acid  corn 
slump,  dry  slump  and  dry  slump  acidi- 
fied with  acetic  acid  have  been  fed  to 
cows  without  any  harm  to  their  health 
or  to  the  quality  of  the  milk.  The  dis- 
tillery products  of  corn,  however,  must 
be  fed  with  some  caution. 


called  attention  to  the  desirability  of  be- 
ginning gradually,  perhaps  with  not 
more  than  *4  to  %  pound  daily;  the 
ration  may  be  increased  until  a  maxi- 
mum of  3  to  5  pounds  is  reached.  In 
the  southern  states,  where  the  cottonseed 
meal  is  fed  most  extensively,  this  ma- 
terial may  be  mixed  with  soy  bean  meal, 
in  proportions  so  as  to  regulate  the  firm- 
ness of  the  butter,  at  will.  Cottonseed 
meal  always  hardens  the  butter,  as  well 
as  other  animal  fats,  while  soy  bean 
meal  has  a  softening  tendency.  It  is 
a  simple  matter,  therefore,  to  mix  these 
materials  so  as  to  obtain  butter  of  the 
requisite  firmness. 

Compared    with    bran — In    a    recent 
test  in   Kentucky,   cottonseed  meal  fed 


442 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


to  cows  on  pasture  gave  a  larger  milk 
yield  than  bran.  It  was  found  desirable 
to  feed  it  in  rations  of  1  to  2  pounds 
while  the  cows  were  on  pasture.  Moore 
has  also  compared  cottonseed  meal  with 
bran  in  Mississippi.  In  these  tests,  the 
cottonseed  meal  proved  quite  superior. 
The  most  effective  ration  was  one  con- 
taining 6  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  and 
4  pounds  of  bran.  This  ration  was  mucn 
better  than  one  in  which  the  proportions 
were  reversed  or  than  other  rations  in 
which  not  more  than  3  or  4  pounds  of 
cottonseed  meal  were  fed. 

Amount  to  feed — In  general,  cotton- 
seed meal  should  not  be  fed  as  the  only 


when  cottonseed  meal  was  fed  in  ex- 
cessive rations,  but  the  milk  yield  was 
increased.  For  this  purpose,  cottonseed 
meal  proved  superior  to  linseed  meal  in 
Germany.  In  Vermont,  gluten  meal  was 
somewhat  more  economic  than  cotton- 
seed meal,  but  produced  less  milk.  The 
quantity  of  the  milk  was  slightly  reduced 
in  Alabama  when  rations  of  3  to  5 
pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  were  fed,  but 
the  fat  content  of  the  milk  was  in- 
creased. 

In  almost  all  experiments  with  cot- 
tonseed meal,  it  has  been  found  to  in- 
crease the  milk  yield  when  added  to  a 
corn   meal  ration.     In  Pennsylvania,   it 


Fig. 


-BROWN    SWISS    BULL    PEDRO 


grain  ration,  and  should  not  be  used  in 
large  quantities  until  some  preliminary 
experience  has  been  had.  At  all  of  the 
agricultural  experiment  stations  where 
cottonseed  meal  has  been  thoroughly 
tested,  it  has  been  found  to  raise  the 
melting  point  of  butter.  This  is  a  de- 
sirable point  in  hot  climates.  In  Texas, 
however,  it  was  found  that  cottonseed 
meal  made  a  salvy  and  light-colored  but- 
ter, while  in  Iowa  the  butter  from  cot- 
tonseed meal  scored  as  high  as  that  from 
corn  meal  and  no  bad  effects  were  ob- 
served from  rations  of  from  2  to  G 
pounds  a  day.  In  Michigan  and  New 
Hampshire,  the  butter  was  badly  affected 


made  more  milk  than  bran,  but  the  but- 
ter from  bran  scored  higher.  In  a  test 
in  Mississippi,  1  pound  of  cottonseed 
meal  proved  equal  to  3  pounds  of  corn 
and  cob  meal  for  milk  production,  and 
cottonseed  was  found  to  be  more  econom- 
ical than  cottonseed  meal.  The  but- 
ter is  of  better  quality  when  cottonseed 
is  steamed  than  when  it  is  fed  raw  or 
roasted.  A  series  of  experiments  in 
Texas  to  determine  the  proper  size  of 
the  ration  of  cottonseed  meal  showed 
that  it  is  better  economy  to  feed  6 
pounds  daily  than  7,  8  or  10  pounds.  Tn 
some  localities  in  the  northern  states, 
cottonseed  meal,  while  a  very  valuable 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


443 


dairy  feed,  is  too  expensive  to  compete 
with  native  grains.  Occasionally  cotton- 
seed has  been  used  as  the  whole  ration 
for  cows.  Thus,  in  Tennessee,  a  ra- 
tion of  5  to  8  pounds  cottonseed  meal 
and  25  to  35  pounds  cottonseed  hulls 
produced  no  harmful  effect  on  the  milk 
or  butter.  According  to  Texas  experi- 
ments, the  hulls  are  considered  the  best 
form  of  roughage  to  feed  with  cotton- 
seed meal. 

Soule  found  that  cottonseed  meal  is 
preferable  to  gluten  meal  for  the  reason 
that  it  gives  equal  results  in  milk  pro- 
duction and  a  greater  fertilizer  value  in 
the  manure.     The  cottonseed  meal  corn- 


According  to  experiments  by  Duggar 
in  Alabama,  when  cottonseed  is  $8  a  ton, 
and  cottonseed  meal  $20,  butter  is  pro- 
duced at  a  smaller  cost  on  raw  cotton- 
seed. Cows  do  not  greatly  relish  cotton- 
seed, however,  and  eat  a  somewhat 
smaller  ration.  The  average  amount  of 
milk  obtained  in  these  experiments  was 
11V2  pounds  daily  from  cottonseed,  and 
24.3  pounds  from  cottonseed  meal.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  low  cost  of  cottonseed 
made  it  rather  more  economical.  In  one 
case  butter  was  produced  at  a  cost  of  6.4 
cents  a  pound  on  a  ration  of  cottonseed. 

Distillers'  dried  grains — In  Vermont, 


Fig.  290 — BROWN  SWISS  cow  and  her  twin  calves 


monly  offered  on  the  market  is  some- 
times adulterated  and  for  this  reason 
dairymen  should  insist  upon  a  guar- 
anty of  from  42  to  46  per  cent  protein. 
Lane  found  that  4^2  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal  can  be  fed  daily  to  cows 
with  profit,  providing  it  is  thoroughly 
mixed  with  corn  silage.  It  is  believed 
that  the  injurious  effects  sometimes  re- 
ported from  the  use  of  cottonseed  meal 
may  be  due  to  feeding  it  by  itself  with- 
out mixing  with  other  feeding  stuffs. 
Of  two  rations  tested  in  New  Jersey, 
one  supplying  protein  in  the  form  of 
cottonseed  meal  produced  milk  for  12 
cents  less  a  hundred  pounds,  and  butter 
for  3.3  cents  a  pound  less  than  wheat 
bran  or  dried  brewers'  grains. 


Hills  fed  cows  on  a  ration  of  7  pounds 
of  distillers'  dried  grains  for  a  period 
of  175  days,  as  compared  with  an  8- 
pound  ration  of  which  two-thirds  was  dis- 
tillers' dried  grains  and  one-third  bran. 
No  change  in  the  quality  of  the  milk  en- 
sued as  a  result  of  feeding  the  grains, 
but  they  were  not  eaten  quite  so  freely 
as  an  exclusive  ration  as  when  mixed 
with  bran.  Slightly  more  milk  and  but- 
ter was  made  from  dried  grains  than 
from  the  mixture  of  bran  and  dried 
grains.  The  profit  obtained  from  the 
mixture,  however,  was  %  of  a  cent  a 
day  greater.  The  results  on  the  whole 
indicate  that  it  is  not  desirable  to  feed 
distillers'  dried  grains  as  the  exclusive 
ration  for  milch  cows. 


444 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  Massachusetts,  Lindsey  fed  dis- 
tillers' dried  grains  from  alcohol  and 
spirit,  Bourbon  whiskey  and  rye  whis- 
key. Distillers'  dried  grains  containing 
32  per  cent  of  protein  were  found  to 
have  a  high  digestibility  and  were  very 
economic  feeds.  They  proved  equal  or 
slightly  superior  to  gluten  feed  and  were 
without  bad  effect  on  the  health  of  the 
cows.  The  bulky  nature  of  these  grains 
is  considered  somewhat  in  their  favor. 
The  flavor  and  keeping  quality  of  the 
milk  was  in  no  way  affected  when  dis- 
tillers' dried  grains  constituted  one-half 
of  the  grain  ration.  A  suitable  ration 
of  this  material  is  from  2  to  4  pounds 


more  costly  than  the  cottonseed  meal. 
If  the  milk  is  sold  on  the  basis  of  its 
fat  content,  the  higher  cost  of  the  dis- 
tillers' grains  may  be  in  part  compen- 
sated by  the  increase  in  the  amount  of 
fat.  The  butter  produced  from  distil- 
lers' grains  did  not  score  quite  as  high 
as  that  from  cottonseed  meal. 

Kafir  corn—Otis  fed  kafir  corn  in 
comparison  with  corn  at  the  Kansas 
experiment  station  and  obtained  about 
equal  results  from  both  feeds.  In  point 
of  yield,  kafir  corn  had  a  slight  advan- 
tage, the  average  yield  per  acre  being 
46  bushels  as  compared  with  34.5  bush- 
els of  corn.    Some  complaints  have  been 


Fig.    291 — PRIZE-WINNING    DEVON    COW    WOODLAND 


mixed  with  other  grains,  such  as  flour 
middlings,  corn,  hominy  meal,  cotton- 
seed meal  or  bran. 

A  comparison  of  these  different  forms 
of  distillers'  dried  grains  in  Vermont 
indicated  that  rye  grains  make  less  but- 
ter and  milk  than  alcohol  grains.  This 
result  was  expected  from  the  fact  that 
a  chemical  analysis  shows  them  to  con- 
tain less  protein. 

Armsby  substituted  5%  pounds  of  dis- 
tillers' dried  grains  for  3  pounds  of  cot- 
tonseed meal  and  21/2  pounds  of  corn 
meal  with  the  result  that  a  slight  in- 
crease in  the  milk  yield  was  noted  and 
a  marked  increase  in  the  fat  content. 
The    distillers'    grains,    however,    were 


made  of  poor  flavor  in  butter  from 
kafir  corn,  but  Otis  noticed  no  such 
effect  in  his  experiments.  At  one  time 
the  herd  was  fed  almost  exclusively  on 
kafir  corn  meal  and  the  butter  thus 
obtained  was  pronounced  of  excellenc 
quality  by  competent  judges.  In  exceed- 
ingly dry  seasons,  some  dust  may  be  car- 
ried by  kafir  corn  and  may  get  into  the 
milk  if  special  care  is  not  exercised. 

Linseed  meal — The  importance  of  this 
feed  for  milch  cows  is  apparent  from  its 
high  protein  content  and  its  laxative  and 
regulative  action  upon  the  bowels.  In 
Colorado,  linseed  meal  produced  a  higher 
percentage  of  milk  fat  than  any  other 
grain  compared  with  it,  and  in  Iowa  it 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


445 


was  found  that  either  linseed  meal  of 
ground  flaxseed  could  be  safely  fed  in 
rations  of  8  pounds  a  day. 

In  Kentucky,  it  has  been  observed 
that  when  linseed  meal  is  added  to  the 
ration,  the  coat  of  the  cows  is  sleek  and 
the  animals  appear  thrifty.  At  ordi- 
nary prices  it  is  not  believed  that  more 
than  5  pounds  can  be  fed  daily  with 
profit,  and  as  a  rule  1  to  2  pounds  is 
more  economic.  When  1  pound  of  lin- 
seed meal  is  added  to  a  ration  of  6  to 
8  pounds  of  corn  and  bran  a  consider- 
able increase  is  noted  in  the  amount  of 
milk  and  a  slight  increase  in  the  fat 
percentage.  Linseed  meal  may  likewise 
be  profitably  fed  to  cows  on  pasture.  As 
compared  with  an  exclusive  corn  meal 
ration,  the  addition  of  linseed  meal  and 
bran  will  always  increase  the  yield  of 
milk  and  butter.  The  old  and  new 
process  linseed  meal  are  of  about  equal 
value.  In  Michigan,  no  specific  effect 
of  linseed  meal  was  noted  in  the  butter. 
In  Pennsylvania,  it  proved  equal  to  cot- 
tonseed meal,  and  in  Wisconsin,  slightly 
superior  for  producing  milk  when  com- 
pared  with  either  wheat  bran  or  corn 
meal,  and  a  rather  better  quality  of 
butter  was  obtained.  According  to  Ger- 
man experience,  flaxseed  may  disturb 
the  digestion  unless  fed  in  small  quan- 
tities. 

Nutrene— This  feed,  acording  to  Hilla, 
contains  molasses  absorbed  by  oat  clip- 
pings, together  with  cottonseed  hulls, 
corn  and  a  little  cottonseed  meal.  Some 
of  the  cows  to  which  Hills  fed  nutrene 
showed  considerable  aversion  to  it  and 
only  one  ate  a  full  ration  of  8  pounds 
a  day.  The  market  price  of  nutrene 
during  this  experiment  was  $23,  and  the 
results  from  it  indicate,  that  it  was  not 
a  profitable  feed  at  that  price. 

Oats — This  grain  is  quite  extensively 
fed  to  milch  cows.  In  Vermont,  an  oat 
feed  was  found  equal  to  a  mixture  of 
bran  and  corn  meal  in  equal  parts. 
Quaker  oat  feed  made  2  or  3  per  cent 
less  milk  than  a  mixture  of  corn  meal 
and  bran,  but  the  quality  of  the  milk 
was  the  same.  At  the  Maine  experiment 
station,  oats  were  found  equal  to  wheat 
bran  for  milk  production,  while  in  Wis- 
consin, they  proved  rather  more  effective, 
but  also  more  expensive.  In  Scotland, 
oats  are  considered  as  producing  an  ex- 
cellent quality  of  butter.  ^  Ordinarily, 
this  grain  is  too  high  in  price  to  be  used 
as  an  economic  dairy  feed. 


Peas — In  Scotland,  peas  are  much 
prized  as  a  dairy  feed,  but  are  not  as 
much  used  for  milch  cows  in  this  coun- 
try as  in  fattening  rations  for  steers, 
sheep  and  hogs. 

Rye  meal — This  grain  was  tested  at 
the  Pennsylvania  experiment  station  in 
a  well-balanced  ration.  It  checked  the 
flow  of  milk  slightly  and  proved  to  be 
inferior  to  corn  meal.  It  is  not  much 
used  as  a  feed  for  milch  cows. 

Sorghum  meal — In  experiments  in 
New  Jersey,  this  meal,  when  free  from 
hulls,  had  no  bad  effect  on  the  health 
of  the  cows  and  did  not  unfavorably 
influence  the  taste,  color  or  composition 
of  the  milk.  It  produced  7  per  cent  less 
milk  than  corn  meal  compared  with  it 
under  similar  conditions. 

Spelt—Wilson,  in  South  Dakota,  has 
found  that  it  required  2  pounds  more 
of  spelt  to  produce  a  pound  of  butter 
fat  than  when  barley  or  corn  is  fed 
under  the  same  conditions.  The  weight 
of  the  cows,  however,  increased  some- 
what more  on  a  spelt  ration  than  on  a 
corn  ration. 

LARGE  VS  SMALL  GRAIN  RATION'S 

It  is  a  matter  of  great  importance 
to  determine  the  relative  economy  in 
grain  rations  of  different  size.  The 
ability  of  different  cows  to  make  a  profit- 
able use  of  grain  varies  greatly,  and  the 
grain  rations  as  actually  fed  by  different 
dairymen  vary  from  2  to  12  pounds  a 
day.  It  should  be  understood,  however, 
that  only  the  best  dairy  cows  can  utilize 
the  large  grain  rations.  It  may  be  laid 
down  as  a  general  principle  that  the 
more  grain  the  cow  can  utilize  properly, 
the  greater  profit  she  yields  to  the  dairy- 
man. The  actual  size  of  the  profitable 
ration,  however,  must  be  determined  by 
careful  observation  of  each  individual 
cow.  This  is  a  matter  which  depends 
entirely  on  the  skill  of  the  feeder. 

At  the  Vermont  experiment  station, 
a  few  cows  on  rations  of  6  torl4  pounds 
a  day  of  mixed  meal,  showed  an  increase 
in  the  quantity  and  fat  content  of  the 
milk.  The  milk  sugar  was  especially 
increased.  Other  cows,  however,  got  off 
feed  or  showed  no  change.  In  these 
experiments,  cows  gave  one-third  more 
milk  and  butter  fat  on  full  grain  ra- 
tions than  without  grain,  and,  as  a  rule, 
better  results  were  obtained  from  heavy 
than  from  light  grain  feeds.     Only  good 


446 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


cows,  however,  were  able  to  make  profit- 
able use  of  more  than  8  pounds  of  grain 
a  day.  Similarly  in  Utah  and  Wiscon- 
sin, it  has  been  found  that  it  does  not 
pay  to  feed  more  than  8  pounds  of  grain 
daily  and  that  a  ration  of  12  pounds 
may  be  fed  at  a  loss,  and,  in  some  in- 
stances, with  bad  effects  on  the  animal. 
Experiments  in  New  York,  Kansas,  Mis- 
sissippi and  North  Dakota  show  that 
the  immediate  effect  of  feeding  grain 
to  cows  while  on  pasture  may  not  be 
apparent,  but  that  the  weight  of  the 
cews  is  better  maintained  than  without 
grain  and  tbat  beneficial  results  are  seen 
in  the  flow  of  milk  late  in  the  season,  or 
even  during  the  succeeding  season.  At 
the  New  Jersey  experiment  station,  10 
pounds  a  day  appeared  to  be  the  largest 
possible  grain  ration;  while  in  Utah,  S 
pounds  was  set  down  as  the  outside 
limit,  and  feeds  of  more  than  6  pounds 
increased  the  cost  of  the  milk. 

Hills,  in  Vermont,  has  given  much 
attention  to  the  question  regarding  the 
size  of  the  grain  ration.  It  appears 
from  his  experiments  that  the  more  grain 
fed,  the  more  milk  and  total  solids  ob- 
tained, and  the  more  fat  in  the  milk. 
When  very  low  grain  rations  were  used, 
as,  for  example,  2  pounds  or  under,  the 
quality  of  the  milk  was  lowered.  Hills 
finds  that  a  pound  of  dry  matter  makes 
rather  more  milk  in  a  low  than  in  a  me- 
dium ration,  but  when  2  pounds  of  grain 
were  fed  instead  of  4  pounds,  $13.32  were 
saved  on  grain  bills  and  $3.74  lost  in 
butter;  when,  however,  2  pounds  of 
grain  instead  of  8  were  fed,  $8.40  were 
saved  on  grain  bills  and  $6.42  lost  in 
butter.  The  4-pound  ration,  therefore, 
paid  better  than  the  2-pound  ration,  both 
from  the  standpoint  of  butter  produc- 
tion, skimmed  mill?  and  fertilizer  value 
of  the  manure;  and  since  the  8-pound 
ration  came  within  $2  of  meeting  the 
extra  grain  bills  by  the  extra  butter 
yield,  and  the  fertilizer  value  of  the 
manure  exceeded  that  of  the  low  ration 
by  nearly  $5,  the  heavy  grain  ration 
may  be  considered  as  justified.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  when  abundant 
coarse  forage  is  produced  on  the  farm, 
early  cut  hay,  containing  clover,  and 
corn  silage  may  be  fed  in  such  liberal 
quantities  that  the  extra  milk  and  fer- 
tilizer value  obtained  by  feeding  8 
pounds  of  corn  instead  of  4  may  often 
be  insufficient  to  pay  for  the  extra  cost 
of  the  grain.  It  is  obvious  from  this 
discussion  that  the  feeder  must  take  ail 


factors  of  the  problem  into  consideration 
in  determining  upon  the  size  of  the 
ration  for  his  cows. 

In  careful  tests  carried  on  by  Hills, 
it  appeared  that  when  2  pounds  of  grain 
were  added  to  a  ration  of  hay,  silage 
and  2  pounds  of  grain,  thus  making  4 
pounds  in  all,  9  per  cent  more  milk  was 
produced  and  the  fat  content  of  the  milk 
was  somewhat  increased.  When  some 
grain  was  dropped  from  an  already  low 
grain  ration,  the  amount  of  milk  was 
diminished,  but  the  dry  matter  in  the 
feed  produced  almost  as  much  milk, 
pound  for  pound.  The  results  of  the 
experiments  carried  out  in  Vermont, 
were  not  always  in  harmony,  depending 
greatly  on  the  cost  of  the  grain  feeds. 
At  times  the  experiments  were  in  favor 
of  a  restricted  grain  ration,  especially 
when  grains  were  high  and  coarse  fod- 
ders relatively  cheap.  The  economy  of 
milk  production  may  be  somewhat  im- 
proved by  restricting  the  grain  ration 
in  cases  where  nearly  all  of  the  grain 
has  to  be  purchased  from  feed  dealers. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  ration  is  re- 
duced too  low,  the  cows  fall  off  in  live 
weight  and  ultimately  the  economy  of 
milk  production  is  affected. 

KTARROW  VS   WIDE   BATIONS 

As  a  rule,  nitrogenous  grains  are  more 
effective  in  milk  production  than  corn. 
Some  of  the  feeding  standards,  how- 
ever, as  adopted  by  Germans  for  dairy 
cows,  contain  too  much  protein  to  be 
economical.  The  ordinary  American  ra- 
tions are  more  economical,  but  some  of 
them  are  somewhat  too  narrow,  espe- 
cially when  it  is  considered  that  in 
many  sections  corn  and  other  carbo- 
naceous feeds  may  be  produced  very 
cheaply.  As  a  rule,  narrow  rations  are 
recommended  for  milch  cows. 

Narrow  rations  have  been  found  supe- 
rior to  wide  rations  in  experiments  iu 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  Nebraska,  New 
Hampshire,  Pennsylvania,  Kentucky, 
Texas  and  elsewhere.  In  Vermont,  no 
striking  differences  were  noted  between 
the  effects  of  wide  and  narrow  rations, 
while  in  New  Jersey  butter  and  milk 
were  produced  more  economically  on 
well  balanced  than  on  irregular  rations, 
either  too  wide  or  too  narrow.  Storrs 
experiment  station  investigated  the  ra- 
tions in  use  among  dairymen  in  Con- 
necticut and  found  that  the  amount  of 
protein  could  be  profitably  increased  in 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


447 


almost  every  case.  At  Cornell  univer- 
sity, it  appeared  that  a  medium  ration 
gave  a  better  yield  of  milk  than  a  nar- 
row or  wide  ration.  As  the  result  of  a 
continued  study  of  narrow  and  wide 
rations  at  Storrs  experiment  station,  it 
was  found  impossible  to  assume  that  the 
cost  of  a  quart  of  milk  was  much  influ- 
enced by  changes  in  rations  suggested 
by  the  experiment  station  authorities, 
which  in  all  cases  contained  more  pro- 
tein than  was  being  fed  by  the  dairy- 
men. 

The  net  cost  of  a  quart  of  milk  was 
less  with  the  recommended  than  with 
the  original  rations  fed  by  the  dairymen, 
if  account  be  taken  of  the  increased 
value  of  the  manure  obtained  from  a 
narrow  ration.  It  is  believed,  therefore, 
that  rations  containing  more  protein 
than  those  ordinarily  fed  to  dairy  cows, 
are  the  more  economical  of  the  two,  but 
that,  in  this  statement  of  relative  econ- 
omy, more  emphasis  should  be  laid  on 
the  additional  value  of  the  manure  ob- 
tained from  the  more  nitrogenous  ra- 
tions. 

ROOTS  AND  FRUIT  FOR  MILCH 
COWS 

In  order  to  produce  large  quantities 
of  milk  in  an  economical  way,  it  is 
necessary  to  add  considerable  succulence 
to  the  rations  for  dairy  cows.  This  may 
be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  roots, 
windfall  fruit,  soiling  crops,  silage  or 
pasture. 

Apples — This  fruit,  especially  wind- 
falls or  diseased  specimens  are  often 
fed  to  dairy  cows,  but  like  other  fresh 
fruit,  they  have  but  little  feeding  value. 
Their  chief  value  is  in  adding  palatabil- 
ity  and  succulence  to  the  ration  as  a 
whole.  In  Canada,  apples  appeared  to 
be  inferior  to  apple  pomace  for  main- 
taining the  milk  flow,  and  in  some  cases 
apples  appeared  to  lend  an  undesirable 
flavor  to  the  milk. 

The  most  extensive  study  of  apple 
pomace  for  cows  has  been  made  by  Hills 
in  Vermont.  In  a  series  of  tests  ex- 
tending over  four  years,  it  appears  that 
apple  pomace  is  about  equal  to  corn 
silage  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cows,  when 
used  in  rations  of  about  15  pounds  a 
day.  Even  when  rations  of  24  to  35 
pounds  a  day  were  fed,  no  bad  results 
were  produced,  either  in  the  cows  or  in 
the  milk,  and  the  pomace  appeared  to 
be  an  economical  feed  in  rations  of  that 
size.     No   special   care   is   necessary  in 


feeding  apple  pomace  in  rations  of  mod- 
erate size.  Hills  considers  that  pomace 
at  $1  a  ton  is  a  bargain  and  that  it  still 
remains  equal  to  corn  ensilage  when  the 
price  is  considerably  higher.  Hills, 
therefore,  recommends  its  use  among 
dairymen,  but  suggests  that  cows  should 
gradually  be  made  accustomed  to  it.  In 
a  number  of  tests,  apple  pomace  silage 
made  more  milk  and  butter  than  imma- 
ture corn  silage,  and  the  butter  was  not 
unfavorably    affected. 

Artichokes—In  a  test  at  the  Vermont 
experiment  station,  these  roots  showed 
a  feeding  value  about  equal  to  corn  si- 
lage. Artichokes  are  more  generally  fed 
to  swine  than  to  cows,  for  the  reason 
that  swine  are  able  to  harvest  them 
without  any  expense. 

Beets — Field  beets  or  garden  beets,  in 
experiments  in  Ohio,  made  more  milk 
than  corn  silage,  but  did  not  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  cows  so  well.  In  other 
tests,  also,  beets  seemed  to  be  slightly 
superior  to  silage.  They  tended  to  in- 
crease the  consumption  of  other  feeds, 
which  may  be  interpreted  as  meaning 
simply  an  improvement  of  the  appetite. 
As  the  result  of  all  experiments  with 
field  beets,  it  is  concluded  that  they  are 
about  equal  to  corn  silage  for  milk  pro- 
duction, but  somewhat  more  expensive 
to  raise. 

Cabbage — This  vegetable  is  sometimes 
fed  to  cows.  It  was  greedily  eaten  by 
cows  in  a  test  made  in  Iowa,  and  in- 
creased the  yield  of  milk  and  butter. 
The  quality  of  the  butter  from  cabbage, 
however,  was  somewhat  inferior  and  the 
butter  did  not  keep  well. 

Carrots — These  roots  are  fed  to  all 
kinds  of  farm  animals  as  an  appetizer 
and  to  add  succulence  to  the  ration. 
When  xised  in  Massachusetts  to  replace 
a  portion  of  the  hay  ration,  they  in- 
creased the  milk  yield  more  than  corn 
silage  did  under  similar  conditions. 

Mangel-wurzel—This  root  has  been 
found  equal  to  sugar  beets  as  a  milk 
producer  in  Canadian  experiments.  In 
Iowa,  more  milk  was  obtained  from 
mangel-wurzels  than  from  sugar  beets, 
red  table  beets  or  turnips.  The  fat  per- 
centage of  the  milk,  however,  was  lower 
than  from  turnips.  In  Massachusetts, 
mangel-wurzels  proved  inferior  to  corn 
silage  for  milk  production,  while  in 
Michigan  they  seemed  to  lessen  some- 
what the  digestibility  of  other  parts  of 
the  ration. 


448 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Potatoes — During  quite  extensive  ex- 
periments in  Vermont,  Hills  found  that 
potatoes  were  eaten  more  freely  than 
silage,  but  were  somewhat  inferior  in 
effectiveness.  Butter  from  a  potato 
ration  was  salvy  and  of  poor  keeping 
quality.  It  was  shown  that  potatoes  at 
a  price  higher  than  15  cents  a  bushel 
are  a  more  expensive  feed  than  silage. 
At  present  prices,  therefore,  they  can 
scarcely  be  considered  an  economic  dairy 
feed. 

In  Iowa,  it  was  found  that  high-grade 
butter  could  not  be  made  from  cows 
which  received  more  than  10  pounds  of 
raw  potatoes  daily.  The  butter  from 
potatoes  was  colorless  and  lacked  keep- 
ing qualities.  In  Michigan,  potatoes 
lessened  the  digestibility  of  other  parts 
of  the  ration,  but  produced  no  apparent 
effect  on  the  milk  or  butter.  According 
to  French  experience,  dairy  cows  may  be 
fed  an  exclusive  ration  of  potatoes  with 
increase  in  milk  flow,  but  loss  in  weight. 

Pumpkins  —  Hills  has  thoroughly 
tested  the  feeding  value  of  pumpkins  for 
milch  cows.  For  two  years  experiments 
were  carried  on,  during  which  it  ap- 
peared that  pumpkins  may  be  given  in 
rations  of  about  40  pounds  daily  with 
good  results.  Six  per  cent  more  milk 
and  more  solids  and  fat  in  the  milk 
were  made  when  pumpkins  were  fed 
than  when  they  were  omitted  from  the 
ration,  and  since  there  was  5  per  cent 
less  dry  matter  fed,  the  value  of  the 
pumpkins  was  somewhat  higher  than 
just  indicated. 

In  one  set  of  experiments,  21/2  pounds 
of  pumpkins  were  found  equal  in  feed- 
ing value  to  1  pound  of  silage.  In  the 
second  test,  3,300  pounds  of  pumpkins 
with  700  pounds  of  silage  took  the  place 
of  500  pounds  of  hay  and  900  pounds 
of  apple  pomace.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  actual  feeding  value  of  pumpkins  is 
about  $2  a  ton,  and  it  appears  doubtful 
whether  as  much  or  as  cheap  dry  matter 
can  be  produced  in  pumpkins  as  in  corn 
fodder.  The  quality  of  the  milk  was  not 
affected  by  pumpkins,  and  the  cows  were 
not  injured  in  any  way.  According  to 
German  experience,  pumpkins  produce 
less  milk,  but  rather  more  butter,  than 
mangel- wurzels. 

Sugar  beets — This  is  the  most  impor- 
tant root  fed  to  dairy  cows  and  recently 
has  taken  a  larger  place  in  dairy  rations 
than  ever  before.  Sugar  beets  may  be 
fed  sliced  to  cows,  if  the  price  is  low, 
or  if  sugar  beet  factories  are  not  con- 
venient, but  where  more  money  can  be 


obtained  for  the  beets  from  factories 
than  in  the  form  of  milk,  it  is  best  to 
sell  the  beets  and  feed  sugar  beet  pulp. 
Cossettes,  molasses  and  sugar  have  also 
been  fed  to  cows  with  favorable  results. 
Perhaps  the  most  extended  account  of 
the  use  of  sugar  beets  for  cattle  feeding 
has  been  furnished  by  L.  S.  Ware.  Ac- 
cording to  Ware,  sugar  beet  pulp  or  cos- 
settes may  be  fed  in  rations  of  20  to 
80  pounds,  either  fresh  or  ensiled,  with 
a  suitable  quantity  of  grain  and  hay, 
say  6  pounds  each  a  day.  The  pulp  and 
cossettes  differ  in  composition  from  the 
whole  sugar  beets  in  containing  almost 
no  sugar,  but  relatively  larger  quantities 
of  other  nutrients.  In  many  cases,  a 
ration  has  been  used  containing  a  small 
quantity  of  sugar  beets  and  a  much 
larger  quantity  of  pulp  in  addition  to 
hay  and  grain. 

In  Canada,  sugar  beets  proved  equal 
to  mangels  as  milk  producers,  but  in 
Iowa  they  were  found  to  be  somewhat 
inferior.  It  appeared  that  the  highest 
grade  of  butter  could  not  be  made  from 
cows  eating  more  than  20  pounds  of 
sugar  beets  a  day.  The  butter  was  of 
standard  color,  however,  and  kept  well. 

Experiments  in  Massachusetts  indi- 
cate that  sugar  beets  used  to  replace  a 
part  of  the  hay  ration  may  be  expected 
to  increase  the  milk  flow  rather  more 
than  corn  silage.  In  Oregon,  sugar 
beets  proved  equal  to  carrots  and  supe- 
rior to  mangels  in  the  flavor  imparted 
to  the  butter.  At  Cornell  university, 
sugar  beet  pulp  was  fed  in  rations  of 
50  to  100  pounds  a  day,  and  it  was  found 
that  partly  dried  pulp  was  about  equal 
in  feeding  value  to  corn  silage.  As  it 
comes  from  the  factory,  however,  this 
pulp  is  not  worth  more  than  half  as 
much  as  silage.  In  Colorado,  Buffum 
fed  cows  24  pounds  of  sugar  beet  pulp 
a  day  for  six  weeks  in  addition  to  hay 
and  grain  and  produced  an  average  gain 
of  weight  of  6  pounds  a  week,  while  the 
weekly  milk  yield  was  131  pounds  on 
pulp  and  127  pounds  on  sugar  beets. 
The  weekly  butter  production  a  cow  was 
6.7  pounds  on  beet  pulp  and  6.9  pounds 
on  sugar  beets.  The  milk  contained  a 
little  more  fat  when  the  cows  were  fed 
sugar  beets.  At  the  ordinary  price  for 
beet  pulp  and  sugar  beets,  more  than 
three  times  as  much  profit  was  obtained 
from  feeding  24  pounds  of  pulp  a  day, 
as  from  12  pounds  of  sugar  beets.  In 
these  experiments  the  feeding  value  of 
pulp  for  butter  production  was  $2.60  a 
ton  and  that  of  sugar  beets  $5.06. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


449 


Smith,  in  Michigan,  reports  that 
cows  eat  beet  pulp  readily  to  the  extent 
of  50  to  100  pounds  a  day  and  make  a 
profitable  yield  of  milk  from  it. 

Dried  pulp — According  to  the  expe- 
rience of  Billings,  in  New  Jersey,  fresh 
sugar  beet  pulp  is  hard  to  handle  in  the 
natural  state  and  must  be  used  imme- 
diately in  order  to  prevent  its  undergo- 
ing undesirable  changes.  The  amount 
of  water  in  fresh  pulp  used  in  these 
experiments  was  about  S2  per  cent.  Bil- 
lings presents  a  number  of  arguments 
in  favor  of  drying  sugar  beet  pulp  before 
feeding.  The  pulp  may  then  be  kept  in- 
definitely without  suffering  harm;  it  is 
easy  of  shipment,  one  ton  of  dried  pulp 
being  equivalent  to  about  13  tons  of 
fresh  pulp  and  by  soaking  tbe  dried  pulp 
with  water  just  before  feeding,  all  the 
advantages  of  a  succulent  feed  may  be 
obtained.  The  dried  pulp  may  be  profit- 
ably fed  in  rations  of  10  pounds  and 
costs  about  $20  a  ton.  Dried  beet  pulp 
produced  10  per  cent  more  milk  and  9 
per  cent  more  butter  than  a  corn  silage 
ration,  and  at  the  same  time  seemed 
more  effective  in  maintaining  the  weight 
of  the  cows.  As  compared  with  dried 
molasses-beet  pulp,  the  plain  dried  pulp, 
was  somewhat  less  effective,  but  more 
economical.  In  Denmark,  it  has  been 
found  that  butter  from  sugar  beet  pulp 
is  equal  to  that  from  mangels  and  that 
12  pounds  of  pulp  are  equal  to  1  pound 
of  mixed  barley  and  oats.  It  is  evident 
from  the  numerous  feeding  experiments 
and  from  the  experience  of  practical 
dairyman  with  sugar  beet  pulp,  that  this 
material  constitutes  an  excellent  means 
of  adding  succulence  to  the  ration  for 
dairy  cows  and  may  well  take  the  place 
of  corn  silage  in  those  western  states 
in  which  corn  is  not  extensively  pro- 
duced. 

Turnips — According  to  Canadian  ex- 
perience, turnips  fed  at  the  rate  of  ^ 
bushel  a  day,  give  no  bad  flavor  to  the 
milk,  whether  fed  before  or  after  milk- 
ing. When  the  daily  ration  is  1  bushel 
a  day,  however,  a  turnipy  odor  appears 
in  the  milk  upon  heating  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  110°  F.  In  such  cases,  the  odor 
is  more  pronounced  when  the  turnips 
are  fed  before  milking,  but  is  removed 
by  pasteurizing  the  milk.  Turnip  tops 
have  been  fed  with  good  results  in  the 
milk  yield.  In  Iowa,  more  milk,  but  of 
an  inferior  quality,  was  obtained  from 
turnips  than  from  mangels,  and  in  some 


experiments  in  Norway  turnips  fed  even 
to  the  extent  of  2V2  bushels  a  day  gave 
no  taint  to  the  milk.  The  turnipy  flavor 
may  best  be  avoided  by  feeding  the  tur- 
nips after  milking. 

FORAGE  CROPS  FOR  MILCH  COWS 

Dairy  cows,  like  steers,  can  profitably 
utilize  a  large  quantity  of  coarse  mate- 
rial. The  relative  amount  of  succulent 
material  in  tbe  ration,  however,  should 
always  be  considerably  higher  with  dairy 
cows  than  with  steers.  The  amount  of 
grain  as  compared  with  the  total  amount 
of  hay  or  other  coarse  forage  and  roots, 
silage  or  other  green  material,  is,  as  a 
rule,  perhaps  somewhat  lower  in  dairy 
feeding  than  in  fattening  steers.  In 
the  following  paragraphs  notes  are  given 
on  the  more  common  coarse  fodders  used 
for  milch  cows. 

Alfalfa — In  the  arid  regions,  alfalfa 
is  by  all  means  the  most  important  for- 
age plant  for  cows,  serving  as  pasture 
and  soiling  crop,  silage  or  hay.  More- 
over, alfalfa  is  gradually  gaining  in 
favor  throughout  the  eastern  and  south- 
ern states,  where  it  has  been  cultivated 
in  a  proper  manner.  In  some  localities, 
the  profits  obtained  from  alfalfa  in  feed- 
ing dairy  cows  have  exceeded  that  from 
any  other  crop.  In  Canada,  it  has  been 
reported  that  alfalfa  was  eaten  with 
more  relish  than  green  rye  and  gave  a 
better  flavor  to  the  butter.  Likewise  in 
New  York,  alfalfa  produced  more  milk 
than  any  other  green  forage,  or  even 
silage.  The  quality  of  the  milk  was 
sometimes  poorer  than  that  of  milk  from 
corn  fodder  or  silage.  In  Utah,  alfalfa 
has  proved  superior  to  mixed  hay  and 
cheaper  and  more  effective  than  corn 
fodder.  In  New  Jersey  and  vari- 
ous other  localities,  it  has  been  shown 
beyond  question  that  alfalfa  hay  or 
green  alfalfa  may  be  substituted  for  a 
part  of  the  wheat  bran,  dried  brewers' 
grains  or  other  grains  which  would  nat- 
urally be  used  in  rations  for  dairy  cows. 

When  cows  are  allowed  to  eat  alfalfa 
hay  ad  libitum,  Otis  found  that  each 
cow  would  consume  as  much  as  43 
pounds  a  day  in  addition  to  some  kafir 
corn  fodder.  The  results  were  somewhat 
better,  however,  when  the  alfalfa  ration 
was  reduced  to  30  pounds  a  day.  As  a 
rule,  it  is  a  safe  proposition  to  allow 
cows  all  the  coarse  forage  they  will  eat, 
but  with  the  best  quality  of  alfalfaand 
clover  hay  they  may  consume  relatively 
too  much.     Otis  considers  alfalfa  at  $7 


450 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


a  ton  preferable  to  red  clover  at  $6  a 
ton,  prairie  hay  at  $4  or  millet  hay  at 
$5.  Otis  has  pastured  dairy  cows  on  al- 
falfa in  both  the  spring  and  fall  seasons. 
Bloating — In  the  use  of  alfalfa  pas- 
tures it  should  be  remembered  that  this 
material  may  sometimes  cause  serious 
bloating.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
allow  the  cows  to  become  accustomed  to 
it  gradually.  A  form  of  alfalfa  bit  has 
been  devised  which,  when  placed  in  the 
cow's  mouth,  prevents  her  from  eating 
the  green  alfalfa  too  fast  and  helps 
slightly  in  some  instances  in  allowing 
the  gases  to  escape.  Otis  failed  to  ob- 
tain entirely  satisfactory  results  with 
the  use  of  these  bits,  but  considers  them 
as  a  slight  help.  Cows  on  alfalfa  pas- 
ture maintained  a  large  milk  flow  and 
kept  their  weight  well.  In  some  cases 
they  become  so  fond  of  the  alfalfa  as 
to  need  but  little  grain,  or  even  to  refuse 
the  grain.  The  danger  of  bloating,  how- 
even,  on  alfalfa  pasture  should  be  borne 
in  mind,  unless  considerable  experience 
has  been  had  with  this  crop. 

For  silage — Otis  also  experimented 
with  alfalfa  for  silage,  the  first  crop 
being  used  for  this  purpose.  The  chief 
reason  for  ensiling  the  first  crop  is  that 
at  this  time  of  year  the  weather  is  less 
favorable  for  making  a  good  quality  of 
hay.  The  alfalfa  silage  appeared  not  to 
be  as  sour  as  corn  silage  and  showed  a 
tendency  to  dry  on  exposure  rather  than 
spoil.  Otis  reports  very  good  results 
from  his  use  of  the  silage  and  considers 
it  as  a  suitable  substitute  for  roots. 

Alfalfa  hay  is  considered  by  Otis  an 
indispensable  factor  in  dairying.  It  con- 
tains about  11  pounds  of  digestible  pro- 
tein for  every  100  pounds  of  hay  and 
may,  therefore,  be  substituted  to  some 
extent  for  the  grain  ration.  Economy 
of  feeding  is  greatly  improved  by  the 
use  of  liberal  quantities  of  alfalfa  hay. 
Likewise  in  Maryland,  Doane  found  that 
alfalfa  was  superior  to  silage  as  a  food 
for  dairy  cows.  It  is  evident  from  these 
experiments  that  wherever  alfalfa  can 
be  successfully  raised,  it  constitutes  a 
very  effective  ration  for  the  dairy  herd, 
being  considerably  better  than  any  that 
can  be  purchased.  The  protein  in  al- 
falfa, however,  is  not  quite  as  readily 
digested  as  that  from  grain,  and,  there- 
fore, the  indicated  value  of  commercial 
alfalfa  meal,  which  is  now  offered  on 
the  market,  must  be  slightly  discounted 
for  practical  purposes. 

A  comparison  of  alfalfa  hay  with  wild 
hay,  in  Nebraska,    showed    that  the  al- 


falfa hay  is  more  effective  in  the  pro- 
duction of  milk,  and  butter  than  wild 
hay  and  has  a  slightly  greater  power  in 
maintaining  the  weight  of  the  cows.  In 
the  experiments  of  Lyon  and  Haecker, 
in  Nebraska,  it  appeared  that  alfalfa 
furnished  less  pasturage  than  many  of 
the  annual  forage  crops,  but  influenced 
the  milk  flow  more  favorably  than  any 
other  crop,  except  cowpeas.  The  average 
daily  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat 
was  greater  when  alfalfa  was  pastured 
than  when  it  was  fed  as  a  soiling  crop, 
but  the  relative  economy  from  feeding 
the  plant  in  these  two  forms  will  depend 
largely  on  the  price  of  labor  and  land. 

Alfalfa  has  been  thoroughly  tested  in 
New  Jersey  by  Lang  and  Billings  in 
various  amounts,  depending  on  the  other 
materials  fed  at  the  same  time.  With 
an  average  yield  of  4.78  tons  to  the  acre 
of  dry  forage,  valued  at  $14  a  ton,  the 
receipts  from  an  acre  would  amount  to 
$66.92,  and  the  total  cost  of  raising  and 
harvesting  this  crop  was  about  $28  an 
acre.  With  milk  at  the  market  price 
of  $1  a  hundred  pounds,  the  alfalfa  from 
one  acre  produced  $117.20  worth  of  milk, 
which  indicates  a  gain  over  the  cost  of 
production  of  314  per  cent. 

Alfalfa  vs.  grains — In  a  continued 
test  of  alfalfa  in  New  Jersey,  it  ap- 
peared that  a  purchased  ration  contain- 
ing bran,  dried  brewers'  grains,  cotton- 
seed meal  and  corn  silage  produced 
3.7  per  cent  more  milk  and  7.2  per  cent 
more  butter  than  a  ration  of  alfalfa  hay 
and  corn  silage.  The  home-grown  al- 
falfa ration,  however,  produced  a  saving 
of  33.7  per  cent  in  the  cost  of  the  milk, 
or  4.7  cents  a  pound  in  butter. 

In  Tennessee,  Soule  and  Barnes  found 
that  alfalfa  would  produce  about  5  tons 
of  hay  to  the  acre  at  a  cost  of  from  $3 
to  $5  a  ton.  These  investigators  also 
found  that  alfalfa  hay  or  cowpea  hay 
could  be  substituted  for  considerable  of 
the  bran  or  cottonseed  meal  in  the  ration 
for  dairy  cows.  In  making  this  sub- 
stitution, V-/2  pounds  of  alfalfa  were 
allowed  for  each  pound  of  wheat  bran 
and  better  residts  were  obtained  when 
the  alfalfa  was  fed  in  a  finely  chopped 
condition.  Estimating  the  alfalfa  hay 
at  $10  a  ton,  and  wheat  bran  at  $20  a 
ton,  the  alfalfa  saved  $2.80  in  the  cost 
of  every  100  pounds  of  butter  and  20 
cents  in  every  100  pounds  of  milk. 
When  fed  under  favorable  conditions, 
alfalfa  produced  a  gallon  of  milk  at  a 
cost  of  5.7  cents  and  a  pound  of  butter 
for  10  cents. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


451 


The  importance  of  supplying  protein 
in  home-grown  crops,  rather  than  buy- 
ing it,  has  been  clearly  shown  by  experi- 
ments in  New  Jersey  in  which  it  ap- 
peared that  a  ration  containing  36 
pounds  of  soy  bean  silage,  8  pounds  of 
alfalfa  hay  and  6  pounds  of  corn  meal 
produced  more  milk  and  at  a  cost  of 
8l/2  cents  less  a  100  pounds  than  a  ra- 
tion in  which  the  protein  was  supplied 
in  wheat  bran,  dried  brewers'  grains  and 
cottonseed  meal. 

Bermuda  grass  hay_This  hay  is  fed 
quite  extensively,  especially  in  the 
southern  states,  and  the  grass  is  used 
as  a  pasture  for  dairy  cows.  Few  feed- 
ing experiments  have  been  made  with 
it,  but  it  appears  that  it  is  equal  to  tim- 
othy for  milk  production. 

Bronie  grass_The  chief  advantage  of 
this  grass  is  that  it  starts  early  in  the 
spring  and  is  much  relished  by  cows.  In 
New  Hampshire,  brome  grass  pasture 
proved  not  quite  equal  to  alfalfa  or  a 
mixture  of  blue  grass  and  white  clover. 
Brome  grass  is  not  raised  extensively 
enough  for  the  hay  to  become  an  impor- 
tant element  of  the  ration  for  dairy 
cows. 

Clover  occupies  the  same  place  in  the 
northeastern  portion  of  the  country  as 
does  alfalfa  in  the  West.  It  may  be  fed 
in  the  form  of  hay,  silage,  as  a  soiling- 
crop,  or  may  be  pastured.  In  Vermont, 
clover  silage  was  found  unequal  to  corn 
silage  for  milk  production.  It  appeared 
to  be  superior  to  Hungarian  grass  for 
milk  and  butter  production  in  experi- 
ments in  Connecticut.  In  Iowa,  red 
clover  proved  about  equal  to  peas  and 
oats  as  a  soiling  crop,  and  in  Massa- 
chusetts rowen  equaled  peas  and  oats, 
but  the  cost  of  milk  production  on  rowen 
was  higher  than  on  a  combination  of 
green  vetch  or  oats  or  on  green  fodder 
corn.  In  Michigan,  clover  silage  was 
well  relished  by  cows  and  kept  well,  but 
apparently  nothing  is  added  to  the  value 
of  clover  by  ensiling  it,  as  some  farmers 
have  found  that  green  clover,  like  green 
alfalfa,  may  be  ensiled  in  outdoor  stacks 
as  well  as  in  regular  silos. 

In  Wisconsin,  a  ton  of  clover  hay 
was  found  to  be  equal  to  3  tons  of  corn 
stalks.  Ordinarily,  when  the  term 
"clover"  is  used,  reference  is  made  to 
red  clover.  From  New  Jersey  south- 
ward, however,  crimson  clover  is  an  im- 
portant crop  on  stock  farms  and  has 
been  widely  used  for  dairy  purposes. 
According  to  Lane,  in  New  Jersey,  crim- 


son clover  hay  may  be  profitably  sub- 
stituted for  nitrogenous  feeds.  In 
these  experiments,  crimson  clover  hay 
showed  a  value  of  $16.50  a  ton,  when 
wheat  bran  cost  $26  a  ton  and  dried 
brewers'  grains  $20.  The  yield  in  milk 
from  clover  hay  was  $33.10  an  acre,  or 
313  per  cent  over  the  cost  of  production. 
In  these  experiments  the  annual  yield 
ranged  from  1  to  3  tons  to  the  acre. 

Corn. — The  country  over,  corn  fur- 
nishes probably  the  most  important 
roughage  for  dairy  cows  and  more  ex- 
periments have  been  made  with  it  than 
with  any  other  crop  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. Like  most  other  forms  of  rough- 
age for  milch  cows,  corn  may  be  fed  dry 
in  the  form  of  corn  stover  or  corn  fod- 
der, ensiled,  as  a  soiling  crop,  or  occa- 
sionally green  corn  is  pastured.  Silage 
ordinarily  means  corn  silage,  since  this 
is  the  chief  crop  preserved  in  silos.  If 
corn  is  fed  in  the  form  of  silage,  the 
best  results  are  obtained  by  feeding 
some  hay  with  it. 

Conner,  in  South  Carolina,  found  that 
corn  stover  had  a  greater  feeding  value 
than  cottonseed  hulls  for  dairy  cows  and 
produced  milk  at  a  cost  of  6.8  cents 
a  gallon.  The  estimated  value  of  corn 
stover  in  these  experiments  was  $4  a 
ton.  According  to  Canadian  experience, 
corn  silage  fed  in  quantities  up  to  60 
pounds  a  day  makes  butter  equal  in 
quality  to  that  from  mixed,  coarse  fod- 
der. It  is  recommended,  however,  that 
not  more  than  50  pounds  of  silage  be  fed 
daily.  A  larger  percentage  of  fat  was 
obtained  in  milk  from  cows  on  Robert- 
son^ mixture  than  from  those  on 
straight  corn  silage. 

Nourse,  in  Virginia,  found  that  great 
reliance  may  be  placed  on  the  corn  plant 
when  the  hay  crop  is  cut  short  by  a  dry 
spring.  In  some  cases,  where  the  early 
season  is  unsuited  for  plant  growth,  late 
planted  corn  will  produce  a  cron  which 
is  far  less  expensive  for  feed  than  cot- 
tonseed hulls,  but  more  effective  in  milk 
production. 

Corn  shives — In  Maryland,  Patterson 
has  tested  corn  shives  for  dairy  cows. 
Cows  fed  on  this  material  for  a  period 
of  four  months  produced  more  milk  and 
butter  on  less  feed  than  when  hay  and 
corn  fodder  were  used.  Corn  shives 
appeavs  to  be  an  economical  feed  for 
milch  cows  and  usually  produces  more 
butter  than  is  obtained  from  hay,  even 
if  the  milk  yield  is  no  greater. 


452 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  Vermont,  Hills  has  carried  on  ex- 
tensive experiments  with  the  corn  plant, 
in  various  forms,  as  a  roughage  for 
cows.  Corn  fodder  (stalks  and  ears) 
proved  about  equal  to  silage,  the  latter 
being  slightly  better  on  the  whole.  Both 
silage  and  corn  fodder  were  better  than 
corn  stover.  In  Hills'  experiments,  green 
sweet  corn  fodder  was  somewhat  better 
relished  than  dent  corn  and  gave  a 
larger  yield  of  milk.  Dent  corn,  how- 
ever, produced  more  forage  per  acre  and 
was  a  more  profitable  crop.  Hills  also 
determined  that  the  butts  of  corn  stover 


the  same  from  all  four  forms  of  the 
corn  crop.  As  a  rule,  about  3  per  cent 
more  milk  was  obtained  from  whole 
silage  than  from  stover  silage  and  a  sim- 
ilar difference  was  observed  between  dry 
fodder  and  stover.  For  milk  production 
it  was  found  that  one  acre  of  corn  made 
into  whole  silage  equaled  1.26  acres  of 
stover  or  stover  silage  and  1.8  acres  of 
corn  fodder,  while  silage  and  stover  si- 
lage were  better  relished  by  the  cows 
than  corn  fodder  or  stover  and  the 
relative  cost  of  preparing  and  feeding 


Fig.   292 DAIRY   HERD   IN   BARE  LOT  NEAR    SILO 


are  equal  to  the  tops  and  that  corn 
stover,  as  a  whole,  is  equal  to  timothy 
hay.  In  one  experiment  in  Vermont, 
silage  proved  better  than  hay,  but  in 
this  respect  different  experiments  vary 
somewhat. 

Corn  silage — As  a  rule,  silage  from 
frosted  corn  is  inferior  to  that  which  is 
not  affected  by  frost.  In  early  tests  at 
the  Vermont  experiment  station,  corn 
silage  made  more  milk,  but  of  a  poorer 
quality  than  that  obtained  from  corn 
fodder.  The  silage  appeared  to  be  supe- 
rior, however,  to  green  corn  fodder. 
Whole  silage,  stover  silage,  corn  fodder, 
and  stover  were  all  relished  by  cows, 
and  the  quality  of  the  milk  was  about 


the    different    forms    of    the    crop    was 
greatly  in  favor  of  whole  silage. 

In  New  York,  silage  was  found  to 
increase  the  yield  of  milk  and  butter  and 
to  cheapen  the  cost;  while  in  Iowa,  corn 
fodder  made  a  better  showing  than  roots 
or  silage.  Sweet  corn  proved  somewhat 
inferior  to  peas  and  oats,  red  clover, 
soy  beans  or  cowpeas  as  a  soiling  crop, 
but  the  butter  from  sweet  corn  scored 
higher  than  any  other  soiling  crop  used 
in  comparison.  In  Michigan,  silage 
proved  more  economical  than  corn  fod- 
der or  roots.  According  to  a  test  made 
in  Maryland,  there  is  least  loss  in  feed- 
ing corn  fodder  shredded  and  mixed 
with  the  grain  and  moistened. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


453 


Hay  proved  more  expensive  than 
either  corn  fodder  or  silage  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  was  less  effective.  Silage 
produced  the  best  results,  when  fed  in 
rations  of  35  to  50  pounds,  in  addition 
to  small  quantities  of  hay.  A  too  ex- 
clusive ration  of  silage  affected  the  gen- 
eral condition  of  the  cows  unfavorably. 
The  Minnesota  experiment  station  rec- 
ommends dent  corn  for  silage  for  milch 
cows,  but  dent,  sweet,  southern  and  flint 
corn  were  found  nearly  equal.  In  New 
Hampshire,  a  change  from  a  corn  fodder 
to  a  silage  ration  increased  the  quantity 
of  the  milk  and  the  amount  of  fat  in 
it.  Silage  produced  a  softer  butter  than 
hay,  but  of  better  flavor.  In  one  test 
however,  in  Missouri,  corn  fodder  proved 
superior  to  silage. 

In  New  Jersey,  cows  showed  no  par- 
ticular preference  between  green  and 
dry  corn  fodder  and  silage.  The  latter, 
however,  was  much  more  effective  than 
fodder  or  roots,  both  in  milk  yield  and 
in  maintaining  the  weight  of  the  cows. 
In  one  experiment,  the  cost  of  harvest- 
ing, storing  and  feeding  dry  corn  fod- 
der was  less  than  in  the  case  of  silage. 
In  Pennsylvania,  it  appeared  that  dent 
corn  cut  when  the  kernels  were  mostly 
dented  and  while  the  husks  and  leaves 
were  mostly  green,  made  more  milk  fat 
than  an  equal  amount  cut  earlier  or 
later.  Moreover,  the  yield  to  the  acre 
is  a  little  less  when  the  corn  is  cut  early. 
In  Ohio,  corn  fodder  and  silage  proved 
equal  in  milk  production  and  it  is  rec- 
ommended that  silage  should  be  made 
before  the  corn  is  thoroughly  mature. 

Experiments  in  Wisconsin,  extending 
over  several  years,  show  that  silage  is 
more  effective  in  milk  production  than 
dry  corn  fodder.  Cows  sometimes  eat 
more  silage  than  fodder,  but  the  milk 
flow  is  usually  greater  on  silage  and  the 
milk  is  sometimes  richer  and  sometimes 
poorer.  Both  silage  and  fodder  are 
equally  digestible,  but  siloing  is  consid- 
ered the  most  economical  way  of  han- 
dling the  corn  crop  for  milch  cows.  If 
corn  fodder  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the 
field,  it  is  less  nutritious  than  if  cut 
when  the  corn  is  mature. 

Silage  is  an  exceedingly  important 
material  in  dairying,  and  is  used  very 
extensively.  It  was  first  prepared  in 
the  United  States  in  1875,  by  Manly 
Miles  of  Michigan,  and  is  now  used 
throughout  the  dairy  states  of  the  corn 
belt.  The  advantages  claimed  for  silage 
are  that  it  makes  possible  a  succulent 
ration  during  the  winter  or  throughout 


the  year,  and  enables  the  dairyman  to 
preserve  a  larger  percentage  of  the  crop 
than  can  otherwise  be  saved.  More  ma- 
terial can  be  kept  in  the  same  space  in 
the  form  of  silage  than  by  any  other 
method.  It  is  an  economical  process 
and  increases  the  carrying  capacity  of 
the  farm.  Silage  can  be  made  in  rainy 
weather  when  hay  would  take  much 
harm  and  various  crops  which  are  un- 
suited  for  use  as  dry  forage  may  be 
ensiled. 

Other  crops  for  silage — The  chief 
crops  used  for  silage  are  corn,  red  clover, 
crimson  clover,  sorghum,  alfalfa,  cow- 
peas and  sugar  beets,  the  latter  chiefly 
in  the  form  of  pulp.  Millet,  soy  beans 
and  other  crops  are  occasionally  used  for 
silage,  but  of  all  these,  corn  is  by  far  the 
most  important.  On  the  northern  bor- 
ders of  the  corn  belt,  flint  corn  and  some 
of  the  earliest  dents  are  used,  while  in 
more  southern  latitudes  the  dent  corn 
prevails.  Silage  is  fully  equal  to  roots 
in  feeding  value,  and  is  much  cheaper. 
It  is  pre-eminently  adapted  for  milch 
cows,  maintains  and  promotes  the  milk 
flow  and  does  not  taint  the  milk  if  fed 
just  after  milking. 

Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  ration 
of  silage  is  from  30  to  35  pounds  per 
day,  with  grain  and  hay.  For  the  con- 
struction of  the  silo  and  further  points 
on  the  use  of  silage,  see  "Soiling  Crops 
and  the  Silo,"  by  Thomas  Shaw,  and 
''Farmer's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture," 
pp.  374  to  384. 

Cowpea — The  cowpea  has  been  com- 
pared in  New  Jersey  with  common  ni- 
trogenous grain  feeds  such  as  dried 
brewers'  grains  and  cottonseed  meal. 
Cowpea  silage  was  used  in  rations  of 
36  pounds  a  day,  together  with  10 
pounds  of  crimson  clover  hay.  This 
ration  costs  16Y2  cents,  but  produced  as 
much  milk  as  a  ration  in  which  two- 
thirds  of  the  protein  was  purchased  in 
the  form  of  dried  brewers'  grains  and 
cottonseed  meal,  and  which  cost  17.1 
cents.  The  cowpea  crop  was  thus  util- 
ized in  an  economic  manner  and  gave 
a  greater  profit  than  could  have  been 
realized  by  selling  it  at  the  ordinary 
market  price.  In  the  southern  states, 
cowpeas  are  extensively  used  as  pasture 
or  silage  for  cows.  In  Mississippi,  cow- 
pea hay  proved  equal  or  a  little  better 
than  Johnson  grass.  The  results  from 
cowpeas,  however,  are  still  more  favor- 
able where  the  other  parts  of  the  ration 
contain  less  protein.  In  Nebraska,  a 
large   and  profitable  yield  of  milk   and 


454 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


butter  was  obtained  from  cowpea  pas- 
ture, and  in  Delaware,  cowpea  pasture 
was  found  to  be  almost  equal  to  prime 
June  pasture.  A  ration  of  25  pounds 
cowpea  silage  and  6  pounds  of  hay- 
proved  excellent  for  winter  feeding. 
This  silage  was  slightly  superior  to 
wheat  bran  for  milk  production  and  the 
quality  of  the  butter  was  equal  to  that 
obtained  from  bran. 

In  Tennessee,  Soule  and  Barnes  ob- 
tained results  which  show  the  great  im- 
portance of  cowpeas  in  milk  production. 
Cowpeas  were  compared  in  these  experi- 
ments with  cottonseed  meal  without 
intending  to  disparage  the  use  of  cot- 
tonseed meal,  but  to  show  the  relative 
economy  in  feeding  these  two  forms  of 
nitrogenous  materials.  Eations  contain- 
ing both  cowpea  hay  and  cottonseed 
meal  produced  the  cheapest  milk.  The 
cowpea  hay  made  a  remarkably  fine 
showing,  proving  to  be  an  excellent  sub- 
stitute for  either  wheat  bran  or  cot- 
tonseed meal.  It  was  not  only  effective, 
but  it  was  found  to  be  very  palatable 
and  greedily  eaten  by  all  of  the  cows. 
With  the  use  of  cowpea  hay  and  cotton- 
seed meal  it  was  found  possible  to  pro- 
duce milk  at  5.2  cents  a  gallon,  and 
butter  at  10  cents  a  pound.  Since  the 
usual  retail  price  of  milk  in  the  south- 
ern states  is  from  25  to  30  cents  a  gal- 
lon and  butter  25  to  30  cents  a  pound, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  southern  dairyman 
can  make  a  good  profit  if  he  uses  feeds 
in  a  rational  manner. 

Duggar,  in  Alabama,  estimating  cow- 
pea hay  at  $10  a  ton,  found  that,  ex- 
cluding the  coarse  portion  which  was  not 
eaten,  the  cowpea  hay  had  a  feeding 
value  about  equal  to  wheat  bran.  As 
ordinarily  harvested,  cowpea  hay  showed 
a  feeding  value  86  per  cent  that  of 
wheat  bran  and  the  monthly  profit  a 
cow  was  $4.35  on  a  cowpea  ration,  the 
hay  being  fed  at  the  rate  of  6^2  pounds 
a  day  in  connection  with  cottonseed 
meal.  Running  the  cowpea  hay  through 
a  feed  cutter  did  not  diminish  the  waste. 

Flat  pea — (Lathyrus  sylvestris.)  This 
plant  was  not  relished  by  cows  in  the 
test  made  in  Michigan,  either  in  the 
form  of  a  soiling  crop  or  as  silage.  The 
cows  lost  weight  on  it  and  the  milk  flow 
decreased.  Similarly  in  Germany,  flat 
pea  has  been  found  inferior  to  clover 
hay  for  milk  production. 

Hay — Hay  in  some  form  enters  into 
nearly  all  rations  for  dairy  cows,  except 
when  they  are  kept  on  pasture  or  fed 


soiling  crops.  In  the  northern  and  east- 
ern states,  hay  is  commonly  made  of 
timothy  and  clover.  In  Maine,  when 
the  change  was  made  from  a  ration  of 
13  pounds  of  hay  and  25  pounds  of  sil- 
age, with  a  suitable  amount  of  grain,  to 
8  pounds  of  hay  without  alteration  in 
the  rest  of  the  ration,  a  smaller  milk 
yield  was  obtained,  the  cows  lost  weight 
and  showed  an  unthrifty  condition.  A 
change  from  hay  to  silage,  however, 
caused  an  increased  production  of  milk 
in  tests  made  in  New  Hampshire  and 
Maine. 

In  Massachusetts,  and  elsewhere  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  salt  marsh  hay  has 
been  tested  for  cows  and  found  to  be 
less  effective  than  ordinary  hay.  If  this 
material  is  fed  after  milking,  no  taint 
is  observed  in  the  milk;  the  percent- 
age of  fat  in  the  milk,  however,  is  less 
than  on  common  hay.  Marsh  hay  is 
so  much  cheaper  than  ordinary  hay  that 
an  economical  ration  may  be  made  of 
12  pounds  of  marsh  hay  and  one  bushel 
of  corn  silage.  Marsh  grass  hay  has 
also  been  fed  to  cows  quite  extensively 
in  various  parts  of  Europe.  In  Sweden, 
when  fed  in  rations  not  to  exceed  20 
pounds  a  day,  it  proved  about  equal 
to  beets. 

Kafir  corn — Kafir  corn,  either  as  fod- 
der or  silage,  is  much  relished  by  cows, 
and  has  been  found  to  be  nearly  equal  to 
corn.  For  further  notes  on  its  feeding 
value,  see  under  Beef  cattle. 

Lespedeza — This  material  is  used  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  the  southern 
states.  In  Mississippi,  leapedeza  hay 
proved  superior  to  either  timothy  or 
Bermuda  grass  hay. 

Millet — In  Michigan,  millet  silage 
was  found  to  be  much  relished  by  cows, 
and  had  a  favorable  influence  on  the 
milk  flow.  In  North  Carolina,  how- 
ever, millet  hay  added  to  a  ration  con- 
taining corn  silage  and  grain  had  no 
observable  effect  on  the  yield  of  milk. 
Hungarian  millet  silage  was  greedily 
eaten  by  cows  in  a  test  in  Vermont  and 
proved  equal  to  hay,  but  somewhat  in- 
ferior to  corn  silage. 

Oats  and  peas — These  crops  are  us- 
ually combined  for  cows,  and  fed  green 
or  as  silage.  According  to  Canadian  ex- 
perience, oats  and  peas  produce  a  larger 
yield  to  the  acre  than  oats  and  vetch, 
but  the  two  combinations  were  about 
equal  as  milk  producers.  Hills,  in  Ver- 
mont, found  that  sometimes  oat  and  pea 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


455 


hay  is  not  much  relished,  hut  when 
eaten  readily  gives  better  results  than 
any  other  coarse  fodder.  Silage  made  of 
oats,  peas  and  vetch  was  apparently  su- 
perior to  corn  silage.  The  best  early 
pasture  for  milch  cows,  in  Nebraska, 
was  obtained  by  sowing  oats  and  peas,. 
and  in  Connecticut  this  combination 
proved  to  be  the  best  forage  crop  for 
midsummer.  In  Michigan,  oat-pea  si- 
lage is  highly  recommended  for  milch 
cows.  Oat  hay  alone  was  found  to  be 
inferior  to  timothy  and  clover  in  an 
experiment  in  New  Hampshire.  In 
Maine,  a  silage  containing  peas,  sun- 
flowers and  corn  was  found  superior  to 
corn  silage.  This  mixture,  however,  can- 
not be  used  to  replace  all  of  the  grain 
ration,  but  about  20  pounds  of  the  mix- 
ture may  be  substituted  for  3  pounds 
of  the  grain.  Pea  silage  is  also  highly 
recommended  in  Minnesota  and  else- 
where. 

Rape — Ordinarily  rape  produces  a 
good  flow  of  mill?,  but  must  be  fed  with 
caution,  since  otherwise  it  may  taint 
the  milk.  It  is  to  be  considered  a 
promising  plant  for  use  as  silage.  Ac- 
cording to  Canadian  experience,  55 
pounds  of  rape  per  day  will  produce 
slightly  more  milk  than  corn  silage  and 
of  a  higher  test.  With  this  amount  of 
rape,  however,  the  milk  will  show  a 
rape  flavor,  and  cheese  produced  from  it 
is  gassy.  In  Iowa,  a  falling  off  in  the 
milk  yield  was  noted  when  cows  were 
taken  from  pasture  and  fed  rape  as  a 
soiling  crop.  Moreover,  the  butter  was 
of  a  poor  quality.  Rape  silage  was 
greedily  eaten  by  cows  in  an  experiment 
in  Michigan,  and  no  bad  taint  was  im- 
parted to  the  milk. 

Robertson's  mixture  silage — This 
mixture  is  highly  recommended  in  Can- 
ada and  has  been  tested  in  the  United 
States,  especially  in  Maine  and  Vermont. 
In  one  experiment  it  proved  equal  and 
in  another  decidedly  superior  to  com 
silage.  Robertson's  mixture,  as  usually 
made,  contains  corn,  sunflower  heads 
and  horse  beans  in  the  proportion  of  1 
acre  corn,  one-half  acre  horse  beans  and 
one-fourth  acre  sunflowers.  When  fed 
together  with  corn  silage  it  has  been 
found  equal  to  a  mixture  of  beets  and 
carrots.  The  mixture  may  also  be  sub- 
stituted for  a  part  of  the  grain  ration. 

Rye — As  a  pasture,  soiling  or  silage 
crop,  rye  is  much  used  in  dairying.  Ac- 
cording to  Canadian  experience  it  is  in- 


ferior to  alfalfa  in  yield  per  acre  and  in 
milk  production  and  palatability.  Hills 
found  that  rye  silage  was  drier,  less 
greedily  eaten  and  made  10  per  cent  less 
milk  and  butter  than  corn  silage.  In 
Alabama,  however,  rye  proved  about 
equal  to  silage.  Rye  is  recommended  as 
a  pasture  crop  throughout  the  country, 
and  in  many  localities  is  the  earliest 
available  crop  which  may  be  used  for 
soiling  purposes. 

Serradella — In  Massachusetts,  it  was 
found  that  cows  would  eat  from  90 
to  97  pounds  of  green  serradella  a  day. 
This  material  greatly  increases  the  milk 
flow  when  substituted  for  three-fourths 
of  the  ordinary  hay  ration. 

Sorghum — Curtiss  places  sorghum  at 
the  head  of  the  list  as  a  soiling  crop 
for  midsummer  and  early  autumn.  It 
is  hardy,  a  vigorous  grower,  yields  abun- 
dantly and  adapts  itself  to  localities  of 
considerable  rainfall  and  also  of  drouth. 
Any  of  the  crop  which  is  not  needed 
for  summer  feeding  may  be  cured  for 
winter  use.  For  milk  production  it  may 
be  sown  from  early  spring  until  the 
middle  of  July.  In  Nebraska,  sorghum 
produced  the  greatest  amount  of  pasture 
among  various  crops  which  were  tested. 
In  Michigan,  sorghum  in  the  form  of 
fodder  or  silage  was  readily  eaten  by  cows, 
but  proved  inferior  to  corn.  Sorghum 
silage  was  found  to  be  an  economical 
feed  for  dairy  cows  in  Tennessee  and  far 
superior  to  cottonseed  hulls  in  a  test 
made  in  Georgia. 

Soy  bean — The  soy  bean  is  an  excel- 
lent forage  crop  for  midsummer 
throughout  the  central  states.  It  does 
not  yield  quite  as  heavily  as  sorghum, 
but  is  a  vigorous  grower  and  resists 
drouth  even  better  than  sorghum.  It 
may  be  fed  green  during  the  summer 
months  or  the  seeds  may  be  allowed 
to  ripen.  Soy  beans  ensiled  with  corn 
were  tested  by  Hills,  but  did  not  ma- 
terially improve  the  quality  of  the  silage 
or  increase  the  milk  flow  over  that  ob- 
tained by  straight  corn  silage.  A  si- 
lage containing  soy  beans  and  cowpeas 
made  less  milk  but  of  a  higher  fat  per- 
centage. The  mixed  silage  was  less  read- 
ily eaten  and  seemed  more  expensive  to 
produce.  The  production  of  butter  fat 
was  considerably  increased  in  Nebraska, 
by  the  use  of  a  soy  bean  pasture,  and  in 
Massachusetts,  soy  beans  have  been 
found  superior  to  peas  and  oats  as  a 
soiling  crop;  they  were  also  better  than 


456 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


hay  in  milk  production.  In  Alabama, 
4V2  per  cent  more  butter  was  produced 
on  soy  bean  hay  than  on  cowpea  hay, 
the  soy  bean  hay  being  fed  in  rations 
of  Q.6  pounds  a  day  in  combination  with 
cottonseed  meal  and  wheat  bran. 

Timothy — Attention  has  been  called 
by  Soule  and  others  to  the  fact  that 
large  amounts  of  timothy  hay  are  an- 
nually fed  to  dairy  cows  under  the  mis- 
taken notion  that  it  is  a  nutritious  form 
of  roughage  which  cannot  be  replaced 
by  other  cheap  home-grown  products. 
Soule  found,  however,  that  corn  stover 
could  well  be  used  to  replace  timothy 
hay  with  excellent  results  in  milk  pro- 
duction and  with  considerable  saving 
in  the  feed  bill.  Timothy  must  be  con- 
sidered as  a  poor  dairy  feed  and  should 
not  ordinarily  be  used  for  that  purpose. 
Farmers  locating  near  a  large  town  will 
find  that  they  can  secure  more  for  their 
timothy  hay  as  a  horse  feed  than  it  is 
really  worth  for  feeding  purposes  as  com- 
pared with  other  home-grown  materials. 
In  Minnesota,  timothy  was  found  to  be 
a  less  economical  feed  than  prairie  hay, 
and  in  Connecticut  both  timothy  and 
redtop  proved  to  be  unprofitable  feeds 
for  dairy  cows.  It  is  strongly  recom- 
mended that  timothy  be  replaced  by 
leguminous  hays. 

Vetch — In  Alabama,  Duggar  found 
vetch  hay  fully  equal  in  feeding  value  to 
the  same  weight  of  wheat  bran.  By  sub- 
stituting vetch  hay  for  bran,  the  cost  of 
butter  was  reduced  25  per  cent  and  a 
monthly  saving  was  made  of  $1  in  the 
feed  bill  for  each  cow.  The  cost  of  a 
pound  of  butter  on  vetch  hay  was  10 
cents,  as  compared  with  13.4  cents  on 
bran.  The  waste  in  feeding  vetch  hay 
was  about  6  per  cent  of  the  total  amount 
offered  to  the  cows.  Vetch  is  quite  ex- 
tensively used  in  mixtures,  and  has 
everywhere  proved  valuable  for  that  pur- 
pose. In  New  Hampshire,  vetch  hay 
was  found  to  be  superior  to  timothy  or 
oat  hay. 

Wheat — In  the  western  states,  wheat 
is  sometimes  cut  in  the  early  dough 
stage  and  fed  to  dairy  cows  in  the  form 
of  hay.  In  Connecticut,  wheat  was 
found  to  be,  next  to  rye,  the  earliest 
available  crop  for  soiling  purposes. 
Wheat  is  better  relished  than  rye  and 
can,  therefore,  be  fed  to  cows  for  longer 
periods. 


SOILING  CROPS 

The  practice  of  raising  forage  crops 
expressly  for  the  purpose  of  cutting 
green  and  feeding  in  this  condition,  is 
known  as  soiling.  This  practice  is 
more  extensive  in  dairy  farming  than  in 
any  other  line  of  animal  industry.  In 
a  system  of  soiling  as  compared  with 
pasture,  a  great  increase  in  the  carry- 
ing capacity  of  the  farm  is  secured,  a 
much  larger  amount  of  forage  being 
produced  on  a  given  area  of  land  than 
is  possible  by  pasture.  Moreover,  less 
land  and  less  grain  are  required,  the 
land  is  maintained  in  a  higher  state  of 
fertility  and  cultivation  and  the  manure 
may  be  saved  in  a  more  available  form. 
Soiling  becomes  necessary  from  a  finan- 
cial standpoint  as  soon  as  the  price  of 
farm  land  rises  from  the  influence  of 
proximity  of  cities.  It  then  becomes 
highly  unprofitable  to  hold  large  areas  of 
land  for  pasture.  The  system  of  soiling 
has  been  favorably  reported  on  wherever 
it  has  been  tested.  It  may  be  used  as 
the  exclusive  form  of  summer  feeding 
or  merely  to  supplement  pastures  during 
the  dry  part  of  summer.  No  extra  ma- 
chinery is  required  in  introducing  a  soil- 
ing system  upon  the  farm,  but  the  labor 
involved  is  greater  than  where  the  land 
is  left  in  pasture. 

System  of  rotation — In  order  to  have 
green  crops  for  dairy  cows  from  early 
summer  until  frost,  it  is  necessary  to 
adopt  some  system  of  rotation.  Most 
soiling  crops  do  not  remain  at  their  best 
for  more  than  10  days,  corn  and 
sorghum  excepted.  It  is  desirable, 
therefore,  to  sow  a  portion  of  each  field 
at  weekly  intervals.  If  rye  and  wheat 
are  sown  in  the  fall,  they  will  be  ready 
to  feed  in  May  and  June  of  the  following 
year.  At  the  opening  of  spring,  barley 
may  be  sown,  followed  by  four  or  five 
sowings  of  oats  and  peas ;  these  will  serve 
for  use  in  July.  At  the  last  sowing  of 
oats  and  peas,  corn  and  sorghum  may  be 
planted,  and  will  then  be  ready  in 
August  and  September.  The  land  occu- 
pied by  oats  and  peas  will  be  free  in 
June  and  may  be  planted  to  millet  or 
barley  for  use  in  September  and  Oc- 
tober. Thus,  in  New  Jersey  and  else- 
where it  has  been  found  that  by  a  suit- 
able system  of  rotation,  a  continuous 
supply  of  green  forage  may  be  obtained 
from  May  1  to  November  1,  and  that 
during  this  period  25  cows  may  be  fed 
from  7  acres  of  land. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


457 


Of  the  various  crops  used  for  soiling, 
alfalfa,  crimson  clover,  sorghum,  corn, 
rye,  red  clover,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  oats, 
peas,  millet,  kafir  corn,  vetches,  rape, 
mixed  grasses,  teosinte  and  various  other 
plants  have  given  good  results.  In  Penn- 
sylvania, it  appeared  that  from  three 
to  five  times  as  much  forage  was  pro- 
duced on  an  acre  of  ground  in  a  soiling 
system  as  from  pasture.  These  results 
have  been  abundantly  corroborated  by 
the  practical  experience  of  dairymen, 
who  follow  a  soiling  system.  It  is  de- 
sirable to  use  some  legume  at  frequent 
intervals  in  order  to  prevent  the  impov- 
erishment of  the  soil  by  continued  crop- 
ping. The  green  forage  may  be  fed  in 
the  stable  or  in  yards  according  to  con- 
venience. The  great  advantage  of  a 
soiling  system  is  that  the  crops  are 
fed  in  a  succulent  form  at  a  stage  of 
growth  when  they  are  also  most  pala- 
table and  most  nutritious.  Dairy  cows 
will  readily  eat  from  40  to  60  pounds 
of  green  forage  a  day  in  addition  to 
the  grain  ration.  Some  dairymen  rec- 
ommend that  cows  be  fed  the  green  for- 
age four  or  five  times  daily. 

In  Maryland,  Doane  found  that  while 
cows  appeared  to  do  better  on  pasture 
than  on  the  same  material  fed  to  them 
green  in  the  stable,  it  was  possible  to 
give  enough  better  feed  under  a  soiling 
system  to  compensate  for  the  difference 
in  favor  of  pasture. 

Rye  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
early  crops  grown  for  soiling.  In  Mary- 
land, Doane  made  a  comparison  between 
rye,  cowpea  silage,  corn  silage  and  other 
materials.  In  tbis  test,  it  appeared  that 
the  value  of  green  rye  has  been  much 
overestimated,  and  in  many  instances  it 
will  be  profitable  to  provide  silage  for  use 
during  the  early  season  when  rye  is 
green.  In  Massachusetts,  Lindsey  found 
that  a  mixture  of  wheat  and  winter 
vetch  makes  a  desirable  green  fodder  for 
spring.  Good  results  were  also  obtained 
from  mixtures  of  grass  and  clover,  oats 
and  peas,  barnyard  millet  and  peas,  corn 
and  soy  beans,  barley  and  peas,  etc.  In 
these  tests  it  appeared  that  the  chief  ob- 
jection to  a  system  of  soiling  lies  in 
the  time  and  labor  consumed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  crops. 

It  is  necessary  to  prepare  numerous 
small  areas  of  land  at  frequent  inter- 
vals and  to  cut  and  draw  quantities  of 
green  forage  to  the  barn  every  two  or 
three  days.  This  work  consumes  so 
much  time   as  to   interfere  with  other 


farming  operations,  but  this  objection 
would  not  hold  in  the  case  of  pure  dairy 
farming,  where  no  other  line  of  farm 
work  is  carried  on.  If  the  products  of 
the  land  are  fed  to  dairy  cows  and  the 
manure  carefully  preserved  and  returned 
to  the  land,  the  soil  is  soon  brought  to 
a  high  state  of  fertility,  as  has  been 
shown  by  Doane  and  others.  The  great 
amount  of  humus  thus  restored  to  the 
soil  favors  the  production  of  a  large 
growth  of  stalk  in  the  crops  raised  and 
thus  furnishes  more  succulent  material 
for  dairy  cows. 

Lane  has  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  three  crops  may  be  grown  upon  the 
same  ground  in  one  season,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, rye,  followed  by  a  mixture  of 
oats  and  peas,  and  this  mixture  followed 
by  corn.  If  alfalfa  is  used  for  soiling 
purposes,  from  three  to  six  crops  a  year 
may  be  cut,  depending  on  the  latitude. 

In  a  comparison  of  soiling  crops  with 
silage,  the  cows  yielded  more  milk  on 
green  forage,  but  the  fat  percentage  was 
higher  on  silage. 

Carrying  capacity  op  various  crops — 
In  Pennsylvania,  Watson  and  Mairs 
found  that  1  acre  of  clover  and  timothy 
would  carry  10  cows  for  16  days;  an 
acre  of  flat  peas,  36  days;  an  acre  of 
rape,  37  days;  an  acre  of  soy  beans,  17 
days;  an  acre  of  sorghum,  35  days;  an 
acre  of  cowpeas,  21  days;  and  an  acre 
of  corn,  16  days.  Among  these  various 
crops,  cowpeas  seemed  to  be  one  of  the 
most  effective  in  maintaining  a  large 
milk  flow.  For  soiling  purposes,  alfalfa 
proved  entirely  satisfactory  and  pro- 
duced the  largest  amount  of  protein  to 
the  acre  of  any  crop  tested.  Corn 
ranked  second  in  the  production  of  for- 
age to  the  acre,  and  mixtures  of  sor- 
ghum and  cowpeas,  and  field  peas  and 
oats  were  very  satisfactory.  Rape  was 
found  somewhat  objectionable  in  these 
tests  on  account  of  giving  a  bad  flavor 
to  the  milk  and  not  being  particularly 
palatable  to  the  cows. 

Extensive  tests  have  been  carried  on 
in  Wisconsin  to  determine  the  value  of 
a  soiling  system  and  the  relative  im- 
portance of  different  crops  for  this  pur- 
pose. As  shown  by  Carlyle  and  others, 
it  is  important  to  have  a  constant  suc- 
cession of  crops,  and  the  dairyman  must 
therefore  devise  a  scheme  by  which  he 
can  secure  a  constant  supply  of  green 
forage  for  his  locality. 


458 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


PASTXJR 

The  system  of  management  com- 
monly adopted  by  farmers  includes  one 
or  more  pasture  lots.  These  pastures 
may  be  allowed  to  remain  in  native 
grasses  for  years,  without  any  attention, 
and  of  course  this  is  the  simplest  sys- 
tem of  pasturage,  and  one  which  requires 
the  least  work.  It  is  also  the  least  satis- 
factory, for  the  reason  that  the  yield  of 
grass  is  comparatively  low,  unless  a  par- 
ticularly productive  variety  of  grass  pre- 
dominates in  the  pasture.  Better  re- 
sults are  obtained  where  pastures  are 
seeded  to  tame  grasses  and  plowed  from 
time  to  time  and  planted  to  cultivated 
crops.  While  pastures  are  at  their  best 
a  good  milk  flow  can  be  obtained  from 
them  with  small  grain  rations.  As  soon 
however,  as  the  pasture  begins  to  get 
dry,  the  results  in  milk  yield  are  unsatis- 
factory. The  pasture  may  be  helped 
out  at  all  times  by  other  green  feeds, 
roots,  silage  or  hay,  and  particular  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  this  side  of  the 
feeding  operations  late  in  the  season. 
The  great  advantage  of  pasture  is  that 
cows  may  secure  a  succulent  feed  under 
cleanly  and  healthy  conditions,  com- 
bined with  a  proper  amount  of  exercise. 

Kinds  of  pasture  grasses—May  found 
that  in  Kentucky  the  foundation  of  suc- 
cess with  the  average  dairyman  rests 
upon  nutritious  pastures  of  blue  grass, 
supplemented  by  various  introduced 
grasses.  Rye  pasture,  when  at  its  best, 
produced  a  satisfactory  milk  flow.  In 
Kansas,  Otis  made  observations  on  the 
value  of  various  grasses  for  pasture.  It 
appears  that  in  Kansas,  prairie  grasses 
are  well  adapted  for  this  purpose,  since 
they  are  nutritious  and  capable  of  with- 
standing drouth.  Excellent  results  are 
also  secured  from  pasture  containing 
orchard  grass,  English  blue  grass,  red 
clover,  brome  grass  and  wheat.  Alfalfa 
pasture  produces  enormous  quantities  of 
milk  and  keeps  the  cows  in  good  condi- 
tion: the  only  objection  to  such  pasture, 
as  already  stated,  is  the  danger  from 
bloat  until  the  cows  become  accustomed 
to  it. 

In  Nebraska,  Lyon  and  Haecker  report 
good  success  from  the  use  of  pastures  of 
cowpeas  and  brome  grass,  but  soy  beans 
and  hairy  vetch  are  not  recommended 
for  Nebraska.  The  largest  amount  of 
green  substance  was  produced  by  rye 
and  sorghum  pasture,  but  cowpeas 
made  a  greater  quantity  of  milk  and 
butter  fat  than  any  other  crop  used  in 


comparison.  In  Alabama,  Duggar  al- 
lowed cows  to  graze  on  cowpeas  which 
had  been  drilled  between  the  corn  rows. 
On  this  pasturage  the  milk  yield  was 
15  per  cent  greater,  and  butter  produc- 
tion 9  per  cent  greater  than  on  a  good 
pasture  of  Bermuda  grass  or  carpet  grass. 
The  returns  from  grazing  3  acres  of 
cowpeas  were  $15.25.  In  this  case  the 
peas  were  planted  for  their  fertilizing 
value,  and  since  the  butter  removed 
none  of  this  the  butter  obtained  is  con- 
sidered as  a  clear  profit. 

Corn  is  sometimes  planted  for  pasture, 
but  it  is  usually  more  satisfactory  to 
harvest  this  crop  in  another  way.  In 
Nebraska,  it  was  found  that  two  or  three 
times  as  much  feed  was  obtained  when 
corn  was  used  for  soiling  purposes  as 
when  it  was  pastured. 

According  to  experiments  by  Lyon 
and  Haecker  in  Nebraska,  German  mil- 
let as  a  pasture  did  not  have  as  favor- 
able an  effect  upon  the  milk  flow  or 
butter  production  as  did  leguminous 
crops   or  mixed  grasses. 

According  to  Canadian  experience, 
pasture  produces  more  and  better  milk 
than  soiling  on  rye,  oats  or  alfalfa. 
Hills  has  shown  in  experiments  extend- 
ing over  a  period  of  six  years,  that  a 
change  from  dry  feeding  in  the  barn  to 
the  pasture  produces  an  increase  in  the 
solid  matters  in  milk,  especially  in  fresh 
cows.  Drouth  affects  cows  on  pasture 
by  diminishing  the  casein  in  the  milk 
and  increasing  the  fat.  In  New  York, 
greater  returns  were  obtained  from  stall- 
fed  cows  than  from  those  allowed  on 
pastures  affected  with  drouth.  In  Utah, 
grazing  on  a  pasture  of  mixed  grasses 
under  irrigation  has  been  found  to  be 
the  most  economical  way  of  producing 
milk.  A  change  from  dry  feed  to  pas- 
ture gave  a  greater  increase  in  milk 
than  a  similar  change  to  soiling,  but 
the  composition  of  the  milk  was  not 
affected  by  pasture. 

Grain  fed  cows  on  pasture — Refer- 
ence has  already  been  made  to  the  use 
of  grain  with  cows  on  pasture.  The 
results  obtained  in  experiments  along 
this  line  are  not  all  in  harmony  but 
indicate  that  under  average  conditions 
cows  will  yield  a  little  more  milk  and 
maintain  their  weight  better  when  re- 
ceiving small  quantities  of  grain,  even 
on  the  best  pasture.  In  Mississippi, 
Moore  found  that  the  difference  in  milk 
yields  in  cows  on  good  pasture,  when  fed 
grain,   was   not   enough   to   justify  the 


DAlttY  CATTLE 


459 


use  of  grain.  Lindsey  calls  attention 
to  the  fact  that  one  reason  why  pasture 
grass  is  superior  to  many  cereal  fodders 
and  cut  green  fodders  is  that  it  con- 
tains more  protein,  pound  for  pound. 
Pasture  grass  is  also  eaten  in  a  very 
soft  and  succulent  condition,  and  for 
that  reason  contains  less  woody  fiber 
than  coarser  fodders  which  are  allowed 
to  reach  a  greater  size  before  cutting. 
Apparently,  also,  pasture  grass  has  a 
flavor  which  is  better  relished  by  cows 
than  the  flavor  which  appears  in  fodders 
when  they  come  nearer  to  maturity. 

Pasture,  soiling  and  silage  compared 
— After  this  consideration  of  the  rela- 
tive value  and  advantages  of  pasture, 
soiling  and  silage,  it  may  be  well  to 
supplement  what  was  previously  said  on 
silage  by  calling  attention  to  some 
points  in  which  it  possesses  advantages 
over  any  other  system  for  obtaining  suc- 
cident  feed  for  dairy  cows.  The  pas- 
ture will  carry  more  stock  during  the 
spring  than  at  any  other  season  and  it 
may  well  be  helped  out,  even  in  the 
spring  season,  by  some  green  forage  or 
silage  which  may  remain  from  the  win- 
ter supply.  It  requires,  however,  a  great 
deal  of  labor  to  cut  green  crops  daily 
and  haul  them  to  the  cows  and  a  still 
greater  disadvantage  attaches  to  a  soil- 
ing system  as  compared  with  the  use  of 
silage,  in  that,  in  a  soiling  system,  it 
is  necessary  to  feed  the  crops  during  a 
period  of  several  days,  thereby  harvest- 
ing a  part  of  each  crop  before  it  is 
mature;  considerable  loss  is  therefore 
suffered  in  the  nutritive  value  of  the 
crop. 

For  silage,  however,  the  whole  crop 
may  be  cut  at  the  stage  of  growth  when 
the  greatest  amount  of  material  and 
nutriment  is  obtained  and  considerable 
saving  in  the  case  of  handling  is  also 
secured.  With  nearly  all  crops  there  is 
an  increase  in  the  amount  of  nutriment 
up  to  a  certain  stage,  after  which  a 
gradual  decrease  takes  place.  Obviously, 
therefore,  the  greatest  feeding  value  may 
be  secured  by  cutting  the  crop  for  silage 
at  the  right  stage  of  growth. 

According  to  experiments  of  Otis, 
in  Kansas,  the  corn  silage  produced  on 
ordinary  corn  land  is  worth  about  $33 
per  acre  in  milk  production.  This  feed- 
ing value  is  obtained  for  far  less  labor 
than  would  be  required  in  feeding  cows 
green  forage  from  the  same  area  of 
land. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  prices 


for  grain  have  become  so  high  as  to 
reduce  the  dairyman's  profit  to  a  dan- 
gerous point,  in  many  localities  it  has 
become  necessary  to  make  various  sub- 
stitutions of  home-grown  products  for  a 
part  of  the  grain.  Williams,  in  Ohio, 
compared  two  rations  for  dairy  cows,  in 
one  of  which  more  than  50  per  cent  of 
the  dry  matter  was  derived  from  silage; 
while  in  the  other,  57  per  cent  of  the 
dry  matter  came  from  grain  and  silage 
was  omitted.  On  the  ration  containing 
silage,  the  cows  produced  5  pounds  of 
butter  fat  from  100  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter in  the  ration;  and  on  the  grain 
ration  only  4  pounds  of  butter  fat  from 
the  same  amount  of  feed.  The  cost  of 
100  pounds  of  milk  on  the  silage  ration 
was  68  cents,  and  on  the  grain  ration 
$1.05.  The  cost  of  a  pound  of  butter  on 
the  silage  ration  was  13  cents,  and  on 
the  grain  ration  22  cents.  The  average 
net  profit  on  a  cow  a  month  was  $5.86 
on  the  silage  ration  and  $2.46  on  the 
grain  ration.  The  gain  in  weight  in 
the  cows  during  this  experiment  was 
somewhat  greater  from  the  grain  ration. 
It  is  apparent,  however,  from  this  ex- 
periment, that  silage  may  be  used  to 
replace  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
grain  ration,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is 
recommended  that  silage  for  cows  be  not 
made  of  corn  alone  but  should  also  con- 
tain clover,  alfalfa,  soy  beans,  cowpeas, 
field  peas  or  vetches. 

Occasionally  silage  is  less  palatable  to 
cows  than  green  forage  or  pasture.  Now 
and  then  an  animal  will  almost  abso- 
lutely refuse  to  eat  silage.  As  a  rule, 
however,  cows  eat  it  very  greedily.  For 
example,  in  South  Dakota,  a  compar- 
ison of  different  coarse  fodders  showed 
that  silage  was  more  palatable  to  cows 
than  either  alfalfa  or  brome  grass  hay, 
and  butter  was  produced  more  cheaply 
when  cows  were  fed  all  the  silage  they 
would  eat  than  when  alfalfa  or  brome 
grass  hay  constituted  a  considerable  part 
of  the  ration. 

As  a  rule,  silage  is  decidedly  superior 
to  roots  in  the  economy  of  milk  produc- 
tion, but  where  sugar  beets  can  be 
grown  successfully,  the  difference  in  the 
effectiveness  of  these  two  feeds  is  very 
little.  Thus,  in  Nebraska,  Haecker 
found  that  while  corn  silage  gave 
slightly  better  results  than  sugar  beets 
in  milk  production,  the  difference  was 
so  small  that  they  may  be  considered 
practically  equal. 


460 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  ST  OCR 


MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDS 

In  addition  to  the  standard  feeding 
stuffs,  mentioned  in  connection  with 
dairy  cows,  a  large  number  of  other  ma- 
terials are  occasionally  fed  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  and  brief  notes  may  be 
given  on  a  few  of  them  in  this  con- 
nection. 

Sugar  feed — This  material  has  been 
tested  in  Maryland  by  Patterson.  As 
used  in  his  experiments  it  seemed  to 
contain  ground  corn  fodder  or  hay  as  a 
base;  the  taste  was  sweet  and  the  odor 
agreeable.  The  manufacturers  claim 
that  it  contains  12  per  cent  of  sugar. 
None  of  the  cows  which  received  this 
ration  seemed  to  be  satisfied  with  it. 
Only  one  cow  relished  the  food  from 
the  beginning,  and  30  pounds  seemed  to 
be  about  the  limit  for  any  of  the  cows. 
The  unsatisfactory  nature  of  the  ration 
appeared  from  the  fact  that  the  cows 
attempted  to  eat  their  straw  bedding  and 
seemed  nervous  and  hungry.  The  cows 
which  ate  reasonable  quantities  of  the 
feed  gained  in  the  size  of  milk  flow 
and  it  appears,  therefore,  to  be  suitable 
for  use  as  a  complete  ration,  provided 
cows  can  be  induced  to  eat  proper  quan- 
tities. 

Dried  molasses  beet  pulp — In  an  ex- 
periment with  this  feed  in  Vermont, 
Hills  found  that  when  2  2-3  pounds 
were  substituted  for  an  equal  quantity 
of  wheat  bran  in  an  8-pound  grain  ra- 
tion, 4  per  cent  more  milk  was  pro- 
duced and  1  per  cent  more  fat.  The 
dried  molasses  beet  pulp  appeared  to 
give  economic  results  when  the  price 
was  not  above  $12  a  ton.  Occasionally, 
however,  the  price  asked  for  this  mate- 
rial is  $20  a  ton,  and  Hills  considers 
that  at  this  figure  it  would  not  pay  to 
feed  it  for  milk.  In  fact,  it  seems 
doubtful  whether  it  is  advisable  to  use 
this  material,  even  at  the  price  of  $12  a 
ton,  if  good  corn  silage  is  available. 

Cane  sugar — Hills  added  sugar  to  the 
rations  of  dairy  cows  in  Vermont,  but 
little  effect  on  the  quantity  of  milk  was 
observed  and  the  quality  of  the  milk 
was  not  changed  at  all.  The  economy 
of  feeding  sugar  is  therefore  quite 
doubtful. 

Condimental  feeds — As  stated  under 
the  discussion  of  Beef  Cattle,  condimen- 
tal feeds  have  been  found  in  nearly  all 
careful  tests  to  be  worth  much  less  than 
the  price  ordinarily  asked  for  them. 
These  feeds  have  been  tested  in  Con- 


necticut, Maine,  Massachusetts  and  else- 
where, and  it  appears  beyond  question 
that  the  claims  made  for  them  are 
absurd  and  the  prices  extravagant. 

Bone  meal — Even  herbivorous  ani- 
mals like  cows  may  be  induced  to  eat 
considerable  quantities  of  animal  feed. 
Hills  tested  the  use  of  bone  meal  in 
Vermont  and  has  found  that  when  added 
to  rations  for  dairy  cows  it  had  but 
little  effect  on  the  ash  content  of  the 
milk,  but  increased  the  quantity  of 
phosphoric  acid. 

Skim  milk — If  calves,  pigs  or  chick- 
ens are  not  available  for  using  skim 
milk,  it  may  be  fed  to  dairy  cows.  It 
has  been  found  to  exercise  a  favorable 
effect  on  the  churnability  of  cream  and 
on  the  quality  of  the  butter.  In  Sweden, 
however,  it  appeared  that  coagulated 
skim  milk  had  little  value  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

Salt — This  is  a  necessary  part  of  the 
ration  with  dairy  cows,  as  with  other 
animals.  A  supply  of  salt  must  be  con- 
stantly accessible  to  the  cows,  either  in 
the  form  of  granulated  salt  or  large 
pieces  of  rock  salt.  According  to  Cana- 
dian experience,  the  withholding  of  salt 
from  cows  soon  causes  a  falling  off  in 
the  milk  yield  to  the  extent  of  14  per 
cent.  Similar  results  have  been  obtained 
in  Mississippi  and  elsewhere. 

Water — Cows  appreciate  an  abundant 
supply  of  cool  water  in  summer  and 
water  from  which  the  chill  has  been 
taken  in  winter.  Otis  and  others  have 
observed  that  in  summer  cows  prefer  to 
drink  where  the  water  enters  the  trough 
thus  getting  it  as  cool  as  possible;  and 
in  winter  near  the  tank  heater,  thereby 
getting  water  from  which  the  chill  has 
been  removed.  Cows  cannot  be  expected 
to  do  their  best  if  forced  to  drink  cold 
water  through  a  hole  in  the  ice  in  some 
pond  or  creek  during  winter.  It  is  really 
no  more  work  to  heat  water  enough  to 
take  the  chill  from  it  than  to  break  the 
ice.  Likewise  in  summer  the  best  results 
cannot  be  obtained  if  cows  are  forced  to 
drink  stagnant  water,  overheated,  and 
carrying  a  disagreeable  flavor  and  odor. 

The  average  cow  will  drink  from  60 
to  100  pounds  of  water  a  day,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  ration.  Hills  found 
that  cows  allowed  to  drink  at  will  gave 
2  per  cent  more  milk  that  when  watered 
at  more  or  less  frequent  intervals.  The 
quality  of  the  milk  was  somewhat  poorer 
when  cows  were  watered  in  stanchions 
than  when  allowed  to  drink  in  a  yard. 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


461 


The  numerous  tests  which  have  been 
made  regarding  the  value  of  warming 
water  in  winter  indicate  that  there  is 
no  advantage  from  heating  the  water 
more  than  merely  to  remove  the  chill. 

Maintenance  ration — It  is  practically 
impossible  to  determine  the  relative 
amounts  of  the  ration  which  the  dairy 
cow  uses  in  the  production  of  milk  and 
in  the  maintenance  of  her  weight.  _  In 
fact,  this  problem  is  ordinarily  of  little 
practical  importance,  since  the  ration 
must  supply  material,  both  for  the  main- 
tenance of  weight  and  for  the  produc- 
tion of  milk.  As  a  rule,  a  decided  fall- 
ing off  in  the  milk  yield  before  the  nor- 
mal time  for  the  period  of  lactation  to 
close  is  also  accompanied  with  a  de- 
crease in  weight.  Conversely,  rations 
which  produce  the  largest  and  most  sat- 
isfactory yields  of  milk  are  usually 
observed  to  maintain  the  cow  in  good 
condition  or  even  to  produce  a  slight 
increase  in  weight.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, dry  cows  are  carried  over  one  sea- 
son, and  it  then  becomes  desirable  to 
determine  a  good  maintenance  ration. 
This  is  likewise  the  case  during  the 
short,  dry  period  between  two  periods 
of  lactation.  In  Kansas  Otis  found 
that  wheat  straw  with  small  quantities 
of  ground  wheat  was  sufficient  to  carry 
heifers  through  the  winter  in  good  con- 
dition. These  feed  stuffs  are  available 
on  nearly  every  farm  throughout  that 
section  of  the  country,  and  such  a  ra- 
tion can  therefore  be  fed  to  heifers  or 
dry  cows  conveniently  and  at  a  low  cost. 
A  maintenance  ration  of  this  sort  need 
not  cost  to  exceed  $1.25  a  month.  The 
maintenance  ration,  however,  need  not 
be  so  simple  as  the  one  just  indicated. 
All  kinds  of  materials  may  be  used, 
and  rations  may  be  compounded  very 
similar  to  those  used  during  the  period 
of  lactation.  Naturally,  however,  the 
size  of  the  ration  should  be  smaller,  and 
less  succulence  is  required.  Thus  we 
may  use  as  a  maintenance  ration  for 
cows,  corn  fodder,  kafir  corn  fodder,  sor- 
ghum, alfalfa  or  red  clover  hay,  prairie 
hay  and  other  coarse  fodders,  according 
to  the  convenience  with  which  they  may 
be  obtained. 

Rations — Hundreds  of  suitable  ra- 
tions have  been  published  covering  the 
usual  conditions  met  with  in  every  state 
and  territory  of  the  union.  These  ra- 
tions contain  materials  which  may  be 
most  conveniently  and  cheaply  obtained 
in  different  localities.     One  of  the  most 


valuable  lists  of  this  sort  was  prepared 
by  Woll,  in  Wisconsin.  In  general,  for 
obtaining  the  best  results  from  dairy 
cows  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  bowels 
in  a  fairly  loose  condition.  This  matter 
is  easily  regulated,  if  the  effects  of  vari- 
ous feeds  are  kept  in  mind.  According 
to  the  experience  of  dairymen,  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  considered  as  loosening 
feeds:  Bran,  soy  bean  meal,  linseed 
meal,  gluten  meal,  alfalfa,  clover  and 
other  legumes,  roots,  silage  and  sorghum. 
The  following  is  a  partial  list  of  con- 
stipating feeds :  Kafir  corn,  corn,  cot- 
tonseed meal,  rye  bran,  corn  fodder, 
kafir  corn  fodder  and  various  grass  hays, 
including  timothy.  Some  attention 
must  also  be  given  in  compounding  ra- 
tions to  their  effects  upon  the  firmness 
of  the  butter.  As  a  rule,  kafir  corn  and 
cottonseed  meal  produce  relatively  hard 
butter  with  a  high  melting  point,  while 
soy  bean  meal,  gluten  meal  and  linseed 
meal  have  a  tendency  to  soften  the  but- 
ter. 

A  ration  which  tends  to  produce  an 
excessive  development  of  body  fat  nat- 
urally hinders  milk  production.  The 
protein  in  the  feed  is  used  for  the  repair 
of  various  tissues,  the  formation  of 
casein  in  milk  and  the  development  of 
energy.  A  relatively  large  amount  of 
protein  can  therefore  be  profitably  util- 
ized by  dairy  cows.  The  ration  may  well 
be  based  on  the  ratio  1 :5  or  1 :6.5. 

As  practical  examples  of  rations  for 
dairy  cows,  the  following  may  be  se- 
lected from  those  mentioned  by  Wheeler 
in  Rhode  Island:  4  pounds  corn  meal, 
4  pounds  middlings,  2  pounds  cottonseed 
meal,  7  pounds  mixed  hay  and  7  pounds 
corn  fodder;  3  pounds  bran,  1  pound 
each  of  cottonseed  meal  and  gluten  meal, 
9  pounds  corn  stover,  8  pounds  mixed 
hay,  2  pounds  clover  hay ;  5  pounds  bran, 
2  pounds  cottonseed  meal,  25  pounds 
corn  silage,  8  pounds  mixed  hay;  4 
pounds  bran,  2  pounds  each  of  chops  and 
gluten  meal,  17V2  pounds  corn  fodder, 
7!/2  pounds  mixed  hay;  5  pounds  gluten 
meal,  6  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal,  22V2 
pounds  corn  fodder;  41/2  pounds  bran,  5 
pounds  corn  meal,  2  1-3  pounds  cotton- 
seed meal,  4  pounds  corn  silage,  6  2-3 
pounds  marsh  hay. 

For  Mississippi,  Moore  suggests  the 
following  rations:  20  pounds  cowpea 
hay,  6  pounds  wheat  bran,  3  pounds  corn 
meal ;  18  pounds  Bermuda  hay,  2  pounds 
cottonseed  meal,  3  pounds  each  wheat 
bran  and  corn  meal;  10  pounds  cowpea 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


hay,  15  pounds  cottonseed  hulls,  3 
pounds  cottonseed  meal.  For  other 
states  the  rations  should  be  compounded 
on  a  similar  basis  with  the  most  conven- 
ient forms  of  nitrogenous  and  carbo- 
naceous elements,  so  balanced  as  to  pro- 
duce a  comparatively  narrow  ration. 

Feeding  methods — One  of  the  most 
important  practical  questions  for  the 
dairyman  is  whether  cows  should  be  fed 
in  stalls,  loose  in  pens  or  in  yards.  This 
question  has  been  answered  differently 
in  different  localities.  According  to 
Hayward's  experiments  in  Pennsylvania, 
more  bedding  was  required  to  keep  the 
cows  clean  and  comfortable  in  pens  than 
in  stalls  and  it  appeared  not  to  be 
economical  to  keep  dairy  cows  loose  in 


year,  and  occasionally  men  have  found 
it  possible  to  keep  cows  in  fairly  good 
health  and  productivity  for  eight  or  10 
years  without  ever  allowing  them  to  step 
outside  of  the  stable. 

In  such  a  system  of  management  great 
care  is  required  in  the  sanitation  of  the 
stable  in  order  to  maintain  the  cows  in 
good  health  and  comfort.  Moreover, 
Eraser  found  that  the  keeping  of  cows 
in  a  stable  in  cleanliness  involves  a  great 
amount  of  labor,  since  each  animal  must 
be  carefully  attended  to.  Fraser  ad- 
dressed a  series  of  questions  to  the  dairy- 
men of  Illinois  regarding  the  relative 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  keep- 
ing cows  loose  in  a  shed,  and  other  prac- 
tical points  of  dairy  management.    These 


Fig.  293 — A   JERSEY   HERD   IX   THE  BARN    YARD 


pens  on  farms  where  the  supply  of  bed- 
ding was  limited.  Hayward  found  that 
considerably  less  labor  was  required  to 
care  for  cows  in  pens  than  in  stalls,  and 
that  the  cows  remained  cleaner  in  stalls 
and  the  milk  contained  fewer  bacteria. 
In  Illinois,  on  the  other  hand,  Fraser 
came  to  the  opposite  conclusion  as  the 
result  of  his  extensive  observations  on 
methods  of  keeping  milch  cows.  It  i3 
admitted,  in  the  first  place,  that  milch 
cows  cannot  endure  quite  as  much  ex- 
posure as  steers,  and  this  well-known 
fact  has  led  many  dairymen  to  adopt 
the  method  of  keeping  their  cows  closely 
confined  in  stables,  especially  during  se- 
vere weather.  In  some  instances,  the 
cows  are  kept  in  stanchions  for  24  hours 
a  day  for  six  or  eight  months  of  each 


questions  were  answered  by  eighteen 
prominent  dairymen,  who  had  been  in 
the  business  for  two  to  nine  years,  and 
who  kept  a  dairy  herd  of  the  ordinary 
size.  Almost  without  exception,  these 
men  had  found  it  necessary  to  have  their 
cows  dehorned,  but  it  was  not  found 
that  cows  were  any  more  likely  to  in- 
jure one  another  with  their  horns  if  kept 
loose  in  a  shed  than  if  maintained  in  a 
stable.  The  size  of  the  sheds  varied 
from  13x40  feet  to  143x225  feet  for 
herds  varying  in  size  from  13  to  150 
cows.  The  dairymen  reported  that  their 
practice  was  to  use  bedding  in  the  shed 
daily,  every  other  day,  three  times  a 
week,  or  in  some  cases  only  once  a  week. 
As  a  rule,  it  was  found  that  more  bed- 
ding   was    required     in   sheds    than   in 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


463 


stables.  Where  cows  are  kept  in  sheds, 
the  frequency  with  which  the  manure  is 
removed  varies  from  once  a  day  to  once 
a  year.  With  two  exceptions,  the  dairy- 
men reported  that  the  cows  could  be 
kept  sufficiently  warm  in  sheds,  even  in 
winter.  Without  exception,  the  dairy- 
men reported  that  the  cows  kept  cleaner 
in  sheds  than  if  stabled;  that  the  milk- 
ing stable  remained  in  a  more  sanitary 
condition  and  that  cleaner  milk  could 
be  produced  by  this  method.  The  an- 
swers returned  by  these  eighteen  dairy- 
men to  the  question  regarding  the  chief 
advantages  of  keeping  cows  in  the  sheds 
are  particularly  interesting.  The  dairy- 
men reported  that  this  method  saves 
labor  in  cleaning  stables  and  in  feeding 
roughage;  that  the  cows  are  kept  more 
comfortable  and  cleaner;  that  labor  is 
saved  in  handling  manure  and  in  bed- 
ding stock;  that  a  larger  amount  of 
manure  is  made  and  preserved  in  a 
better  condition. 

Advantages  of  open  shed — On  ac- 
count of  the  favorable  report  from 
dairymen  who  had  used  the  sheds, 
Fraser  conducted  a  test  on  this  matter 
at  the  Illinois  experiment  station.  It 
was  found  that  there  is  less  difficulty  in 
providing  cows  with  fresh  air;  that 
they  remain  more  healthy  and  have  bet- 
ter appetites  than  when  kept  in  stables. 
A  considerable  saving  was  noticed  in  the 
mnnure  and  a  great  saving  in  the  labor 
of  caring  for  the  cows.  Fraser  calls 
.attention  to  the  fact  that  on  many  dairy 
farms  the  problem  of  getting  sufficient 
help  is  a  serious  one  and  the  saving  of 
labor  is  therefore  a  strong  point  in  fa- 
vor of  keeping  cows  in  sheds. 

Effect  of  the  ration  on  the  milk — It 
has  long  been  the  hope  of  the  dairyman 
to  devise  a  ration  and  a  system  of  feed- 
ing by  means  of  which  the  amount  of 
milk  and  particularly  the  percentage  of 
milk  fat  could  be  greatly  increased. 
The  almost  innumerable  experiments 
which  have  been  made  along  this  line 
indicate  that  the  quantity  of  the  milk 
can  be  greatly  influenced  by  the  amount 
and  character  of  the  ration,  but  that  the 
percentage  of  fat  in  the  milk  is  largely 
an  individual  matter  with  each  cow, 
varying  from  time  to  time,  but  not  much 
influenced  by  the  character  or  size  of  the 
ration.  Wheeler,  in  New  York,  found 
that  the  milk  flow  was  most  increased 
when  the  greatest  increase  in  the  total 
nutrients  of  the  ration  was  made  with- 
out regard  to  slight  changes  in  its  pro- 


tein content.  The  most  striking  shrink- 
age in  milk  flow  occurred  when  the  re- 
duction of  total  nutrients  was  greatest, 
although  this  was  usually  accompanied 
with  a  reduction  of  the  amount  of  pro- 
tein. An  increase  in  the  total  amount 
of  nutrients  in  the  ration  resulted  in  a 
maintenance  of  the  milk  flow  without 
diminution  over  a  longer  period  than 
would  otherwise  have  been  the  case; 
while  a  reduction  of  the  amount  of  nu- 
trients below  a  ration  of  normal  size  oc- 
casioned twice  the  normal  shrinkage  in 
milk  yield.  It  was  observed  that  when 
the  protein  was  increased,  the  milk 
flow  was  maintained  at  a  high  level  for 
a  longer  period,  while  a  reduction  of  the 
amount  of  protein  caused  a  great  fall- 
ing off  in  milk  yield.  In  narrowing  the 
ration  after  feeding  what  may  be  con- 
sidered a  normal  ration,  the  effectiveness 
of  the  feed  remained  about  the  same, 
while  when  the  ration  was  made  too  wide 
more  feed  was  required  for  each  pound 
of  butter  fat. 

Feed  and  butter  fat — Woll,  in  Wis- 
consin, made  extensive  experiments  to 
determine  the  relation  of  feed  to  the 
production  of  milk  and  butter  fat.  In 
these  experiments  it  appeared  that  the 
production  of  milk  and  butter  fat  de- 
pends upon  a  number  of  factors,  but 
chiefly  the  individual  capacity  of  the 
cow.  Other  factors  worth  mentioning 
are  the  age  of  the  cow,  amount  and 
character  of  the  ration  and  period  of 
lactation.  On  an  average,  in  Woll's  ex- 
periments, cows  consumed  over  and 
above  the  amount  of  feed  required  for 
maintenance,  between  26  and  80  pounds 
of  dry  matter  for  each  100  pounds  of 
milk  and  between  Qy2  and  18%  pounds 
for  each  pound  of  butter.  The  amount 
of  food  required  for  a  given  amount  of 
milk  or  butter  fat  was  nearly  three 
times  as  great  toward  the  close  of  the 
period  of  lactation  as  at  the  begin- 
ning, and  heifers  required  more  feed  a 
100  pounds  of  milk  than  older  cows.  It 
appeared  that  the  ration  of  the  dairy 
cow  influenced  the  quality  of  the  milk  to 
the  extent  that  the  cow  will  produce 
a  maximum  amount  of  milk  of  the 
highest  fat  content  of  which  she  is  ca- 
pable on  rations  containing  a  relatively 
high  percentage  of  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances. 

•Source  of  mtlk  fat — Jordan  and 
others  in  New  York  have  attempted  to 
determine  the  exact  source  of  milk  fat 
in  the  feed.     It  was  found  that  decided 


464 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


changes  in  the  protein  or  fat  content 
of  the  rations  did  not  produce  noticeable 
changes  in  the  composition  of  the  milk. 
With  some  cows  it  was  found  that  a 
considerable  percentage  of  the  milk  fat 
must  come  from  the  carbohydrates  in 
the  feed.  On  the  whole,  it  appeared 
that  more  than  40  per  cent  of  the  avail- 
able energy  in  the  rations  was  necessary 
for  maintaining  the  cow,  while  slightly 
more  than  30  per  cent  was  transformed 
into  milk.  This  leaves  a  balance  of 
about  one-fifth  of  the  ration,  which  is 
presumably  used  up  in  the  work  of 
milk  secretion. 

Wing  and  Ford  made  some  interest- 
ing experiments  in  increasing  the  fat 
content  of  milk  by  means  of  liberal 
feeding.  The  experiment  was  under- 
taken after  having  observed  that,  in 
many  instances,  dairymen  were  feeding 
their  cows  rations  which  were  appar- 
ently deficient  in  nutrients  and  energy. 
It  was  found  that  in  a  herd  of  poorly 
fed  cows  a  liberal  ration  of  easily  di- 
gestible feed,  rather  nitrogenous  in 
character,  and  conducted  for  a  period  of 
two  years,  resulted  in  an  increase  of  ^4 
of  1  per  cent  in  the  fat  content  of  the 
milk.  This  increase  was  accompanied  by 
an  increase  of  about  50  per  cent  in  the 
total  amount  of  milk  and  fat  produced 
and  was  obtained  economically  in  so  far 
as  the  cost  of  feeding  was  concerned. 
This  result  indicates  clearly  the  great 
capacity  of  good  dairy  cows  to  give  prof- 
itable returns  from  liberal  feeding. 

Relation  of  the  size  of  the  ration 
to  economy  of  production — With  dairy 
cows,  as  with  other  animals,  it  is  gen- 
erally true  that  the  more  feed  which  they 
can  utilize,  the  greater  the  profit.  As  a 
rule,  cows  which  eat  the  most  feed  pro- 
duce the  most  milk  and  butter  and  most 
economically.  This  proposition  has  been 
clearly  demonstrated  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania  and  elsewhere,  as  well  as 
in  the  official  test  made  at  the  world's 
fair  in  Chicago.  The  feeding  power  of 
cows  is  therefore  an  important  matter 
to  consider  in  selecting  or  building  up  a 
dairy  herd.  It  is  necessary,  however, 
to  make  sure,  in  any  case,  of  a  cow 
which  will  consume  large  quantities  of 
feed,  and  that  this  feed  is  utilized  for 
milk  production  and  not  in  laying  on 
body  fat. 

The  period  of  lactation  as  related  to 
milk  yield — Jn  numerous  experiments 
carried  on  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Wis- 
consin and  elsewhere,  it  has  been  found 


that  the  greatest  production  of  milk 
fat  takes  place  soon  after  calving,  say 
in  the  second  and  third  weeks,  and 
that  the  milk  flow  gradually  diminishes 
after  this  period.  In  a  careful  test  car- 
ried on  in  New  York,  it  appeared  that 
the  milk  yield  for  each  month  was  about 

9  per  cent  less  than  that  of  the  preced- 
ing month.  It  is  a  matter  of  some  im- 
portance to  know  at  what  time  in  the 
period  of  lactation  the  cow  will  make 
her  best  record.  Some  of  the  dairy  as- 
sociations require  the  production  of 
milk  and  butter  at  a  certain  rate  in  order 
to  admit  cows  to  advance  registration. 
Haecker  made  a  study  of  this  matter  in 
Nebraska  and  in  looking  over  herd  rec- 
ords found  that  considerable  variation 
existed  in  the  best  week  of  lactation.  It 
appeared  than  nine-tenths  of  the  cows 
make  their  best  record  during  the  first 

10  weeks  of  lactation  and  that  with  more 
than  one-half  of  cases  this  occurs  dur- 
ing the  first  month.  On  the  whole,  the 
second  and  third  weeks  were  found  to 
include  the  time  of  greatest  production. 
The  cow  reaches  her  highest  production 
of  butter  fat  somewhat  earlier  than  she 
does  the  greatest  flow. 

Age  of  cows  as  related  to  their 
productivity — According  to  the  observa- 
tions of  Carlyle  and  Woll,  the  quality 
of  the  milk  deteriorates  somewhat  as  the 
cows  advance  in  age,  the  average  fat  con- 
tent being  4.49  per  cent  during  the  first 
year  of  lactation;  4.4  per  cent  in  the 
second  year;  4.29  per  cent  in  the  third 
year,  and  4.17  per  cent  in  the  fourth 
year.  Dairymen  have  commonly  ob- 
served that  the  milk  yield  increases  up 
to  about  seven  years  of  age,  after  which 
it  remains  nearly  constant  until  about 
the  twelfth  year,  when  it  begins  to  de- 
crease more  rapidly.  The  average  dairy 
cow  is  therefore  at  her  best  between  the 
ages  of  seven  and  10,  and  there  is  us- 
ually a  slow  and  gradual  decline  in  the 
milk  yield  after  the  seventh  year  of  life, 
until  the  twelfth  year.  From  this  time 
on  the  cow  is  likely  to  be  less  profitable 
than  the  heifer.  In  New  York,  it  was 
found  that  the  cost  of  milk  was  greatest 
in  two-year  old  heifers  and  decreased  up 
to  the  age  of  four  years,  after  which  jt 
remained  nearly  constant.  The  gain 
in  the  amount  of  milk  between  the  ages 
of  two  and  three  years  was  5  per  cent; 
between  three  and  four  years,  18  per 
cent,  and  between  four  years  and  the  age 
of  greatest  production,  15  per  cent.  Like- 
wise in  Ohio,  it  has  been  shown  that  the 


DAIRY  CATTLE1 


465 


cow  gives  a  constantly  increasing  milk 
yield  for  the  same  amount  of  feed  up  to 
the  age  of  seven  years,  after  which  a 
slow  decline  is  observed  until  about  the 
eleventh  year. 

Breeds  of  cows  as  related  to  the 
milk  yield — The  champions  of  all  breeds 
are  anxious  to  show  the  great  possibili- 
ties of  their  particular  breed  in  milk 
production,  and  every  year  comparative 
tests  are  carried  out  under  more  or  less 
carefully  observed  conditions,  to  deter- 
mine the  relative  milk  yield  of  different 
breeds.  The  attempt  has  frequently  been 
made  to  show  that  some  particular  breed 
is  uniformly  better  for  the  production 
of  milk,  butter  or  cheese  than  any  other 
breed.  The  results  of  such  experiments, 
however,  as  well  as  the  claims  of  the 
champions    of    different    breeds,    are    so 


for  Jerseys;  12  pounds  for  Guernseys; 
14  pounds  for  Eed  Polls,  and  12  pounds 
for  Holsteins. 

A  test  of  several  Ayrshire  herds  in 
New  Hampshire  showed  that  the  daily 
milk  yield  per  cow  varied  from  18  to  46 
pounds.  A  comparison  of  breeds  in 
Wisconsin,  running  over  a  period  of  one 
year,  gave  the  following  amount  of  but- 
ter: 461.8  pounds  for  Eed  Polls;  351.6 
pounds  for  Holsteins;  319.3  pounds  for 
Guernseys;  301  pounds  for  Jerseys  and 
281.7  pounds  for  Shorthorns.  The 
average  net  profit  returned  by  the  cows 
of  these  different  breeds  decreased  in  the 
same  order  in  which  they  were  first  men- 
tioned. In  other  tests  carried  on  in 
Wisconsin,  to  determine  the  milk  yield 
the  following  results  were  obtained  in 
daily  milk  production:     Holsteins,  48.9 


'm 


Pig.    294 COWS      YIELDING     LESS      THAN    7,000    POUNDS    OF    MILK    PER    YEAR 


much    at    variance    that    no    unqualified 
conclusions   can   be   reached. 

In  a  series  of  experiments  in  New 
York,  it  was  found  that  individual  cows 
of  the  same  breed  may  vary  more  in 
milk  and  butter  production  than  cows 
of  different  breeds.  Likewise  in  Con- 
necticut, experiments  have  shown  that 
"the  type  of  the  cow  is  a  much  better 
index  of  her  ability  for  economical  pro- 
duction than  is  her  pedigree."  In  a 
seven-day  test  of  cows  of  different  breeds 
in  Wisconsin,  Woll  found  an  average 
fat  content  of  5.26  per  cent  for  Jerseys; 
4.79  per  cent  for  Guernseys;  3.85  per 
cent  for  Eed  Polls;  3.46  per  cent  for 
Shorthorns  and  3.43  per  cent  for  Hol- 
steins. In  the  same  test,  the  average 
milk  yield  was  177.9  pounds  for  Jerseys ; 
265.77  pounds  for  Guernseys ;  384  pounds 
for  Eed  Polls  and  365.9  pounds  for 
Holsteins.  The  total  fat  yield  during 
the  seven-day  period  averaged  9  pounds 


pounds;  Brown  Swiss,  37.3  pounds; 
Shorthorns,  39.1  pounds ;  Guernseys,  28.9 
pounds;  Ayrshires,  27.7  pounds;  Dutch 
Belted,  27.2  pounds;  French  Canadian, 
27  pounds;  Eed  Polls,  26.6  pounds;  Jer- 
seys, 24.5  pounds  and  Devons,  11.8 
pounds.  In  a  test  regarding  the  per- 
centage of  fat  in  the  milk  of  different 
breeds,  the  Jerseys  stood  at  the  head, 
followed  by  Guernseys,  Devons,  French 
Canadians,  Ayrshires,  Eed  Polls  and 
Shorthorns.  The  cost  of  the  feed  per 
quart  of  milk  as  related  to  the  breed  has 
been  studied  in  New  Jersey.  In  these 
experiments  it  has  been  found  that  it 
cost  1.66  cents  to  produce  a  quart  of 
milk  from  Aryshires ;  1.71  cents  from 
Guernseys  or  Shorthorns;  1.75  cents 
from  Holsteins  and  1.91  cents  from  Jer- 
seys. In  the  same  test  the  cost  of  a 
pound  of  butter  fat  was  15.3  cents  from 
Guernseys ;  17.9  cents  from  Jerseys ;  20.6 
cents  from  Ayrshires;  20.8   cents  from 


m 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Shorthorns  and  22.4  cents  from  Hol- 
steins.  According  to  Canadian  expe- 
rience, the  breeds  of  cattle  may  be 
arranged  as  follows  with  regard  to  the 
quality  of  milk :  Angus,  Hereford  grade, 
Shorthorn  grade,  Ayrshires,  Hereford 
and  Shorthorn.  In  the  relative  profit 
from  milk,  the  breeds  are  arranged  as 
follows,  according  to  experimentsi  in 
New  York:  Holstein,  Shorthorn,  Ayr- 
shire, Guernsey,  Jersey  and  Devon.  In 
the  relative  profit  from  butter,  the 
breeds  stood  in  the  following  order: 
Guernsey,  Jersey,  Shorthorn,  Holstein, 
Ayrshire  and  Devon ;  while  in  the  rela- 
tive   profits     from     cheese     the     breeds 


frequent  intervals.  When  these  tests 
have  been  applied  in  various  localities, 
it  has  been  found  that  almost  every 
dairy  herd  contains  some  cows  which  do 
not  produce  enough  milk  to  pay  for  their 
keep.  This  point  has  been  studied  in 
Illinois,  by  Eraser,  who  found  that  in 
that  state  there  are  vast  differences  m 
the  efficiency  and  profit  derived  from 
different  dairy  cows.  For  example,  one 
cow  may  produce  twice  as  much  butter 
fat  in  a  year  as  another  cow  on  exactly 
the  same  feed  basis.  A  good  dairy  cow, 
well  cared  for,  may  produce  from  five 
to  ten  times  as  much  as  the  average 
cow  for  the  whole  country,  or  about  as 


Fier.  291 


-MIXED    HERD    AT    MILKING    TIME 


ranked  as  follows :  Shorthorn,  Guernsey, 
Jersey,   Holstein,   Ayrshire   and   Devon. 

Hundreds  of  other  experiments  of  a 
similar  sort  have  been  carried  on,  with 
the  result  that  the  relative  rank  of 
breeds  varies  greatly,  according  to  the 
individuality  of  the  cows,  the  period  of 
lactation,  age  of  the  cows,  method  of 
handling  and  feeding  and  various  other 
factors.  It  is  apparent  from  these  ex- 
periments that  dairy  cows  should  be  se- 
lected not  entirely  for  their  breed,  but 
for  their  ability  to  produce  milk  and 
butter  in  large  quantities  and  with  good 
profit  for  the  feed  consumed. 

Individuality  in  cows—Attention  has 
frequently  been  called  to  the  necessity  of 
judging  each  cow  on  her  merits  and  in 
order  to  do  this  fairly  it  is  necessary  to 
weign  the  milk  and  make  fat  tests  at 


much  as  three  average  cows  placed  in 
the  profitable  class. 

On  account  of  the  fact  that  nearly 
all  dairymen  who  have  not  tested  their 
herds  are  keeping  a  number  of  cows  at 
an  actual  loss,  it  is  to  be  strongly  urged 
that  frequent  tests  be  given  at  least  not 
farther  apart  than  every  three  months, 
in  order  to  make  sure  that  each  animal 
is  returning  a  profit  for  the  feed  con- 
sumed. The  improvement  of  the  dairy 
herd  may  best  be  accomplished  by  se- 
lecting for  breeding  purposes  only  those 
cows  which  have  ancestors  noted  for 
their  milk  production  and  in  using  only 
those  bulls  which  come  from  heavy 
yielding   families. 

"Weedy  flavors  in  milk — Disagree- 
able flavors  due  to  weeds  which  cows  oc- 
casionally eat,  particularly  in  the  spring, 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


467 


are  familiar  to  all  milk  consumers.  A 
considerable  number  of  weeds,  as  well  as 
other  plants  which  are  used  for  forage 
purposes,  are  known  to  affect  the  flavor 
of  milk  unfavorably.  Thus,  as  already 
mentioned,  turnips  and  certain  other 
roots,  if  fed  in  too  large  quantities  just 
before  milking,  may  lend  their  specific 
flavor  to  the  milk.  Chicory,  if  fed  to 
milch  cows,  makes  the  milk  bitter.  A 
number  of  wild  plants  and  weeds  which 
are  sometimes  found  in  pastures  may  be 
instrumental  in  injuring  the  flavor  of 
the  milk.  Thus,  if  cows  eat  large  quan- 
tities of  elderberry  leaves,  or  bitterweed, 
the  characteristic  flavor  of  these  plants 


Common  cooking  soda  was  also  given  foi 
the  same  purpose  without  avail.  When 
mixed  with  water  at  the  rate  of  twc 
parts  to  one  before  running  through  the 
separator,  it  was  found  that  the  bad  fla- 
vor was  removed  from  the  cream  when 
the  water  was  used  at  a  temperature  of 
150°  F.  and  contained  one  ounce  of  salt- 
peter to  2  gallons.  The  flavor  of  the 
cream,  however,  was  not  good  after  this 
treatment,  although  the  bitterness  was 
removed.  The  same  treatment  without 
the  addition  of  saltpeter  gave  practically 
the  same  result.  A  much  better  flavor 
in  cream  was  obtained  when  the  water 
was  added  at  a  temperature  of  160°  F., 


Fig.    296 — MODERN    TYPE    OF    MILKING    MACHINE   AT    WORK 


may  be  transmitted  to  the  milk.  Per- 
haps the  most  disagreeable  of  all  the 
weed  flavors  commonly  observed  in  milk 
is  that  produced  by  the  wild  onion  or 
garlic.  This  flavor  when  strongest  makes 
the  milk  almost  unfit  for  food. 

The  best  way  of  getting  rid  of  these 
weed  flavors  consists  in  a  proper  system 
of  rotation  by  which  the  pastures  will 
be  plowed  at  not  too  long  intervals  and 
planted  to  some  crop  so  that  the  weeds 
are  kept  down.  In  Alabama,  Clark  tried 
a  number  of  experiments  to  get  rid  of 
the  odor  and  flavor  of  the  wild  onion 
and  bitterweed.  A  proprietary  remedy 
recommended  for  an  addition  to  the  ra- 
tion   proved    to    be    absolutely    useless. 


and  when  used  at  this  heat  the  addition 
of  saltpeter  influenced  the  flavor  of  the 
cream  unfavorably.  It  was  found  in 
further  experiments  that  bitterweed 
taste  was  removed  entirely  from  the 
cream  by  thoroughly  mixing  it  with  two 
or  more  parts  of  water  at  any  tempera- 
ture above  70°  F. 

If  the  milk  or  cream  is  heated  to  high 
temperatures  to  drive  off  bad  odors  and 
flavors,  the  bitterness  is  not  entirely  re- 
moved, and  the  milk  may  acquire  a 
cooked  flavor.  While  this  method  of 
washing  cream  is  effective  in  removing 
the  flavor  of  bitterweed  so  that  it  does 
not  appear  in  the  butter,  it  was  found 
practically    impossible    to    remove    the 


468 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


taste  of  bitterweed  from  whole  milk. 
The  flavor  of  wild  onion  was  not  re- 
moved from  cream  by  mixing  it  with 
water  and  running  it  through  the  sep- 
arator, and  saltpeter  was  also  of  no 
value.  No  method  was  discovered  in 
this  set  of  experiments  by  which  onion 
flavor  could  be  removed  either  from  the 
milk  or  cream. 

Bedding — Too  little  attention  is  given 
by  the  ordinary  farmer  to  the  subject  of 
bedding  for  his  milch  cows.  Almost  any 
dry  material  which  cannot  be  other- 
wise used  is  often  considered  good 
enough  for  this  purpose.     Bedding  for 


keep  the  cows  in  comfort  and  cleanli- 
ness. Cut  straw  is  often  considered 
superior  to  uncut,  but  it  appeared  to 
pack  down  readily  and  was  more  easily 
kicked  about  by  the  cows,  leaving  por- 
tions of  the  stable  floor  bare.  Uncut 
wheat  straw  also  proved  superior  to  corn 
stover  in  convenience  and  effectiveness, 
but  corn  stover  proved  to  be  a  very  valu- 
able material  for  use  as  bedding;  it 
remained  in  place  quite  well  and  did  not 
given  rise  to  dust. 

In  a  comparison  of  sawdust  with  shav- 
ings it  appeared  that  each  cow  required 
11   pounds   of  sawdust   and   2.7   pounds 


Fig.    297 — WASHING    THE    UDDERS    BEFORE   MILKING 


milch  cows,  however,  should  be  free 
from  certain  defects  which  are  present 
in  common  materials.  The  two  great 
prerequisites  of  an  effective  bedding  are 
that  it  shall  absorb  liquid  manure  read- 
ily and  create  no  dust.  The  materials 
commonly  used  on  the  farm  are  straw, 
the  coarse  and  inedible  portion  of 
roughage  thrown  out  from  the  mangers, 
corn  stalks  and  other  similar  material. 
A  careful  study  of  the  subject  of  bed- 
ding for  dairy  cows  was  made  by  Doane 
in  Maryland.  In  this  work,  wheat  straw 
cut  or  uncut,  corn  stover,  sawdust  and 
shavings  were  compared.  It  was  found 
that  considerably  more  cut  straw  was 
required     than  uncut    wheat    straw   to 


of  shavings  a  day  to  keep  clean.  Saw- 
dust cannot  be  obtained  conveniently, 
except  in  the  neighborhood  of  sawmills, 
and  under  such  circumstances  should 
not  cost  more  than  a  cent  a  100  pounds. 
In  the  comparative  test  under  discus- 
sion, sawdust  was  found  to  be  the  best 
of  all  materials  tested.  It  kept  the  cows 
cleaner  than  any  other  form  of  bedding, 
stayed  in  place  better,  was  entirely  free 
from  dust  and  gave  a  neater,  better  ap- 
pearance to  the  stables.  Another  ad- 
vantage observed  in  the  use  of  sawdust 
is  that  it  increases  the  bulk  of  the 
manure,  making  it  easier  to  spread  and 
thus   adding   a    coarse   material   to   the 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


469 


soil  which  improves  its  physical  proper- 
ties. Shavings  are  practically  equal  to 
sawdust  in  their  general  usefulness,  but 
cost  considerably  more.  In  the  test  car- 
ried on  by  Doane,  the  yearly  cost  for 
bedding  for  cows  stabled  sixteen  hours 
per  day  was  11  cents  for  sawdust,  $2.55 
for  cut  corn  stover,  $3.11  for  uncut 
wheat  straw,  $3.61  for  cut  wheat  straw, 
$3.28  for  shavings.  The  amount  of  bed- 
ding required  to  absorb  the  liquid  ma- 
nure from  each  cow  stabled  16  hours 
per  day  varied  from  2.8  pounds  in  the 
case  of  corn  stover  to  8  1-3  pounds  in 
the  case  of  sawdust. 

Influence  of  weather  on  milk — Dairy 
cows,    particularly    those    of    a    nervous 


Relative  profit  from,  milk,  cream  and 
butter — The  form  in  which  the  dairy 
products  shall  be  marketed  is  a  matter 
which  must  be  settled  by  the  individual 
dairyman  according  to  his  peculiar  con- 
ditions. Many  dairymen  are  so  located 
that  it  would  be  quite  impossible  for 
them  to  run  a  daily  milk  route;  while 
for  others  this  is  the  simplest  way  in 
which  the  milk  can  be  marketed.  There 
are  so  many  different  schemes  available 
that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  dis- 
cuss all  of  them  in  this  connection.  The 
milk  may  be  separated  on  the  farm  and 
the  cream  sold  to  a  regular  list  of  cus- 
tomers or  to  wholesale  dealers  or  cream- 
eries for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  but- 


Fig.    298 MODERN    DAIRY    BARN.        REAR    VIEW 


temperament,  are  very  susceptible  to  the 
influence  of  the  weather  and  in  order  to 
get  the  best  results  it  is  necessary  to 
have  some  regard  to  measures  for  pro- 
tecting cows  against  sudden  climatic 
changes  and  cold  rains.  Violent  changes 
in  the  weather  lower  the  milk  yield,  and 
in  some  instances,  though  not  always, 
the  fat  content  is  also  lowered.  In  a 
series  of  observations  made  in  Kentucky, 
May  found  that  the  milk  yield  was  more 
decidedly  affected  than  the  fat  content 
by  climatic  changes,  but  that  the  loss 
of  milk  from  exposure  of  the  cows  to 
cold  rains  was  often  a  serious  matter. 
The  amount  of  feed  required  under  cir- 
cumstances where  exposure  must  be  en- 
dured, is  also  greater  than  where  the 
cows  are  better  protected. 


ter.  Likewise  the  milk  may  be  sold 
along  a  regular  milk  route,  to  wholesale 
dealers  or  to  creameries.  In  the  latter 
case  it  must  be  collected  oftener  than  is 
necessary  with  cream.  One  of  the  great- 
est drawbacks  which  has  prevailed  in 
the  manufacture  of  butter  on  the  farm 
is  that  such  butter  too  often  lacks  qual- 
ity and  uniformity.  Many  dairymen  do 
not  equip  themselves  with  proper  appa- 
ratus for  producing  butter  of  a  standard 
quality,  and  do  not  employ  persons  who 
have  the  proper  skill  and  experience  for 
this  work. 

The  relative  profits  from  marketing 
dairy  products  under  these  different 
forms  depends  to  some  extent  on  the 
amount  of  apparatus  and  equipment 
necessary  for  managing  the  business  in 


470 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


these  different  forms.  Thus,  if  hutter 
is  made  at  home,  account  must  be  taken 
of  the  expense  of  a  churn  and  other 
butter-making  apparatus,  as  well  as  cans 
and  proper  conditions  under  which  to 
ripen  the  cream.  Again,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  creameries  buy  milk 
on  the  basis  of  its  fat  content,  while  the 
city  dealers  and  customers  pay  for  the 
milk  by  the  quart  or  gallon  without  re- 
gard to  its  fat  content,  provided  it  is 
high  enough  to  satisfy  the  standard.  It 
is,  therefore,  obvious  that,  with  city  deal- 
ers, milk  testing  6  per  cent  fat  will 
bring  no  more  than  4  per  cent  milk. 
Essentially  the  same  point  is  true  also 


ter  and  70  cents  a  gallon  for  cream. 
When,  however,  cream  brings  70  cents 
a  gallon,  butter  fat  should  bring  40  cents 
a  pound  at  the  creamery,  and  butter 
must  sell  at  least  at  33  cents  a  pound 
to  realize  the  same  amount  from  the 
milk  as  would  have  been  obtained  by 
selling  the  cream  outright.  It  is  well 
known  that  country  butter  seldom  brings 
as  high  a  price  as  33  cents,  and  cream- 
eries do  not  pay  40  cents  a  pound  for 
butter  fat.  It  would  appear  from  this 
comparison,  therefore,  that  the  most 
profit  is  to  be  made  from  selling  the 
milk  or  cream  as  such. 

Profits  from  dairy  cows — In  order  to 


Fig.    299 — INTERIOR    OF    A    SANITARY    DAIRY   STABLE 


with  regard  to  cream,  for  even  where 
a  20  per  cent  standard  for  cream  is 
maintained,  15  per  cent  cream  is  fre- 
quently sold  without  objection. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, the  milk  producer  obtains  from 
14  to  20  cents  a  gallon  for  his  milk  in 
winter  and  from  13  to  16  cents  in  sum- 
mer; while  for  cream  he  receives  from 
70  to  85  cents  a  gallon  in  winter  and 
from  55  to  75  cents  in  summer.  The 
creameries  in  the  neighborhood  of  Balti- 
more give  from  I6V2  to  30  cents  a  pound 
for  butter  fat  and  return  the  skim  milk 
to  the  producer.  Doane  calls  attention 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  easy  to  obtain  from 
17  to  19  cents  a  gallon  for  milk  in  win- 


estimate  the  profits  from  dairying,  it  is 
necessary  to  determine  accurately  the 
total  cost  and  production  of  average 
cows  under  average  conditions.  Thus, 
in  Missouri,  the  average  returns  a  cow 
from  milk  sold  to  creameries  was  found 
to  vary  from  $37.14  to  $61.23  with  dif- 
ferent dairymen.  On  a  basis  of  these 
average  figures,  it  is  estimated  that  the 
income  from  each  cow,  when  the  milk  is 
sold  to  a  creamery,  should  be  from  $50 
to  $60  for  the  butter  fat,  $10  as  the 
value  of  the  skim  milk  and  $4  for  the 
value  of  the  calf  at  birth.  The  annual 
production  of  individual  cows  varies 
enormously,  as  might  be  expected  from 
the  great  variation  in    the    productive 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


471 


capacity  of  cows.  Thus,  one  herd  com- 
pared directly  with  those  just  mentioned 
from  Missouri,  produced  on  an  average 
$74.40  worth  of  butter  annually.  The 
-Missouri  state  department  of  agricul- 
ture has  estimated  from  an  elaborate 
series  of  statistics  that  the  average  in- 
come from  each  cow,  when  the  milk  is 
sold  in  a  city,  is  $51.25. 

In  order  to  make  a  satisfactory  profit 
from  dairy  cows  it  is  necessary  that 
the  income  should  be  somewhat  more 
than  $50  a  year,  for  the  average  cost  of 
keeping  a  cow  ranges  from  $30  to  $38 
a  year  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Protecting    cows    from    flies — While 


too  close  confinement  in  the  hot  weather 
of  summer,  and  for  that  reason  manv 
remedies  have  been  tried  for  the  purpose 
of  driving  away  the  flies  by  disagreeable 
odors  or  actually  killing  them  with  con- 
tact poisons.  In  Kansas,  Otis  tested  a 
number  of  fly  mixtures,  but  obtained  the 
best  results  from  one  containing  l1/-} 
pounds  of  resin,  two  cakes  common  soap, 
i/2  pound  of  fish  oil  and  enough  water  to 
make  3  gallons.  This  may  be  ap- 
plied with  a  brush,  or,  if  sprayed  on 
the  cattle,  %  pint  of  kerosene  may  be 
added.  The  mixture  costs  7  or  8  cents 
per  gallon  and  is  recommended  for  use 
on  either  cows  or  calves.    Half  a  pint  of 


Fig.   300 — COW   STALLS   IN   A   MODEL   DAIRY 


some  difference  of  opinion  prevails  re- 
garding the  influence  of  worry  by  flies 
in  lowering  the  milk  yield,  there  can 
be  little  doubt  as  to  the  importance  of 
using  all  convenient  and  inexpensive 
means  for  preventing  the  attacks  of  flies 
as  far  as  possible.  In  most  parts  of  the 
great  dairy  regions  of  the  United  States, 
the  hornfly  is  the  most  serious  pest  of 
this  sort  with  which  we  have  to  deal. 
The  hornfly  constitutes  a  serious  source 
of  worry,  and  in  some  localities  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  keep  the  cows 
indoors,  with  the  windows  screened,  dur- 
ing the  heat  of  the  day,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  lowering  of  the  milk  yield. 
This  method,  however,  keeps  the  cow 
away  from  pasture  too  much,  or  involves 


the  mixture  is  enough  for,  one  applica- 
tion to  each  cow.  If  the  hornfly  nui- 
sance is  exceedingly  bad,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  spray  the  cows  twice  a 
week  at  first,  but  later  the  applications 
may  be  further  apart. 

In  Connecticut,  Beach  and  Clark 
tested  a  number  of  remedies  for  keep- 
ing flies  away  from  cows,  most  of  them 
being  proprietary  remedies.  It  was 
found  possible  to  protect  the  cows  to  a 
considerable  extent  by  the  use  of  pro- 
prietary ointments  and  other  remedies 
referred  to  as  fly  removers,  but  they 
are  rather  expensive  and  their  use  ap- 
peared to  have  little  or  no  effect  on  the 
amount  of  milk  or  butter  yielded  by  the 
cows.    Beach  and  Clark,  therefore,  come 


472 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


to  the  conclusion  that  in  Connecticut, 
at  any  rate,  the  annoyance  caused  to 
cows  by  flies  has  been  somewhat  over- 
estimated. In  Virginia,  flies  were  found 
to  be  so  numerous  in  certain  localities 
as  to  make  necessary  the  use  of  an 
effective  remedy  for  getting  rid  of  them. 
After  testing  a  considerable  series  of 
mixtures,  the  Virginia  experiment  sta- 
tion found  that  the  best  results  could 
be  obtained  from  the  use  of  a  kerosene 
mixture  as  a  spray;  after  a  few  applica- 
tions of  this  mixture  at  short  intervals 
to  cows,  the  flies  were  so  greatly  reduced 
in  numbers  as  to  cause  little  further 
annoyance  during  the  season.  In  order 
to  make  the  application  of  this  remedy 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  the 
cows  were  driven  into  a  small  spraying 
shed  and  were  there  thoroughly  sprayed 
with    kerosene    emulsion    so    as    not    to 


men.  The  variations  in  the  manipula- 
tions which  they  apply  to  the  cow's 
udder  are  not  always  constant,  and  it 
is  frequently  difficult  to  get  a  satisfac- 
tory description  of  the  method  from  the 
individual  milker.  It  has  long  been  be- 
lieved that  the  milk  yield  must  depend 
to  some  extent  on  the  manipulation 
which  the  udder  receives  at  the  time  of 
milking. 

Hegelund  method — Within  recent 
years,  Hegelund,  a  Danish  dairy  school 
teacher,  has  introduced  a  new  method 
of  milking,  and  has  described  it  in  a 
satisfactory  way.  The  method  is  every- 
where known  as  the  Hegelund  method. 
This  method  really  consists  of  a  series 
of  manipulations  applied  to  the  udder 
as  soon  as  the  main  flow  of  milk  has 
ceased,  in  order  to  secure  all  of  the  milk 
secreted  by  the  cow.    This  is  the  purpose 


301 — A   CEMENT   DAIRY   BARN 


frighten  the  flies  away  before  they  were 
touched  with  the  spray.  Likewise  in 
Massachusetts,  a  number  of  tests  have 
been  made  with  fly  preventives  of  a  pro- 
prietary nature.  In  these  tests,  ten  dif- 
ferent remedies  were  used  and  some 
were  found  to  be  satisfactory,  while 
others  were  ineffective.  Even  with  those 
which  were  satisfactory,  the  cost  is  alto- 
gether too  great,  although  if  other  rem- 
edies are  not  available,  it  is  believed  that 
even  an  expensive  proprietary  remedy, 
if  effective,  is  an  economic  proposition. 
Milking  methods — All  dairymen  un- 
derstand that  there  is  considerable  dif- 
ference in  the  effectiveness  of  different 
men  as  milkers.  Some  men  will  obtain 
a  slightly  larger  quantity  of  milk  than 
others,  and  even  maintain  the  milk  flow 
at  a  high  point  for  a  longer  period. 
Little  attempt  is  usually  made  to  de- 
scribe the  different  methods  of  milking 
which  have  been   adopted  by   different 


of  stripping,  the  method  in  common 
practice  with  farmers,  but  recent  exper- 
iments indicate  that  the  Hegelund 
method  makes  it  possible  to  get  more 
milk  than  by  any  other  method  thus  far 
adopted. 

The  method  in  question,  as  described 
by  Woll  and  others,  involves  the  follow- 
ing series  of  manipulations:  In  the 
first  place,  the  right  quarters  of  the 
udder  are  pressed  against  each  other, 
the  left  hand  being  on  the  hindquarter 
and  the  right  hand  in  front  of  the  fore- 
quarter  of  the  udder  and  the  thumbs 
on  the  outside  of  the  udder  in  the  divi- 
sion between  the  two  halves;  the  hands 
are  pressed  toward  each  other,  at  the 
same  time  lifting  the  udder;  after  each 
manipulation  of  this  sort,  the  milk  which 
has  collected  in  the  mill?  cistern  is 
milked  out  and  the  manipulation  re- 
peated until  no  more  milk  can  be  ob- 
tained.    The  left  quarters  of  the  udder 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


473 


are  then  treated  in  the  same  way.  The 
second  manipulation  of  the  Hegelund 
method  consists  in  pressing  the  udder 
together  from  side  to  side,  the  fore- 
quarters  being  treated  first  and  milked 
out  thoroughly,  after  which  the  hind- 
quarters are  treated  in  the  same  man- 
ner. In  the  third  manipulation  of  the 
method,  the  fore  teats  are  grasped  with 
the  partly  closed  hands  and  pushed  up 
quite  firmly  against  the  udder;  the  milk 
is  drawn  after  each  three  pushes.  After 
the  fore  teats  have  been  milked  out,  the 
hind  teats  are  treated  in  the  same  way. 
The  Hegelund  method  has  been  quite 
thoroughly  tested  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States.  In  Wisconsin,  Woll 
made  a  study  of  the  method  as  applied 
to  the  experiment  station  dairy  and  to 


all  of  the  cows  in  Wisconsin  as  the 
result  of  applying  the  Hegelund  method, 
it  would  mean  an  average  gain  of 
30,000,000  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  a 
milk  year  of  300  days,  with  a  value  of 
$6,000,000,  on  a  basis  of  20  cents  a 
pound  for  butter. 

Milk  during  the  period  of  heat — At 
the  present  time  much  attention  is  being 
given  by  health  officers  and  milk  con- 
sumers to  all  the  factors  and  conditions 
which  may  influence  the  quality  or 
wholesomeness  of  milk.  Doane,  in 
Maryland,  recently  carried  out  a  num- 
ber of  tests  with  milk  obtained  from 
cows  during  the  period  of  heat.  It  was 
found  that  with  most  cows  there  was  no 
appreciable  variation  in  any  of  the  con- 
stituents of  the  milk  during  this  period, 


302 — OLD    FASHIONED    MILK    MAID 


twelve  other  dairies  in  different  parts  of 
the  state.  The  purpose  of  these  tests  was 
to  determine  the  increased  amount  of 
milk  obtained  by  the  Hegelund  method. 
In  the  university  herd,  the  average  daily 
production  of  milk  was  increased  4.5 
per  cent  and  the  production  of  fat  9.2 
per  cent,  the  average  gain  in  milk  being 
1  pound  and  in  fat  .9  of  a  pound  a 
head  a  day.  Practically  the  same  re- 
sults were  obtained  from  the  application 
of  this  method  to  dairies  in  other  parts 
of  the  state.  The  test  was  continued 
during  a  period  of  four  months  with 
cows  in  all  stages  of  lactation  and  ap- 
parently the  beneficial  results  of  the 
method  are  manifest  throughout  the 
whole  lactation  period.  Woll  estimates 
that  if  the  same  relative  increase  of  milk 
and  fat   production   was  obtained   from 


but  that  occasionally  there  was  a  slight 
increase  in  the  amount  of  fat  during  the 
first  and  second  days  of  the  period  of 
heat.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  milk 
from  cows  during  heat  is  in  a  normal 
condition  and  quite  fit  for  use. 

Milking  machines — In  Europe  and 
the  English  colonies,  several  types  of 
milking  machines  have  been  tested,  and 
with  satisfactory  results  in  many  cases. 
These  machines  are  operated  by  elec- 
tricity or  other  power,  and  for  the  most 
part  depend  for  their  action  upon  the 
production  of  a  partial  vacuum  in  a  cup- 
like apparatus  attached  to  the  teats.  The 
chief  advantage  claimed  for  milking  ma- 
chines is  that  by  their  use  the  milk  can 
be  drawn  from  the  udder  through  tubes 
into  the  milk  pail  without  the  possibility 
of  contamination  with  dirt  or  bacteria. 


474 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Milking  machines  have  not  been  used  as 
much  in  this  country  as  in  Europe,  and 
the  reports  from  their  use  have  not  been 
so  favorable.  In  some  instances,  it  has 
been  claimed  that  the  milk  yield  was 
slightly  diminished  when  milking  ma- 
chines were  used.  Eecent  experiments 
by  Lane  and  Erf  indicate  that  milking 
machines  are  quite  satisfactory  if  kept 
scrupulously  clean. 

Improvement  of  dairy  conditions — 
The  inspection  of  dairies  which  furnish 
milk  for  public  use  indicates  clearly  that 
in  many  cases  there  is  room  for  improve- 


from  chemical  preservatives,  such  as  bo- 
rax, formalin,  salicylic  acid  or  carbon- 
ate of  soda.  Bacteriologically  pure  milk 
should  contain  less  than  10,000  bacteria 
per  cubic  centimeter  and  must  be  strictly 
free  from  disease  germs  or  bacteria 
which  produce  gas  and  pus.  As  com- 
pared with  this  standard,  an  inspection 
of  the  samples  of  market  milk  offered 
for  sale  in  the  District  of  Columbia, 
showed  that  only  21  out  of  117  samples 
contained  less  than  10,000  bacteria  per 
cubic  centimeter,  while  some  showed 
more  bacteria  than  the  sewage  water  of 


Fig.    303 — MODERN    MILK    MAIDS    WITH    COVERED    PAILS 


ment.  It  has  become  necessary  to  estab- 
lish a  standard  of  purity  and  quality  of 
market  milk.  Pure  market  milk,  as 
stated  by  Kober  and  others,  should  be 
mechanically,  chemically  and  bacterio- 
logically pure.  In  other  words,  mar- 
ket milk  should  be  free  from  dirt  and 
should  show  its  proper  percentage  of 
fat  without  the  removal  of  cream,  or  the 
addition  of  water  or  skim  milk.  The 
amount  of  total  solids  should  be  12.5 
per  cent  and  the  fat  at  least  3.5  per  cent. 
Moreover,  chemically  pure  milk  must 
contain  all  of  its  normal  constituents 
and  must  be  free  from  pus,  toxins, 
ptomains,  leucomains  and  disagreeable 
odors  and  flavors.     It  must  also  be  free 


the  city.  The  diseases  which  may  be 
carried  by  milk  have  already  been 
referred  to  under  the  head  of  Milk  In- 
spection. 

Dairy  sanitation — In  order  to  obtain 
sanitary  milk,  a  number  of  sanitary  re- 
quirements must  be  met.  These  re- 
quirements may  be  briefly  mentioned  in 
this  connection:  The  milk  should  not  be 
used  for  food  until  five  days  after  calv- 
ing; the  ration  for  milk  cows  should  not 
contain  materials  which  impart  a  bad 
odor  or  flavor  to  the  milk ;  stables  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, so  as  to  contain  no  sour  food  or 
manure  which  might  taint  the  milk  by 
their  odors;  the  udders  must  be  washed 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


475 


Or  thoroughly  brushed  before  milking; 
the  milk  should  be  removed  from  the 
stable  as  soon  as  drawn  and  strained 
through  several  layers  of  cheese  cloth, 
or  cotton  batting,  after  which  it  is  to  be 
aerated  and  immediately  cooled  by  the 
use  of  ice  or  water.  If  milk  is  held 
over  night,  it  must  be  stored  in  a  place 
free  from  odor.  All  dairy  utensils  must 
be  thoroughly  washed  and  scalded  in 
order  to  render  them  sterile.  The  tem- 
perature at  which  the  milk  is  held  may 
range  from  40°  to  60°  F.  On  many 
farms  it  is  not  easy  to  keep  the  tem- 
perature below  60°  F.  Great  improve- 
ments in  the  points  just  mentioned  with 
regard  to  the  sanitary  care  of  milk  may 


while  a  portion  of  this  section  of  the 
barn  may  be  separated  off  as  a  milking 
stable.  The  rest  of  the  barn  may  be  so 
arranged  that  the  forage  is  hauled  in 
upon  the  second  floor  and  stored  so  that 
it  may  be  fed  to  cows  without  creating 
a  dust  in  the  milking  stable,  and 
without  becoming  contaminated  with 
odors  from  cow  manure.  One  necessary 
feature  from  a  sanitary  standpoint  is 
that  the  floor  of  the  milking  stable  shall 
be  impervious  to  water  and  smooth 
enough  to  allow  it  to  be  flushed  out  at 
frequent  intervals.  The  manure  should 
preferably  be  taken  out  at  one  end  of  the 
stable  and  dumped  in  a  wagon,  which 
may  be  hauled  away  as  soon   as  it   is 


Fig.     304 — MILKERS    IN     SANITARY     SUITS 


be  made  in  a  large  percentage  of  dairies 
and  when  this  is  done  the  quality  of  the 
milk  will  be  better  and  customers  will 
be  better  satisfied. 

Dairy  barns — The  chief  particulars  to 
be  remembered  in  the  construction  of  a 
dairy  barn  are  convenience  in  stabling 
the  cows  and  storing  feed,  comfort  and 
health  of  the  cows  and  ease  of  handling 
milk  under  sanitary  conditions.  It  is 
obviously  quite  impossible  to  suggest 
details  of  construction,  since  these  will 
differ  in  each  individual  case,  according 
to  the  local  conditions.  In  some  cases, 
it  will  be  found  very  convenient  so_  to 
construct  the  barn  that  the  lower  side, 
if  on  a  side  hill,  will  furnish  an  open 
shed   for    the    protection    of    the    cows, 


filled.  The  system  of  throwing  the  ma- 
nure through  windows  immediately  be- 
hind the  cows  is  very  objectionable,  for 
the  reason  that  the  inside  of  the  stable 
will  thus  become  smeared  over  with  ma- 
nure, and  the  odor  of  the  manure  lying 
outside  is  constantly  carried  into  the 
stable. 

Dehorning  cows  during  lactation — As 
already  indicated,  in  the  discussion  of 
Beef  Cattle,  it  is  best  to  dehorn  all  the 
calves  at  an  early  age,  since  the  opera- 
tion may  then  be  done  without  pain  to 
the  animal  and  they  are  thereafter  ready 
for  any  work  required.  If  cows  are  de- 
horned in  full  flow  of  milk,  the  milk 
yield  is  thereby  diminished  for  a  period 
of  a  week  or  two  to  the  extent  of  15  to  45 


476 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


per  cent.  This  loss  in  the  milk  flow  may 
be  avoided  by  dehorning  calves  while 
young. 

Contamination  of  milk  with  dirt  and 
bacteria — Mention  has  already  been 
made  of  certain  rules  by  which  sanitary 
milk  may  be  obtained.  It  seems  desir- 
able to  call  further  attention  to  the 
ways  in  which  milk  may  become  con- 
taminated. Fraser,  in  Illinois,  found 
that  the  amount  of  dirt  which  falls  from 
the  udder  in  milking  varies  according  to 
the  character  of  the  dirt,  the  amount  of 
hair  on  the  udder,  its  shape  and  the 
length  of  teats.  In  these  tests  three  and 
one-half  times  as  much  dirt  fell  from 
unwashed  udders  as  the  same  udders 
after  they  had  been  washed;  while  in 
some  cases  where  the  udders  were  muddy, 


Fig.    305— RACK    FOR    MILK    CANS 

nine  times  as  much  dirt  fell  from  the 
udder  before  washing  as  after  washing. 
With  udders  in  average  condition  it  was 
found  that  an  ounce  of  dirt  would  fall 
from  each  udder  in  the  course  of  thirty- 
two  milkings  or  1  ounce  of  filth. for  each 
275  pounds  of  milk.  After  washing,  how- 
ever, there  was  only  1  ounce  of  filth  in 
each  24,000  pounds  of   milk. 

All  dirt  on  cows'  udders  and  on  the 
milker  contain  bacteria;  consequently 
the  number  of  bacteria  which  gain  en- 
trance to  the  milk  varies  with  the 
amount  of  filth. 

Washing  dairy  utensils — It  is  too 
often  the  case  that  the  dairyman  is  sat- 
isfied with  cleaning  milk  utensils  like 
kitchen  dishes.  More  care  is  required 
in  cleaning  dairy  utensils,  for  the  reason 
that  bacteria  multiply  so  readily  in  the 
smallest  particles  of  milk  which  may  be 
left  in  the  corners  of  dairy  utensils.  Erf 
and  others  have  repeatedly  called  atten- 
tion to  the  necessity  of  using  a  brush, 
and   a   good  washing  powder   on  every 


part  of  the  cream  separator  after  each 
using.  All  parts  should  then  be  rinsed 
in  boiling  water,  or,  still  better,  steamed 
and  left  to  dry  while  hot.  The  use  of 
wiping  cloths  is  almost  sure  to  contami- 
nate milk  utensils,  since  they  are  not 
bacteriologically  clean,  except  in  the 
rarest  instances.  Erf  found  that  the 
bacterial  contamination  of  milk  was  in- 
creased three  times  by  running  it 
through  a  separator  which  had  merely 
been  flushed  and  not  thoroughly  cleansed. 
Various  investigators  have  found  that 
the  separator  slime,  found  in  the  separa- 
tor after  the  cream  has  been  removed, 
contains  a  relatively  large  percentage 
of  bacteria,  and  whenever  this  is  used 
in  feeding  pigs,  without  previous  boil- 
ing, tuberculosis  develops  in  a  large 
percentage   of   cases. 

Haecker  and  others  have  found  it  de- 
sirable to  use  special  precautions  to 
prevent  the  contamination  of  milk  dur- 
ing milking.  It  is  recommended  by 
Haecker  that  the  udder  and  teats  be 
washed,  after  which  an  application  of 
a  vaseline  ointment  containing  5  per 
cent  of  carbolic  acid  is  used. 

Fermentation  of  milk — The  presence 
of  bacteria  or  other  filth  in  milk  leads 
to  rapid  fermentation  and  souring.  It 
is  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to 
convince  one's  self  that  the  exercise  of 
special  care  in  preventing  the  contam- 
ination of  milk  will  yield  milk  which 
will  keep  much  longer  than  that  which 
has  been  carelessly  handled,  and,  there- 
fore, contains  filth.  This  is  a  matter  of 
great  importance  to  the  dairyman  who 
sells  milk  for  use  as  such,  since  the  cus- 
tomer naturally  wants  milk  which  will 
keep  fresh  as  long  as  possible.  If  milk 
is  intended  for  the  manufacture  of  but- 
ter or  cheese,  harmless  bacteria  in  it 
simply  serve  to  hasten  the  ripening  proc- 
ess. Some  of  these  bacteria,  however, 
may  give  a  rancid  or  otherwise  disagree- 
able flavor  to  the  butter  or  cheese.  Even 
when  every  possible  precaution  is  taken, 
enough  bacteria  will  gain  entrance  to 
the  milk  to  produce  a  souring  and  ripen- 
ing of  the  cream. 

More  than  200  species  of  bacteria 
have  been  found  in  milk.  Fortunately, 
however,  most  of  them  are  harmless,  ex- 
cept that  they  cause  the  milk  to  sour. 
Some  produce  bitter  flavors,  others,  gas, 
and  still  others,  color  changes.  The  best 
results  in  the  souring  of  milk  and  ripen- 
ing of  cream  are  obtained  when  bac- 
teria are  excluded  as  far  as  possible  by 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


477 


cleanly  methods  of  milking  and  han- 
dling the  milk,  and  when  starters  are 
used  which  are  known  to  produce  a  de- 
sirable flavor  in  the  butter. 

Practical  methods  of  handling  milk — 
In  dairying  as  conducted  at  present, 
the  farmer  is  primarily  interested  in  the 


Fig.     306 — CHAMPION     MILK     COOLER 
AERATOR 

production  of  fine  milk.  The  technical 
operations  by  which  butter,  cheese  or 
condensed  milk  and  other  milk  products 
are  manufactured,  are  chiefly  of  interest 
to  expert  butter  or  cheese  makers  in  the 
factories  to  which  the  farmer  delivers 
his  milk.  It  is  still  true,  however,  that 
far  more  than  half  of  the  butter  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  is  made  on 
farms.  The  price  obtained  for  farm 
butter  is  altogether  too  low,  and  this  is 
due  to  the  poor  quality  of  such  butter, 
and  the  many  complaints  which  are 
made  concerning  it.  It  is  of  much  im- 
portance to  the  farmer,  therefore,  to 
adopt  improved  methods  in  handling 
milk  and  making  butter,  since  otherwise, 
he  cannot  obtain  remunerative  prices 
for  these  products.  Thus,  at  present,  in 
the  southern  states,  well  made  creamery 
butter  readily  sells  for  30  cents  a  pound, 
while  average  farm  butter  will  bring  but 
10  to  12  cents.  The  cost  of  producing 
10-cent  butter  is  about  the  same  as  thai 
for  30-cent  butter,  and  the  desirability 
of  giving  more  attention  to^  modern 
methods  in  producing  butter  is,  there- 
fore,  apparent. 

Aerating  milk — Mention  has  already 
been  made  of  the  desirability  of  aerat- 


ing the  milk  as  soon  as  it  has  been 
drawn.  This  is  practiced  extensively  by 
dairymen  and  milk  dealers  throughout 
the  country.  It  is  only  recently,  however, 
that  particular  attention  has  been  called 
to  this  matter  in  the  United  States. 
The  immediate  purpose  of  aerating  the 
milk  is  to  remove  the  animal  odor  which 
is  present  in  warm  milk,  and  which  is 
disagreeable  to  many  persons.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  animal  odor  of  milk 
will  disappear  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
events  if  the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand 
for  some  time  under  sanitary  conditions, 
but  the  process  is  much  hastened  by  the 
use  of  an  aerator.  The  aerators  in  com- 
mon use  are  very  simple  in  construction. 
In  fact,  the  milk  may  be  fairly  well 
aerated  by  simply  dipping  it  up  from  the 
can  and  pouring  it  back  from  some 
height  above  the  can.  Most  of  the 
aerators  in  general  use  consist  essen- 
tially of  a  tin  reservoir  supported  by 
legs  and  perforated  with  small  holes. 
The  milk  is  poured  into  the  reservoir 
above  and  passes  out  through  the  small 
holes  into  the  can  below.  The  milk  may 
also  be  made  to  run  in  a  tin  sheet  over 
a  metal  surface  which  is  cooled  from  be- 
hind with  cold  water.  The  milk  is  thus 
aerated  and  cooled  off  at  the  same  time. 
Aeration  of  milk  not  only  removes  the 
animal  odor  but  improves  the  keeping 
quality  of  the  milk.  In  some  compara- 
tive tests,  it  has  been  found  that  un- 
aerated  milk  keeps  as  long  as  that  which 
has  been  aerated,  but  this,  as  a  rule,  is 
the  case  only  when  the  milk  is  obtained 
in   an  unusually  clean   condition.     The 


vcfjTiL^TiNio  fuse 


MIIIV--         <== 

COOUrtC    DP.UM-/ 

7  /"  wetfe^ 

Fig. 


PEfyofvtfiONj 


BOTTOM    PlTCHCD    f<(0M  TOR    WATER 

CENTER  TO  <\BO   STRENGTH  %      ^     ^ 

307 — SECTIONAL    VIEW    OF    MILK 
COOLER    AERATOR 


use  of  an  aerator  appears  to  have  little 
effect  upon  the  quality  of  butter  or 
cheese  made  from  the  milk.  Its  chief 
value  consists  in  the  fact  that  aeration 
may  be  accomplished  by  a  cheap  appara- 
tus which  cools  the  milk  rapidly  at  the 
same  time. 


478 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Another  type  of  aerator  depends  upon 
forcing  the  air  through  the  milk.  The 
animal  odors  are  thus  rapidly  removed, 
but  the  milk  is  not  thereby  cooled  and 
does  not  keep  appreciably  longer  than 
unaerated  milk.  Marshall,  in  Michigan, 
found  that  in  aerating  milk  a  consider- 
able per  cent  of  the  carbon  dioxide  was 
removed  and  this  was  considered  an  un- 
favorable result  of  aeration.  Carbon 
dioxide  is  not  harmful  when  taken  into 
the  stomach,  and  its  presence  in  the 
milk  has  a  tendency  to  che^k  the  growth 
of  bacteria  and  prevent  the  souring  of 
the  milk.  In  some  of  Marshall's  experi- 
ments, the  aerated  milk  soured  more 
quickly  than  that  which  was  not  aerated. 
In  these  tests,  however,  the  milk  was  in 
an  unusually  clean  condition,  and  the 
results  perhaps  do  not  apply  to  milk 
which  contains  a  relatively  high  num- 
ber of  bacteria  and  considerable  filth. 

Doane  suggests  that  the  chief  use  of 
the  aerator  should  be  in  helping  the  city 
dealer  to  remove  bad  odors  which  milk 
may  contain,  while  the  farmer  should 
strive  to  produce  milk  which  does  not 
need  the  aerator  in  order  to  eliminate 
bad  smells. 

Pasteurization— Of  the  various  meth- 
ods which  have  been  adopted  for  elim- 
inating bacteria  from  milk,  or  greatly 
reducing  their  number,  pasteurization 
occupies  an  important  place.  It  may  be 
assumed  as  certain  that  even  under 
the  best  possible  conditions  a  consid- 
erable number  of  bacteria  will  gain  en- 
trance to  the  milk.  The  possibility 
cannot  be  excluded  that  among  these 
bacteria  there  are  some  which  belong 
to  harmful  species.  The  simplest  and 
surest  means  of  destroying  these  bac- 
teria is  found  in  pasteurization.  This 
may  be  accomplished  by  exposing  the 
milk  for  10  to  15  minutes  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  158°  F.  This  method  has  a  dis- 
tinct advantage,  since  the  milk  does  not 
thereby  acquire  a  cooked  taste,  and  its 
keeping  qualities  are  greatly  improved. 
It  is  desirable,  however,  immediately  af- 
ter pasteurization  that  the  milk  be  re- 
duced to  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  and 
kept  at  that  point.  The  recommenda- 
tions made  by  different  dairy  experts  re- 
garding the  length  of  exposure,  and  the 
temperature  of  pasteurization,  vary  con- 
siderably. In  Michigan,  pasteurization 
was  successfully  accomplished  by  heat- 
ing the  milk  to  155°  F.  and  keeping  it  at 
that  temperature  for  20  minutes.  Later 


experiments  in  Wisconsin  showed  that 
when  milk  was  maintained  at  140°  F. 
for  15  or  20  minutes,  about  99  per  cent 
of  bacteria  were  killed  and  the  milk 
kept  sweet  for  six  days.  On  this  point, 
however,  opinions  vary  somewhat,  and 
the  results  obtained  depend  upon  the 
skill  applied  to  the  process  of  pasteuriza- 
tion. Thus  Harrington  estimates  that 
about  75  per  cent  of  ordinary  bacteria  in 
milk  are  destroyed  by  keeping  the  milk 
for  one  hour  at  140°  F.,  for  15  minutes 
at  150°  F.,  or  for  10  minutes  at  158°  F. 
If  milk  is  carried  above  158°  F.  it  may 
acquire  a  cooked  taste.  For  practical 
purposes,  therefore,  a  temperature  of 
about  155°  F.  for  20  or  30  minutes 
should  be  considered  satisfactory  for  pas 
teurization. 

Many  physicians  claim  that  the  use 
even  of  such  low  temperatures  unfavor- 
ably influences  the  digestibility  and  nu- 
tritive value  of  milk  for  infant  feeding, 
and  that,  for  this  reason,  preference 
should  be  given  to  raw  milk  for  infant 
feeding  obtained  under  strict  sanitary 
conditions. 

Kober  and  others,  however,  call  atten- 
tion to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  raw 
milk  in  such  a  way  as  to  guarantee  its 
absolute  wholesomeness  for  children, 
and,  therefore,  recommend  pasteurization 
as  the  lesser  evil  of  the  two.  In  fact, 
many  physicians  believe  that  the  dangers 
from  the  use  of  pasteurized  milk  have 
been  greatly  exaggerated. 

Pasteurization  is  commonly  accom- 
plished by  placing  the  milk  in  vessels 
surrounded  by  hot  water.  A  considerable 
number  of  satisfactory  pasteurizers  have 
been  placed  on  the  market  and  may  be 
obtained  from  dealers  in  dairy  products. 
Detailed  directions  for  their  use  are  fur- 
nished with  the  apparatus. 

Bacteria  in  milk  as  related  to  tern 
perature — The  chief  purpose  for  cooling 
milk  immediately  after  it  is  drawn  is  to 
check  the  growth  of  bacteria  and  thereby 
lengthen  the  time  during  which  the  milk 
will  remain  sweet.  It  has  been  found  by 
the  extensive  investigations  of  Conn  and 
others  that  variations  in  temperature 
have  a  striking  influence  upon  the  rate 
of  multiplication  of  bacteria  in  milk.  At 
a  temperature  of  50°  F.  bacteria  mny 
multiply  only  fivefold  in  24  hours,  while 
in  the  same  period  at  70°  F.  they  may 
multiply  750  times.  It  is  obvious,  there- 
fore, that  temperature  has  a  great  in- 
fluence upon  the  keeping  property  of 
milk.     Milk  maintained  at  95°   F.  will 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


479 


curdle  in  18  hours,  while  the  same  milk 
kept  at  70°  F.  will  not  curdle  until  af- 
ter 48  hours,  and  at  50°  F.  may  not 
curdle  for  two  weeks.  Conn  has,  there- 
fore, called  attention  to  the  fact  thac 
the  keeping  quality  of  the  milk  depends 
more  intimately  upon  the  temperature 
at  which  the  milk  is  kept  than  upon  the 
original  contamination  of  the  milk  with 
filth  and  bacteria.  The  use  of  refriger- 
ation, however,  should  not  be  allowed  as 
a  means  of  preventing  the  bad  results  of 
filthy  habits  in  milking. 

Formalin  as  a  preservative  of  milk — 
Special  attention  is  called  to  formalin 
as  a  milk  preservative  for  the  reason  thai 
this  chemical  has  recently  been  used  more 
extensively  than  any  other  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  souring  of  milk, 
and  the  development  of  bacteria  in  it. 
Numerous  experiments  with  it  have  been 
carried  on  by  European  investigators 
and  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  in  the  different  states.  It 
has  been  shown  by  Chester,  that  bacteria 
diminish  rapidly  in  milk  when  it  con- 
tains formalin  at  the  rate  of  one  part  in 
2,000.  Even  when  formalin  was  added 
only  to  the  extent  of  one  part  in  4,000 
the  multiplication  of  bacteria  was  much 
less  rapid  than  in  the  case  of  untreated 
milk.  Chester  believes  that  the  use  of 
1  teaspoonful  of  40  per  cent  formalin  for 
each  15  gallons  of  milk  will  improve  the 
sanitary  condition  of  the  milk  by  pre- 
venting fermentation  without  causing 
any  marked  harm  to  persons  who  con- 
sume the  milk.  As  already  stated  under 
the  discussion  of  Beef  Animals,  Klein 
and  others  have  found  that  the  use  of 
formalin  in  milk  fed  to  calves  may  be 
depended  upon  to  prevent  or  cure  scours. 
The  action  of  the  formalin  is  obviously 
the  same  in  this  case  as  when  used  sim- 
ply for  preventing  the  fermentation  of 
milk.  Moreover,  Von  Behring  recom- 
mends the  addition  of  formalin  at  the 
rate  of  one  part  to  20,000  to  40,000  parts 
of  milk  in  order  to  destroy  tubercle 
bacilli  in  the  milk.  The  whole  question 
of  the  use  of  preservatives,  however,  is 
at  present  subject  to  a  bitter  controversy 
and  until  some  of  the  doubtful  point3 
are  settled  regarding  their  use,  it  seems 
best  to  recommend  against  the  use  of 
any  preservative  in  milk,  for  the  reason 
that  by  the  exercise  of  due  care  milk 
can  be  obtained  which  will  keep  long 
enough  for  the  purposes  of  the  ordinary 
consumer. 


Babcock  milk  test — The  only  means 
of  knowing  the  productivity  of  each 
cow  consists  in  weighing  the  milk  and 
testing  it  from  time  to  time  for  fat  con- 
tent. Reliable  spring  scales  are  inex- 
pensive and  may  be  hung  in  positions 
so  that  the  time  occupied  in  weighing 
the  milk  of  each  cow  is  exceeding  slight. 
The  percentage  of  butter  fat  should  also 
be  tested  once  a  month  or  oftener.  The 
best  and  simplest  apparatus  for  deter- 
mining the  percentage  of  fat  in  milk 
is  the  Babcock  tester.  In  making  the 
test,  the  milk  to  be  tested  should  be  thor- 
oughly shaken  so  as  to  obtain  a  fair, 
average  sample.  The  samples  from  dif- 
ferent cows  are  then  mixed  with  strong 
sulphuric  acid  in  Babcock  test  bottles 
and  whirled  at  the  rate  of  850  to  1,000 
revolutions  a  minute  in  the  Babcock 
tester  for  about  five  minutes.  The  con- 
tents of  each  bottle  should  be  well 
shaken  before  whirling  in  the  tester  and 
immediately  after  adding  the  sulphuric 
acid.  The  action  of  the  acid  is  to  digest 
the  protein  of  the  milk  and  set  free  the 
fat,  which  readily  separates  from  the 
Test  of  the  milk.  After  the  machine  has 
been  whirled  for  five  minutes  it  is 
stopped  and  pure  hot  water,  preferably 
distilled  water,  is  added  so  as  to  fill  the 
bottles  up  to  the  neck.  The  machine  is 
then  whirled  again  for  two  minutes  and 
hot  water  again  added  until  the  fat 
rises  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  where 
the  percentage  may  be  read  on  a  gradu- 
ated scale.  The  machine  is  again 
whirled  for  a  minute  to  make  sure  that 
all  the  fat  is  separated,  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  milk  at  this  time  should 
preferably  range  between  120°  and  140° 
F.  If  too  much  acid  is  used  or  the  milk 
is  too  warm  at  the  time  when  the  acid 
is  added,  some  of  the  fat  may  be 
charred;  on  the  other  hand,  if  too  little 
acid  is  used,  white  flocculent  material 
may  appear  at  the  lower  end  of  the  fat 
column;  again,  if  the  water  is  impure 
or  hard,  there  may  be  a  mass  of  foam  at 
the  top  of  the  fat  column.  The  reading 
of  the  percentage  of  fat  is  a  simple  mat- 
ter, which  may  be  done  very  accurately 
after  a  little  experience  has  been  had. 

Creaming  of  milk — After  the  milk 
has  been  somewhat  cooled  by  the  use  of 
a  cooler,  or  some  other  cooling  device,  it 
may  be  set  in  shallow  or  deep  pans  for 
the  separation  of  the  milk  by  gravity;  or 
the  milk  may  be  run  through  a  separator 
without  any  preliminary  cooling.  There 
are.   therefore,   two   general  systems   of 


480 


PARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


cream  separation,  the  gravity  and  cen- 
trifugal systems,  both  of  which  depend 
for  their  results  upon  the  difference  in 
the  specific  gravity  between  the  fat  and 
other  parts  of  the  milk.  There  are 
three  modifications  of  the  gravity  system 
in  common  use,  namely,  shallow  setting, 
deep  setting,  and  water  dilution. 

The  shallow  pan  system  consists  in 
placing  the  milk  in  pans  2  to  4  inches  in 
depth  as  soon  as  possible  after  milking 
and  keeping  the  milk  at  a  temperature 
of  40  to  60°  F.  in  a  room  without  dust 
and  without  any  bad  odors.  Under  or- 
dinary conditions  it  requires  about  36 
hours  for  the  cream  to  rise  by  this  sys- 
tem and  at  the  end  of  this  time  the 
cream  is  removed  by  a  milk  skimmer,  A 
considerable    amount    of    cream,    on    an 


tern  of  obtaining  cream  consists  in  di- 
luting the  milk  with  about  an  equal 
weight  of  pure  cold  water,  and  leaving 
the  milk  in  tin  cans  for  a  few  hours,  at 
the  end  of  which  time  the  skim  milk 
and  water  may  be  drawn  away  from  the 
bottom,  thus  leaving  the  cream.  The 
advantages  of  this  system  are  that  the 
cream  rises  more  quickly  than  by  the 
shallow  setting  or  deep  setting  systems. 
The  method  suffers  from  several  dis- 
advantages, however.  It  gives  more  vol- 
ume to  the  milk  to  be  handled  and  prac- 
tically spoils  the  skim  milk  for  feeding 
purposes.  Moreover,  the  cream  is  of  a 
slightly  inferior  quality  and  may  be- 
come badly  contaminated  if  the  water 
used  in  dilution  is  not  the  best. 

The  centrifugal  separation  of  cream, 


Fig.    308 DOG    POWER    FOR    RUNNING    SEPARATOR 


average  about  .5  of  1  per  cent  remains 
in  the  skim  milk  even  under  conditions 
most  favorable  for  the  operation  of  this 
system. 

Deep  setting  for  cream  separation 
consists  in  placing  the  milk  in  shotgun 
or  Cooley  cans  about  8  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  20  inches  deep.  The  best  re- 
sults are  obtained  if  the  milk  is  kept  at 
a  temperature  of  about  40°  F.  by  plac- 
ing the  cans  in  ice  water.  Under  favor- 
able conditions  not  more  than  .2  per  cent 
of  fat  should  remain  in  the  skim  milk 
under  this  system  and  the  cream  is  in 
bettei  condition  than  that  obtained  from 
shallow  setting.  The  time  required  for 
the  operation  of  this  system  is  about  24 
hours  and  the  amount  of  fat  in  cream 
obtained  by  the  Cooley  system  is  usually 
18  to  20  per  cent. 

The  hydraulic  or  water-dilution  sys- 


like  the  gravity  systems,  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  the  cream  is  lighter  than 
the  rest  of  the  milk,  but  the  force 
supplied  for  separating  the  cream  oper- 
ates in  a  horizontal  direction  rather  than 
in  a  vertical  direction,  as  is  the  case 
with  gravity.  Separation  by  the  centri- 
fugal method  is  accomplished  through 
the  use  of  some  form  of  separator.  The 
chief  advantage  of  the  centrifugal  meth- 
od is  that  the  cream  may  be  successfully 
separated  under  a  considerable  range  of 
temperatures.  Perhaps  the  best  tempera- 
ture is  that  of  the  normal  body  heat  of 
the  animal,  the  milk  being  run  through 
the  separator  immediately  after  milk- 
ing. A  superior  quality  of  cream  can 
be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  separator, 
since  the  milk  is  not  allowed  to  sour  and 
the  cream  is  therefore  not  subjected  to 
the    influence    of   bacteria    which    may 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


481 


have  gained  entrance  to  the  milk.  More- 
over, the  thickness  of  the  cream,  when 
the  separator  is  used,  may  be  regulated 
at  will,  whereas  by  the  gravity  system 
the  amount  of  fat  is  never  higher  than 
20  per  cent.  The  fat  is  more  completely 
removed  by  the  use  of  a  separator  than 
by  any  gravity  system  and  the  skim  milk 
is  obtained  sweet  and  in  the  best  possible 
condition  for  feeding  to  calves  and  other 
animals. 

Separators — The  idea  of  separating 
cream  by  centrifugal  force  was  appar- 
ently first  suggested  in  1859,  but  the 
apparatus  devised  for  this  purpose  was 
somewhat  clumsy  and  unsatisfactory  un- 
til 1879,  when  the  Weston  and  De  Laval 
separators  were  invented.  The  essential 
feature  of  all  separators  is  the  bowi 
which  revolves  in  a  vertical  position, 
and  may  or  may  not  be  furnished  with 
various  devices  on  the  inside.  The  milk 
may  be  allowed  to  enter  the  top  or  bot- 
tom of  the  bowl,  but  in  most  machines 
it  enters  at  the  top.  It  is  at  once  acted 
upon  by  the  centrifugal  force  in  the  re- 
volving bowl  and  separates  into  three 
layers,  a  thick  layer,  commonly  known 
as  the  separator  slime,  next  to  the  outer 
wall;  the  skim  milk  layer  coming  next, 
toward  the  center  and  the  cream  in  the 
center;  the  richest  cream  being  in  the 
center  of  the  bowl.  The  rate  of  feed 
may  be  regulated  by  a  simple  device, 
and  directions  for  all  the  practical  de- 
tails of  operating  separators  are  fur- 
nished with  each  machine.  It  is  best  to 
follow  these  directions  closely,  for  the 
reason  that  they  have  been  thoroughly 
tested  by  the  manufacturers  and  others, 
and  the  recommendations  are  based  on 
the  results  of  these  experiments.  The 
rate  of  revolutions  varies  from  6,000  to 
9,000  or  more  per  minute  in  different 
machines  and  the  manufacturers  of  each 
machine  indicate  the  rate  at  which  the 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  This 
recommendation  must  also  be  followed. 
The  machine  should  be  started  slowly 
and  the  proper  speed  obtained  by  grad- 
ually increasing  the  rate  of  revolution. 
The  milk  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter 
until  the  right  speed  has  been  attained. 
A  considerable  number  of  separators 
are  ^advertised  for  use  on  the  farm. 
These  include  the  De  Laval,  the  United 
States,  Sharpies,  Iowa,  Simplex,  Omega, 
Empire,  Davis,  National,  Dairy  Queen, 
Westphalia,    Peerless    and    Skimclose. 

Naturally  a  keen  rivalry  exists  among 
the    manufacturers    of    these    different 


machines  in  claiming  superior  advan- 
tages for  each  machine.  It  would  be 
quite  useless  to  attempt  in  this  connec- 
tion to  determine  the  relative  value  of 
different  makes  of  separators.  They  dif- 
fer not  only  in  strength,  closeness  of 
skimming,  simplicity,  and  height  of 
the  receiving  can,  but  also  in  the  rate  of 
speed  required,  durability,  capacity, 
power  required  for  turning  and  other 
points.  The  low  position  of  the  receiv- 
ing can  is  claimed  by  some  makers  as  a 
great  advantage,  but  it  is  obvious  that 
this  advantage  is  of  little  importance 
if  it  is  obtained  by  sacrificing  the  mech- 
anical strength  and  durability  of  the 
machine.  The  amount  of  cream  left  in 
the  skim  milk  by  separators  ranges  from 
.1  to  .2  per  cent. 

Separating  milk — Milk  may  be  run 
through  the  separator  fresh  from  the 
cows,  or,  if  allowed  to  become  cool, 
should  be  heated  before  separation.  In 
general,  the  higher  the  temperature  the 
more  fluid  the  milk  and  the  easier  the 
fat  is  removed.  When  milk  is  heated 
after  becoming  cool  the  temperature 
should  be  raised  gradually.  If  the  milk 
has  partially  soured  or  the  cream  has 
partly  risen  so  as  to  form  stringy  masses, 
these  conditions  may  interfere  some- 
what with  the  effective  operation  of  the 
separator.  Care  must  also  be  exercised 
not  to  overfeed  the  separator,  or  to 
change  the  speed  during  the  operation 
of  the  machine.  After  a  little  experi- 
ence, this  matter  is  learned  so  that  the 
operator  may  maintain  a  uniform  stroke 
of  the  handle. 

According  to  McKay  and  Larsen,  the 
use  of  farm  separators  has  increased 
enormously  within  recent  years.  Thus, 
hand  separators  were  introduced  into 
Iowa  in  1894;  in  1898  there  were  904 
farm  separators  in  the  state,  while  in 
1904  there  were  more  than  17,000  and 
the  number  has  increased  greatly  since 
that  date.  The  reasons  for  this  rapid 
extension  of  the  use  of  farm  separators 
have  been  well  stated  by  McKay  and 
Larsen.  In  the  first  place,  the  farmer 
obtains  his  skim  milk  in  the  best  con- 
dition for  feeding.  The  cost  and  trouble 
of  hauling  the  milk  to  a  creamery  are 
avoided.  The  use  of  farm  separators 
puts  the  farmer  in  a  more  independent 
position.  The  chief  objections  to  farm 
separators  are  due  to  their  careless  use 
by  the  average  farmer.  If  the  separa- 
tors are  not  kept  in  an  absolutely  clean 


482 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


condition,  the  quality  of  the  cream  ob- 
tained is  poorer  than  that  secured  in 
creameries  from  whole  milk  delivered  by 
the  farmer. 

The  size  and  capacity  of  the  separator 
to  be  used  in  any  individual  case  natu- 
rally depends  on  the  amount  of  milk  to 
be  separated.  For  small  farm  dairies 
a  hand  power  machine  is  sufficient,  while 
with  large  dairies,  or  in  creameries,  a 
larger  machine,  run  by  steam,  gasoline 
or  electric  power  is  required. 

Care  of  cream  on  the  farm — Before 
churning,  cream  must  undergo  a  ripen- 
ing process.     This  may  be  accomplished 


as  the  result  of  extensive  observation 
that  natural  ripening  may  or  may  not 
lead  to  the  production  of  good  butter. 
The  quality  and  flavor  of  the  cream  de- 
pend in  such  cases  on  the  kind  and  num- 
ber of  bacteria  present  in  it.  In  the 
spring  and  early  summer,  the  predomi- 
nating bacteria  in  the  milk  are  favorable 
to  the  production  of  a  good  flavor  in  the 
butter.  Later  in  the  season,  however, 
various  gas-producing  bacteria  and  other 
micro-organisms  may  cause  a  highly  dis- 
agreeable flavor  in  the  cream  and  butter. 
Certain  species  of  bacteria  have  been 
found  especially  suited  to  developing  a 


Fig.   309 — THE  NEW   WAY — A   MODERN   CHURN 


either  by  the  natural  or  artificial 
method.  Natural  cream  ripening  is  the 
term  applied  to  the  process  of  allowing 
the  cream  to  stand  until  it  is  soured 
by  the  action  of  the  bacteria  ordinarily 
present  in  the  milk  and  cream.  If  the 
cream  is  separated  by  any  one  of  the 
gravity  systems  it  is  nearly  ripe  at  the 
time  when  it  is  removed  from  the  milk. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  cream  is  re- 
moved in  a  sweet  condition  by  means  of 
a  separator,  it  must  be  set  aside  to  ripen 
for  a  certain  period,  which  depends 
largely  on  the  temperature  at  which  it  is 
kept  and  the  number  of  bacteria  present 
in  it. 
Natural  ripening — It  has  been  found 


desirable  flavor  in  butter.  Cultures  of 
these  bacteria  are  known  as  starters  and 
are  now  used  almost  exclusively  in  the 
manufacture  of  creamery  butter.  The 
starter  may  be  added  to  the  cream  with- 
out previous  treatment.  In  such  cases 
the  starter  is  depended  upon  to  predom- 
inate over  other  bacteria  which  may 
chance  to  be  present  and  thus  to  control 
the  kind  of  fermentation  in  the  cream. 
Where  cream  is  received  from  different 
farmers  and  under  varying  conditions, 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  obtain  a 
uniform  and  desirable  flavor  in  the  but- 
ter without  pasteurizing  the  cream  so  as 
to  destroy  the  bacteria  which  are  al- 
ready present.     After  pasteurization,  the 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


483 


starter  is  added  to  ripen  the  cream  in 
the  proper  manner. 

A  long  series  of  observations  by  the 
dairy  experts  in  Wisconsin  indicate  that 
by  the  ordinary  methods  of  setting  miiK 
on  the  farm,  about  20  per  cent  of  the 
total  butter  product  is  lost  in  the  skim 
milk.  This  means  that  in  the  milk  of 
cows  which  yield  enough  butter  fat  to 
make  300  pounds  of  butter  fat  annually, 
about  60  pounds  of  butter  is  lost.  At  an 
average  price  of  20  cents  a  pound,  this 
gives  a  loss  of  $12  a  cow,  or  $120  for  a 
herd  of  10  cows.  The  latter  sum  is  suf- 
ficient to  pay  for  a  good  separator. 

Quality  op  farm  butter — As  already 
indicated,  the  quality  of  cream  obtained 


Commercial  starters — A  number  of 
firms  dealing  in  dairy  apparatus  and 
supplies  have  put  on  the  market  pure 
cultures  of  bacteria  known  as  commer- 
cial starters,  and  these  have  given  ex- 
cellent results  in  the  production  of  but- 
ter of  a  fine  flavor.  The  increased  price 
obtained  for  butter  made  by  their  use, 
will  far  more  than  offset  their  cost  and 
the  slight  extra  time  required  in  pre- 
paring the  starters.  Under  ordinary 
conditions  from  10  to  30  per  cent  of 
starter  is  sufficient  to  bring  the  best 
results. 

Churning — It  is  commonly  recom- 
mended that  cream  be  at  a  temperature 
of    58    to    62°    F.    when   placed    in    the 


Fig.  310 — THE   OLD  WAY ANCIENT  TYPE  OF    CHURN 


from  the  ordinary  farm  dairy  and  the 
quality  of  butter  made  on  the  farm  is 
generally  inferior  to  standard  creamery 
butter  or  cream  obtained  under  proper 
conditions.  It  should  be  obvious,  with- 
out further  argument,  that  the  energy 
and  thought  expended  in  giving  proper 
attention  to  the  cream  and  butter  largely 
determine  whether  dairy  cows  are  kept 
at  a  profit  or  at  an  actual  loss.  Poor 
farm  butter  often  cannot  be  sold  for 
more  than  10  cents  a  pound,  whereas, 
with  the  same  amount  of  physical  labor 
and  a  little  more  head  work,  butter 
might  be  produced  which  will  bring  30 
cents  a  pound.  This  means  a  multi- 
plication of  the  profits  by  three. 


churn.  This  is  an  important  matter 
and  the  farmer  should  provide  himself 
with  a  good  dairy  thermometer  to  deter- 
mine the  temperature  and  not  merely 
guess  at  it.  A  high  temperature  makes 
the  butter  come  more  quickly  but  there 
is  more  loss  of  butter  in  the  buttermilk. 
A  low  temperature  increases  the  time 
required  for  churning,  but  yields  a 
firmer  butter  with  less  loss  in  the  butter- 
milk. At  temperatures  between  50  and 
60°  F.  most  cream  can  be  churned  in 
from  20  to  40  minutes.  The  time  re- 
quired and  the  results  obtained  depend 
on  the  cows,  the  season  of  the  year,  the 
stage  of  lactation  and  other  factors.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  churnability  of 


484 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


cream  differs  greatly  under  different 
conditions.  In  winter,  especially  if  the 
cows  are  not  receiving  much  succulence 
in  the  ration,  it  may  be  a  difficult  mat- 
ter to  make  the  butter  gather  in  the 
churn. 

The  effect  of  churning  is  to  bring 
the  fat  globules  in  the  cream  together 
into  masses  of  greater  or  less  size,  so 
they  may  be  readily  separated  from  the 
buttermilk.  The  agitation  necessary  to 
produce  this  result  may  be  accomplished 
by  various  forms  of  churns,  but  a  re- 
volving churn  is  best  for  ordinary  use. 
It  should  preferably  be  filled  one-third 
to  one-half  full  with  cream,  and  should 
be  revolved  at  the  rate  of  50  to  60  times 
a  minute.  The  greatest  agitation  of  the 
cream  is  obtained  when  the  churn  is 
about  one-third  full.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  if  the  quantity  of  the 
cream  is  too  small,  some  difficulty  will 
be  experienced  in  collecting  the  butter. 
In  general,  the  more  completely  ripe  the 
cream  is,  the  easier  it  churns.  Sweet 
cream  is  sticky  and  the  fat  globules  do 
not  break  so  readily  and  separate  from 
the  buttermilk.  With  regard  to  the 
rate  of  turning  the  churn  the  directions 
furnished  by  the  manufacturers  of  the 
churn  should  be  followed,  since  this  mat- 
ter varies  with  the  style  of  churn  and 
the  diameter. 

After  a  little  experience  one  may 
readily  recognize  by  the  sound  when  the 
cream  begins  to  break  and  churning 
should  cease  as  soon  as  the  butter  gran- 
ules are  about  the  size  of  wheat  kernels. 
It  may  be  safer  to  continue  churning 
a  little  past  this  stage  in  order  to  make 
it  easier  to  collect  the  butter.  If  the 
granules  are  too  small,  some  of  the  but- 
ter may  be  lost  in  straining  out  the  but- 
termilk. Over-churning,  however,  should 
be  avoided,  for  the  reason  that  much  of 
the  buttermilk  will  be  retained  in  the 
butter  and  is  difficult  to  remove.  The 
amount  of  moisture  content  in  butter 
is  somewhat  increased  by  long  churning, 
but  more  than  16  per  cent  of  water  in 
butter  is  not  allowed  according  to  mar- 
ket standards. 

As  soon  as  the  butter  granules  are 
of  the  right  size,  the  buttermilk  is  drawn 
off  and  the  butter  washed  at  least  twice 
with  cold,  pure  water,  the  churn  being 
revolved  a  few  times  at  each  washing. 
The  butter  should  not  be  washed  too 
long  since  its  flavor  and  aroma  are  easily 
removed  in  the  water.  The  tempera- 
ture   of    the    washing    water    should    be 


the  same  as  that  of  the  butter  or  slightly 
colder  or  warmer,  depending  on  the  con- 
sistency of  the  butter.  The  chief  pur- 
pose of  washing  butter  is  to  remove  the 
buttermilk  and,  as  soon  as  this  is  ac- 
complished, the  washing  should  bo 
stopped. 

Salting  butter_As  stated  by  McKay 
and  Larsen,  the  chief  objects  of  salting- 
are  to  improve  the  flavor  of  butter, 
increase  its  keeping  quality  and  help  in 
removing  the  buttermilk.  The  amount 
of  salt  to  be  added  to  the  butter  depends 
upon  the  market.  There  is  some  demand 
for  sweet  butter,  and  certain  purchasers 
prefer  highly  salted  butter.  The  amount 
of  salt  varies,  therefore,  from  nothing 
to  4  per  cent.  The  quantity  of  salt  to 
be  added  also  depends  to  some  extent 
upon  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the 
butter.  If  a  large  percentage  of  mois- 
ture is  present,  more  salt  may  be  added, 
since  a  part  of  it  will  pass  into  solution 
in  the  water  and  be  removed  in  working 
the  butter. 

The  overrun  is  a  term  used  to  denote 
the  difference  between  the  amount  of 
butter  fat  and  the  quantity  of  butter 
manufacured  from  the  butter  fat.  The 
percentage  of  overrun  is  obtained  by 
dividing  the  difference  between  the  but- 
ter fat  and  butter  by  the  amount  of  fat 
and  multiplying  it  by  100.  The  over- 
run is  commonly  estimated  at  from  16.6 
per  cent  to  18.7  per  cent. 

Salt  is  well  known  as  an  antiseptic, 
and  is  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  pres- 
ervation of  meats  and  various  other  arti- 
cles of  food.  It  has  been  found  by 
experiments  that  most  bacteria,  even 
spore-bearing  species,  are  destroyed  in  a 
short  time  in  butter  which  contains  4 
per  cent  of  salt.  This  explains  the 
observed  fact  that  in  properly  salted 
butter,  which  has  been  kept  for  a  rea- 
sonable length  of  time,  the  number  of 
bacteria  capable  of  growth  is  very  small. 
The  quality  of  the  salt  used  in  butter 
making  is  an  important  matter.  It 
should  be  perfectly  pure  and  free  from 
all  harmful  ingredients.  It  should  also 
be  in  a  finely  granulated  condition,  so 
that  it  readily  dissolves  and  becomes 
uniformly  mixed  through  the  butter; 
otherwise  a  gritty  condition  may  de- 
velop. 

Working  butter_The  chief  objects  of 
working  butter  are  to  distribute  the  salt 
through  it  uniformly,  to  bring  it  into  a 
compact  condition  and  to  work  out  any 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


485 


excess  of  buttermilk  and  water.  The 
grain  of  the  butter  is  injured  by  over- 
working and  as  soon  as  the  surplus  but- 
termilk is  removed  and  tbe  salt  uniform- 
ly mixed  through  the  butter,  any  further 
working  injures  the  quality  of  the  but- 
ter. According  to  McKay  and  Larsen, 
about  12  revolutions  of  a  combined 
revolving  churn  and  butter  worker  are 
sufficient  to  distribute  the  salt  evenly. 
The  salt  may  be  added  while  the  butter 
is  in  a  granular  form  and  the  churn 
revolved  a  few  times,  after  which  it  is 
allowed  to  stand  for  five  to  10  minutes 
and  then  revolved  four  or  five  times 
again.  It  is  better,  however,  to  wait 
until  the  butter  is  collected  into  coarse 
granules  before  the  salt  is  added.  If  but- 
ter is  slightly  too  warm  when  churned, 
it  should  not  be  cooled  down  rapidly, 
since  this  will  injure  its  texture  and 
an  inferior  grain  will  show  in  the  fin- 


Fig.     311 BUTTER     WORKER 

ished  product.  As  a  rule,  from  %  ounce 
to  1  ounce  of  salt  should  be  added  for 
each  pound  of  butter  during  the  process 
of  working,  but  the  amount  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  demands  of  customers 
from  a  mere  trace  to  2  ounces  to  the 
pound.  The  salt  should  be  dry  and  in 
a  finely  granular  condition.  Equally 
good  results  may  be  obtained  by  dis 
solving  the  salt  in  water  before  adding 
it  to  the  butter  and  using  it  in  the  form 
of  a  brine. 

Packing  butter_As  soon  as  butter  is 
properly  worked  it  may  be  packed  m 
tubs  varying  in  size  from  10  to  60 
pounds.  The  large  size  is  chiefly  used 
in  creameries.  If  the  butter  is  intended 
for  immediate  use,  it  may  be  allowed  to 
contain  somewhat  more  water  than  if  it 
is  to  be  stored  for  long  keeping.  The 
objection  to  a  large  amount  of  water 
in  butter  is  that  when  kept  long  in  tubs, 
the  water  evaporates  from  the   surface 


and  leaves  a  deposition  of  salt  in  the 
top  of  the  butter.  It  is  generally  con- 
sidered that  well  made  tubs  of  ash  or 
oak  are  the  best  packages  for  butter. 
Earthenware  crocks  are  heavy  and  liable 
to  break  in  shipment  and  tin  packages 
are  objectionable  on  account  of  the  fact 
that  the  salt  affects  the  metal.  Tubs, 
if  stored  when  not  in  use  in  damp 
places,  are  very  likely  to  become  moldy, 
and  if  allowed  to  dry  out  too  much,  they 
may  let  in  air  and  permit  too  great  an 
amount  of  evaporation  from  the  butter. 
The  best  way  of  making  the  tubs  tight 
and  destroying  all  mold  and  disagree- 
able odor  in  the  tubs  before  the  butter 
is  packed  in  them,  consists  in  soaking 
them  in  a  saturated  solution  of  brine. 

Composition  of  butter — The  average 
composition  of  butter  as  determined 
from  a  large  number  of  analyses  is,  fat, 
84  per  cent;  water,  12.73  per  cent;  curd, 
1.3  per  cent;  salt  and  ash  1.97  per  cent. 
Occasionally  the  curd  may  run  as  high 
as  4  per  cent,  but  is  rarely  more  than 
2  per  cent.  The  water  content  may  vary 
from  6  to  16  per  cent ;  a  greater  amount 
than  16  per  cent  would  be  in  violation 
of  the  law.  It  has  been  determined 
that  water  may  be  present  in  butter  to 
the  extent  of  18  per  cent  or  more  with- 
out injuring  its  quality. 

Cheese  making  on  the  farm — As  al- 
ready indicated,  relatively  less  cheese  is 
made  on  the  farm  at  present  than  in  the 
early  history  of  dairy  development  in 
this  country.  This  is  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  in  cheese  factories  a  better 
quality  of  cheese  is  manufactured  and 
a  far  greater  variety.  It  is  only  under 
exceptional  conditions  that  the  farmer 
can  undertake  the  manufacture  of  any 
except  farm  dairy  cheese.  The  methods 
used  in  factories  are  not  applicable  to 
the  farm  dairy,  for  the  reason  that  it 
takes  too  much  time  and  is  so  com- 
plicated that  the  average  dairyman  is 
not  familiar  with  the  details.  The 
necessary  processes  involved  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  farm  dairy  cheese  have  been 
well  summarized  by  Alvord  and  are 
briefly  described  in  the  following  par- 
agraphs. 

The  milk  should  be  aerated  by  pour- 
ing from  one  vessel  to  another  whil  it 
is  still  fresh  and  warm.  It  may  then 
be  placed  in  a  vat  or  wash  boiler  and 
colored,  if  more  than  the  natural  color 
of  the  cheese  is  desired.  For  this  pur- 
pose  a  teaspoonful  of  cheese  color  for 


486 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


each  16  gallons  of  milk  is  sufficient. 
Rennet  extract  is  then  added  at  the  rate 
of  1  ounce  to  each  12  gallons  of  milk, 
the  rennet  being  first  mixed  with  about 
a  pint  of  water.  If  desired,  rennet  tab- 
lets may  be  used  in  the  place  of  the 
extract,  one  tablet,  for  each  five  gallons 
of  milk.  The  tablets  are  to  be  pre- 
viously dissolved  in  a  small  amount  of 
cold  water.  The  milk  should  be  be- 
tween 86  and  90°  F.  when  the  rennet 
is  added. 

After  putting  in  the  rennet,  the  milk 
should  be  stirred  for  a  few  minutes  and 
then  allowed  to  stand  until  the  curd  is 
solid  enough  to  cut.  The  curdling 
should  begin  in  about  12  minutes.     As 


cheese  should  be  about  3  inches  thick 
and  10  inches  in  diameter.  After  being 
pressed  into  the  mold  it  is  taken  out, 
turned  upside  down  and  replaced  in  the 
mold,  after  which  a  cover  is  put  on 
and  it  is  set  to  press.  The  simplest 
form  of  press  for  use  on  the  farm  is  a 
weighted  lever.  The  full  pressure  should 
not  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  cheese 
at  once,  but  somewhat  gradually.  After 
the  cheese  has  remained  in  the  press  for 
a  few  hours,  it  should  be  taken  out,  put 
in  warm  water  for  a  few  minutes  and 
then  rubbed  dry.  A  piece  of  linen  cloth 
is  wrapped  smoothly  around  the  cheese 
and  the  cheese  is  replaced  in  the  mold 
aud  put  under  full  pressure.     After  re- 


Fig.    312 SHORTHORN    DAIRY    HERD    IN   NEW  ZEALAND 


soon  as  the  curd  breaks  readily  without 
leaving  flakes  on  the  finger,  it  is  ready 
to  cut.  For  cutting,  regular  cheese 
knives  are  best,  but  Alvord  and  others 
suggest  the  use  of  a  wire  toaster  in  an 
emergency.  The  curd  should  be  cut  in 
both  directions  until  it  is  reduced  to 
cubes  about  the  size  of  kernels  of  corn. 
The  curd  is  then  gently  stirred  for  a 
few  minutes  and  heated  slowly  to  a  tem- 
perature of  98  or  100°  F.  keeping  it  at 
this  temperature  for  about  40  minutes. 
If  a  handful  of  curd  falls  apart  after 
being  pressed  together,  it  has  been 
cooked  long  enough.  The  whey  is  now 
drawn  off  and  the  curd  put  into  the 
cheese  mold  in  double  handfuls,  press- 
ing it  down  gently  until  the  mold  is 
well  filled.     For  ordinary  purposes,  the 


maining  under  pressure  for  24  hours,  the 
cheese  is  removed  and  salted  with  dry 
salt  or  brine,  the  latter  being  preferable. 
Cheese  may  be  left  for  2%  days  in  a 
saturated  solution  of  brine. 

Curing — The  cheese  is  now  ready  for 
curing  and  for  this  purpose  should  be 
placed  on  a  shelf  in  the  cellar.  During 
the  curing  process  it  should  be  turned 
and  rubbed  with  the  hand  daily  for  a 
week  or  two,  after  which  twice  a  week 
will  be  often  enough.  In  the  process 
of  curing,  the  cheese  should  from  time 
to  time  be  wiped  with  a  cloth  moistened 
with  .warm  water.  A  moist  atmosphere 
and  a  temperature  ranging  from  55  to 
65°  F.  are  best  for  satisfactory  curing. 
A  cellar  not  too  dry  and  also  not  too 
musty   and   of   an   even   temperature   ia 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


487 


therefore  quite  satisfactory.  The  curing 
process  requires  from  two  to  four 
months,  being  shorter  if  the  cheese  is 
salted  only  slightly.  The  more  the  curd 
is  cooked,  the  slower  the  process  of 
ripening  and  the  longer  the  cheese  will 
keep. 

Pot    cheese — Almost    every    farmer's 
wife  understands   that  a  palatable   and 


Fig.    313 — MILK    TANK    IN    USE 

nutritious  article  of  food  may  be  pre- 
pared from  sour  skim  milk  or  butter- 
milk by  allowing  it  to  coagulate  under 
the  influence  of  the  acid  naturally  pres- 
ent and  then  driving  out  the  water  by 
the  aid  of  heat.  The  usual  method  con- 
sists in  using  sour  buttermilk  or  skim 
milk  which  has  already  coagulated  and 
heating  it  gently  up  to  a  temperature 
of  85  to  125°  F.  after  which  the  whey 
is  removed  by  the  use  of  a  strainer.  The 
curd  is  then  kneaded,  salt  added  and 
in  many  cases  also  a  little  cream  or 
butter  to  improve  the  flavor.  This  cheese 
is  largely  made  for  home  use,  but  Wing 
and  others  have  called  attention  to  the 
increasing  demand  for  it  in  cities  and 
villages.  Pot  cheese  also  passes  under 
the  common  names  of  Dutch  cheese, 
Cottage  cheese  and   Schmierkase. 

How  to  increase  the  profits  from 
dairying — As  stated  at  the  beginning  of 
this  chapter,  there  is  more  profit  in 
dairying  in  thickly  settled  regions  than 
in  beef  production.  This  statement, 
however,  implies  that  every  reasonable 
effort  is  put  forth  to  develop  the  indus- 
try on  both  a  scientific  and  practical 
basis.  The  important  factors  in  success- 
ful dairying  are  the  production  of  nutri- 
tious dairy  feeds  on  the  farm  and  the 
increase  of  the  milk  yield  of  the  dairy 
cows  by  judicious  selection  and  breed- 
ing. 

Feed  better  rations — It  has  been 
shown  in  a  discussion  of  _  the  various 
feeds  used  in  rations  for  dairy  cows  that 


a  relatively  high  percentage  of  protein 
is  desirable  for  milch  cows.  This  can- 
not be  purchased  as  cheaply  in  the  form 
of  cottonseed  meal  and  bran  as  it  can 
be  produced  on  the  farm  in  the  form 
of  clover,  alfalfa  or  cowpeas.  It  has 
been  demonstrated  beyond  question  that 
the  rational  combination  of  farm  le- 
gumes with  the  cheaper  kinds  of  grain 
will  increase  the  milk  yield  of  the  cows 
now  being  used  for  dairy  purposes  and 
at  the  same  time  reduce  the  feed  bills. 
This  is  one  direction  in  which  consider- 
able improvement  may  be  made,  al- 
though a  great  awakening  in  this  regard 
has  recently  taken  place,  especially  in 
the  South. 

Use  better  cows — Again,  it  has  been 
shown  that  tremendous  differences  pre- 
vail in  the  milk  yield  of  individual 
cows,  some  cows  giving  from  eight  to 
10  times  as  much  as  others.  According 
to  the  experience  of  practical  dairymen, 
the  milk  yield  does  not  depend  entirely 
upon  the  breed  or  pedigree,  but  is  an 
individual  matter  with  each  cow,  which 
may  be  perpetuated  in  her  offspring. 
The  rational  way  to  secure  a  heavy  milk- 
ing herd  consists,  therefore,  in  a  thor- 
ough test  of  every  cow  and  the  elimina- 
tion of  all  those  which  do  not  give  more 
than  an  average  amount  of  milk;  the 
heavy  milkers  are  then  used  for  breed- 
ing purposes  and  their  heifer  calves 
raised  to  take  the  place  of  older  cows 


Fig.    314— MILK    TANK    OPENED 


as  they  become  less  productive.  It 
should  be  perfectly  obvious  that  excel- 
lent dairy  cows  cannot  be  bought  on  the 
market  under  ordinary  conditions.  The 
best  cows  of  each  dairy  herd  are,  of 
course,  retained  by  the  owner  and  the 


488 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


less  valuable  ones  are  sold.  The  only 
exception  is  in  the  case  of  a  general 
dispersion  sale.  This  fact  being  estab- 
lished, it  is  apparent  that  each  dairyman 
must  set  to  work  to  build  up  his  own 
herd.  There  is  one  advantage  in  this 
necessity,  since  in  the  process  of  build- 
ing up  an  excellent  herd  of  milch  cows, 
the  dairyman  becomes  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  problems  of  heredity 
concerned  in  the  process  and  is  then  in 
a  better  position  to  maintain  a  higher 
standard  with  his  herd  than  he  would 
be  if  the  herd  had  been  purchased  out- 
right. 

Better  farm  labor — Another  factor 
in  successful  dairying  is  the  quality  of 
farm  labor.  The  time  has  come  when 
the  dairy  attendant  should  not  be  an 
unskilled  laborer,  but  rather  a  highly 
skilled  one.  It  is  not  an  indifferent 
matter  how  and  when  cows  are  fed  and 
how  they  are  otherwise  cared  for.  Then, 
too,  the  demands  of  the  public  regarding 
dairy  sanitation  cannot  be  properly  un- 
derstood or  met  by  ignorant  attendants. 

Better  sanitation — The  use  of  milk 
and  other  dairy  products  will  be  largely 
increased  by  the  strict  observance  on  the 
part  of  the  dairyman  of  all  reasonable 
sanitary  requirements  in  caring  for  the 
cows,  constructing  and  managing  stables 
and  caring  for  the  milk  after  it  is  ob- 
tained. The  extension  of  a  system  of 
milk  inspection  to  dairies  which  have 
been  furnishing  milk  to  the  public,  but 
which  have  not  previously  been  in- 
spected, has  shown  in  many  instances 
that  the  dairymen,  either  through  igno~ 
ranee  or  neglect,  have  failed  to  conform 
with  the  demands  which  the  public  may 
reasonably  make  regarding  the  care  of 
their  food.  The  regulations  which  must 
necessarily  be  enforced  in  the  future 
with  regard  to  the  care  and  management 
of  dairies  will  be  stricter  than  in  the 
past,  and  it  therefore  behooves  all  per- 
sons now  engaged  in  dairying  or  who 
intend  to  enter  into  the  business  to  take 
this  factor  into  consideration.  Other- 
wise it  will  be  impossible  for  them  to 
satisfy  their  customers  and  consequently 
impossible  to  make  a  profit  of  the  busi- 
ness of  dairying. 

When  the  points  just  mentioned  as 
bearing  directly  upon  the  profits  of 
dairying  are  all  squarely  met,  there  is 
no  reason  why  dairying  should  not  give 
as  great  returns  from  the  time  and 
money  expended  as  any  other  line  of 
animal  industry.     The  time  has  passed, 


however,  when  the  dairyman  can  make 
a  profit  from  poor  cows  fed  on  high- 
priced  grains  bought  in  the  market, 
cared  for  by  ignorant  attendants  and 
maintained  under  insanitary  conditions. 

CREAMERIES    AND     CHEESE     FAC- 
TORIES 

Butter  factories  or  creameries  were 
first  established  in  the  United  Stales 
about  18G1  in  New  York,  and  cheese 
factories,  10  years  earlier.  Both  have 
grown  enormously,  until  now  about  28 
per  cent  of  the  butter  and  94  per  cent 
of  all  the  cheese  is  produced  in  factories. 

Better  price  for  creamery  butter — 
The  average  selling  price  of  farm  but- 
ter is  about  16  cents  per  pound  and  of 
creamery  butter,  20  cents  per  pound. 
Normally  a  much  better  grade  of  butter 
can  be  made  at  the  creamery  than  ori 
the  farm  because  of  the  better  equipment 
and  the  employment  of  skilled  butter- 
makers. 

Establishment  of  creameries — A  well 
equipped,  modern  creamery  calls  for  an 
expenditure  for  buildings  and  equip- 
ment of  between  $4,000  and  $5,000,  while 
a  cheese  factory  of  similar  dimensions 
and  capacity  would  cost  about  $1,500 
less  because  of  the  smaller  outlay  for 
equipment.  A  creamery  of  the  above 
capacity  could  handle  daily  from  6,000 
to  20,000  pounds  of  milk. 

A  creamery  will  not  pay  unless  the 
milk  from  at  least  350  cows  be  delivered 
to  it  throughout  the  year.  These  should 
all  be  within  a  radius  of  about  5  miles 
of  the  factory.  For  a  successful  cheese 
factory,  the  milk  from  150  to  200  cows 
should  be  assured.  Many  a  neighbor- 
hood under  the  influence  of  enthusiastic 
agents  has  paid  for  a  fully  equipped 
creamery,  only  to  find  that  not  enough 
milk  was  produced  in  the  district  to 
keep  it  running  at  a  profit. 

Kinds  of  creamery  companies — Most 
of  the  creameries  operated  in  the  United 
States  are  organized  on  the  stock  com- 
pany or  corporation  plan.  In  the  case 
of  stock  or  proprietary  companies,  the 
shares  may  be  owned  partially  or  en- 
tirely by  business  men,  who  buy  the  milk 
outright  from  the  patrons,  paying  from 
2  to  2.5  cents  per  pound  less  for  the  but- 
ter fat  delivered  than  the  regular  market 
price  for  butter,  or  they  may  simply 
make  up  the  butter  or  cheese,  charging  a 
certain  price  per  pound  for  each  pound 
made,  the  owners  paying  the  expense  of 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


489 


shipping  and  marketing.  The  price  lor 
making  butter  varies  from  2  to  4  cents 
per  pound,  and  for  cheese  from  1%  to 
2  cents. 

The  Albany  Creamery  Association,  a 
stock  company,  operating  in  the  Willa- 
mette Valley,  Oregon,  deal  with  their 
patrons  on  the  following  plan :  From  the 
gross  receipts  for  the  month  there  is  de- 
ducted, "first,  the  general  operating  ex- 
penses of  the  creamery;  second,  1  cent 
for  each  pound  of  butter  fat  delivered  to 
be  set  aside  as  a  sinking  fund;  third,  an 
amount  equal  to  the  twelfth  part  of  the 
annual  interest  on  the  paid-up  stock  at 
the  rate  of  8  per  cent  per  annum.  The 
amount    remaining    after    these    deduc- 


not  available,  in  which  case,  they  can 
give  interest  bearing  notes  for  their 
shares  and  these  can  be  deposited  in  a 
bank  and  the  money  secured  on  them. 
Or  the  patrons  after  forming  an  associa- 
tion can  borrow  the  money  on  their  joint 
note,  each  member  becoming  personally 
responsible  for  the  entire  amount  bor- 
rowed. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  ready  money  in 
buying  building  material  and  equip- 
ment in  order  to  secure  the  best  prices. 
The  indebtedness  on  the  building  is  paid 
off  by  the  establishment  of  a  sinking 
fund  into  which  about  1  cent  for  each 
pound  of  butter  fat  delivered  to  the 
creamery  or  5  cents  for  each  100  pounds 


m   '  .** 


BjjPit 


Fig.    315 — MODERN    CO-OPERATIVE    CREAMERY    IN    NEW    YORK    STATE 


tions  are  made  is  divided  pro  rata 
among  the  patrons,  according  to  the 
number  of  pounds  of  butter  fat  each 
has  delivered  to  his  milk. 

Forming  a  creamery  company — In 
the  formation  of  a  co-operative  cream- 
ery, it  is  desirable  that  the  patrons  own 
all  or  the  larger  portion  of  stock,  and 
that  they  enter  into  an  agreement  to  de- 
liver to  the  factory  the  milk  from  a  cer- 
tain number  of  cows  throughout  the 
year. 

If  the  patrons  have  sufficent  money 
to  pay  for  the  shares  of  stock  outright 
the  establishment  of  a  factory  is  a  sim- 
ple matter.     More  often  ready  money  is 


of  milk  is  placed.  This  amount  is  so 
small  that  it  is  hardly  noticed  by  the  pa- 
trons; yet  it  is  sufficient,  where  10,000 
pounds  of  milk  is  received  daily,  entirely 
to  pay  for  the  factory  in  three  or  four 
years.  When  the  factory  has  been  paid 
for,  this  fund  may  be  used  to  pay  annual 
dividends  to  shareholders  by  way  of  in- 
terest  on   their   investment. 

Organizing  a  co-operative  association 
— After  the  neighborhood  has  been  can- 
vassed and  the  milk  from  at  least  350 
cows  assured,  the  patrons  should  be 
called  together  for  the  purpose  of  form- 
ing themselves  into  a  legal  corporation. 


490 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


and  of  adopting  a  constitution  and  by- 
laws. A  successful  Minnesota  cream- 
ery organized  according  to  the  Minne- 
sota station  as  follows: 

Organization  agreement — We  the  un- 
dersigned citizens  of ■ 

County,  state  of  Minnesota,  do  hereby 
agree  to  form  ourselves  into  an  associa- 
tion to  be  known  by  the  name  of 

Association,  and  we  agree 

to   borrow   the   sum   of dollars 

or  less  to  put  up  a  building  and  equip 
it  with  the  necessary  machinery,  and 
jointly,  to  become  personally  responsible 
for  the  sum  borrowed,  including  interest. 
The   money   to   be   raised   in   a   manner 


Article  I. — Should  give  the  name  of 
the  association  and  place  of  business. 

Article  II. — State  the  object  of  the  as- 
sociation. 

Article  III. — Name  the  officers  of  the 
association.  These  are  usually  a  presi- 
dent, vice-president,  a  secretary-treas 
urer  and  three  trustees.  State  also  term 
of  office  and  time  and  method  of  election. 

Article  IV. — Duties  of  officers.  Pres- 
ident shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the 
association,  sign  all  drafts  and  pay  over 
to  the  treasurer  all  moneys  that  come 
into  his  possession  by  virtue  of  his  posi- 
tion,    taking     the     treasurer's     receipts 


Fig.  316 — PLAN  OF  farmers'  co-operative  creamery 


agreed  upon  by  the  association.  We  also 
agree  to  furnish  the  milk  from  the  num- 
ber of  cows  opposite  our  names. 

Articles  of  agreement — We,  whose 
names  are  hereunto  subscribed  and 
whose  residences  are  within  the  county 

of  —  in  the  state  of 

-,  do  hereby  asso- 


ciate ourselves  together  as  a  co-operative 
association  under  the  laws  of  the  state  of 

,    and    have    adopted 

the  following  constitution: 

Constitution — We  need  state  here  only 
a  general  outline  constitution,  as  the 
details  will  vary  with  the  locality  and 
conditions.  We  follow,  with  some  modi- 
fications, the  form  given  in  Minnesota 
Station  Bulletin  No,  35 ; 


therefor.  He  shall  also  have  power  to 
call  special  meetings  whenever  he  deems 
advisable  or  upon  the  signed  request  of 
five  shareholders. 

The  vice-president  shall  perform  the 
duties  of  the  president  when  he  is  ab- 
sent or  unable  to  attend  to  them. 

The  secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of 
all  the  meetings  of  the  association  and 
make  and  sign  all  orders  upon  the  treas- 
urer. 

The  treasurer  shall  receive  and  receipt 
for  all  moneys  belonging  to  the  associa- 
tion and  pay  out  the  same  only  upon 
orders  which  shall  be  signed  by  the  sec- 
retary. He  shall  give  bonds  in  such 
amount  as  the  association  shall  provide, 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


491 


The  president,  vice-president,  secre- 
tary, treasurer  and  three^  trustees  shall 
constitute  a  Board  of  Directors,  whose 
duties  shall  be  to  audit  and  allow  _  all 
iust  claims  against  the  association. 
They  shall  compute  the  expenses,  and 
receipts  and  after  allowing  for  the  run- 
ning expenses  and  sinking  fund  here- 
after provided  for,  pay  the  remainder  to 
the  patrons  on  the  15th  day  of  each 
month  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
milk  or  butter  fat  furnished  by  each. 

The  Board  of  Directors  shall  cause  the 
secretary  to  make  a  report  in  writing  at 
each  annual  meeting,  showing  in  detail 
the  milk  receipts,  produce  sales,  running 
expenses  and  all  other  matters  pertain- 


Article  VII. — This  constitution  may 
be  amended  at  any  annual  meeting  or 
any  special  meeting  called  for  that  pur- 
pose, provided  that  two-thirds  of  all  the 
members  present  vote  in  favor  of  such  a 
change  and  provided  further  that  one 
month's  notice  of  such  proposed  amend- 
ment shall  have  been  given  in  such  man- 
ner as  may  be  provided  in  the  by-laws  or 
otherwise  by  the  association. 

By-laws  of  the Associa- 
tion— (1)  The  treasurer  shall  give  bonds 

in  the  sum  of dollars,  the  bond 

to  be  approved  by  the  Board  of  Direct- 
ors. (2)  Five  cents  on  each  100  pounds 
of  milk  received  at  the  creamery  shall 
be    reserved    to    form    a    sinkiug    fund. 


Fig.   317 — DRAWING   SKIM    MILK   AT   THE   CREAMERY 


ing  to  the  business  oi  the  association,  a 
copy  of  which  shall  be  posted  in  a  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  creamery. 

The  Board  of  Directors  shall  borrow 

a  sum  of  money  not  exceeding 

thousand  dollars,  to  be  used  by  them  in 
the  building  and  furnishing  of  a  cream- 
ery building  and  for  no  other  purpose. 
The  money  so  borrowed  shall  be  paid  up 
from  the  sinking  fund  to  be  provided  for 
in  the  by-laws. 

Article  V. — The  several  members  shall 
furnish  all  the  milk  from  all  the  cows 
subscribed  by  each,  all  milk  to  be  sound, 
fresh,  unadulterated,  pure  and  un- 
skimmed. 

Article  VI. — Each  member  shall  be 
entitled  to  1  vote  only  at  any  meeting 
of  the  association. 


(3)  No  milk  shall  be  received  or  busi- 
ness transacted  at  the  creamery  on  Sun- 
day. (4)  From  May  20  to  September 
20  of  each  season,  all  milk  shall  be  de- 
livered at  the  creamery  by  9  o'clock, 
A.  M.,  at  other  times  of  the  year  by  10 
A.  M.  (5)  Milk  not  sweet,  clean,  or  in 
good  condition  when  received  may  be 
condemned  by  the  operator  and  in  such 
case  he  shall  notify  the  president  thereof. 
The  operator  shall  test  the  milk  of  each 
member  and  patrons  at  least  three  times 
a  week.  (6)  Members  and  patrons  fur- 
nishing whole  milk  may  take  from  the 
separator  or  the  tank  at  the  creamery 
four-fifths  of  the  quantity  of  milk  de- 
livered at  the  creamery  by  them  on  that 
day. 


492 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Other  articles  of  the  by-laws  should 
provide  penalties  for  violations  of  the 
rules  regarding  the  delivery  of  pure, 
wholesome,  unadulterated,  clean  milk, 
or  for  refusing  to  deliver  the  amount 
of  milk  agreed  upon,  or  for  taking  more 
skim  milk  than  he  is  entitled  to.  Pro- 
vision should  also  be  made  for  admitting 
new  members  into  the  association  and 
for  the  withdrawing  of  old  members, 
etc. 

Patrons  should  build  their  own  fac- 
tory— It  is  generally  economy  for  the 
patrons  to  build  and  equip  the  creamery 


permit  the  arrangement  of  the  intake  so 
that  the  milk  in  the  creamery  can  bep 
handled  by  gravity.  A  convenient  sup- 
ply of  pure,  cold  water  is  another  essen- 
tial. Without  pure  water,  well-flavored, 
long-keeping  butter  is  an  impossibility. 
Building  material— It  is  advisable  to 
build  the  creamery  of  brick  with  ce- 
ment floors,  metal  roof  and  lower  por- 
tions of  the  walls  cemented.  This  will 
give  practically  a  fireproof  building  and 
permit  of  the  free  use  of  water  in  keep- 
ing the  walls  and  floors  clean.  Such  a 
factory    will    cost    $1,500    to    $2,000    to 


Fig.   318 — HANDLING  EMPTY   CANS   AT   A   MILK  DEPOT 


themselves,  rather  than  intrust  it  to  an 
agent  to  put  up  the  building  and  equip 
it,  turning  it  over  to  the  patrons  fully 
equipped.  After  a  company  has  been 
formed,  the  same  man  who  is  to  be  in- 
trusted with  the  butter  making  and  gen- 
eral management  is  usually  capable  of 
planning  the  building  and  installing  the 
machinery,  subject  of  course,  to  the 
orders  of  the  Board  of  Directors.  This 
board  should  be  composed  of  the  capable 
business  men  of  the  association,  who 
know  most  about  the  creamery  industry. 
Locating  the  creamery—The  building 
should  be  centrally  located  on  land  suffi- 
ciently sloping  to  furnish  good  drainage. 
A  slope  of  about  1  foot  in  10  will  also 


build,  while  the  necessary  machinery 
will  cost  $2,500  to  $3,000.  Provisions 
must  be  made  for  carrying  away  the 
large  amount  of  drainage  water.  If  it 
can  be  piped  into  a  creek  of  running 
water,  this  is  the  most  satisfactory 
method  of  disposal,  otherwise  cement 
septic  tanks  should  be  provided. 

Machinery  required  for  a  creamery — 
For  a  creamery  of  15,000  to  20,000 
pounds  daily  milk  capacity,  the  equip- 
ment required  will  be  about  as  follows: 
A  20-horse  power  horizontal  boiler  with 
fixtures;  400  fire  brick  and  barrel  of  fire 
clay;  15-horse  power  horizontal  engine; 
boiler  feed  pump  with  lubricator ;  4  x  6 
steam    well   pump;    separator    of    3,000 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


493 


pounds  capacity  per  hour;  churn  with 
600  pounds  working  capacity;  300-gallon 
galvanized  skim  milk  tank;  300-gallon 
galvanized  water  tank;  400-gallon  milk 
receiving  vat;  twin  cream  vat;  300-gal- 
lon ice  box  on  end;  24-bottle  Ideal 
tester ;  600-pound  five-beam  scale ;  60-gal- 
lon  weight  can;  milk  strainer;  2  No.  1 
rotary  milk  pumps;  whole  milk  heater; 
pasteurizer  for  skim  milk ;  skim  milk 
weigher;  noiseless  water  heater;  cream 
acid  tester  complete;  test  jars  and 
brushes;  butter  packer,  ladles  and  tryer; 
y%  dozen  floating  thermometers;  pails, 
scrub  brushes,  dippers,  etc;  soldering 
outfit,  tool  chest  and  tools ;  testing  tables 
and  glassware;  belts,  pulleys,  shafting, 
etc. 

For  a  cheese  factory_A  10-horse 
power  upright  boiler  will  suffice.  No 
engine  or  separator  is  necessary,  thus 
greatly  reducing  the  cost  for  equipment. 
Complete  lists  of  materials  for  either  a 
creamery  or  cheese  factory  can  be  ob- 
tained by  applying  to  any  creamery  sup- 
ply house,  the  advertisements  for  which 
will  be  found  in  daily  journals  and  farm 
papers. 

The  head  butter  maker  should  be  a 
man  not  only  capable  of  making  butter 
of  high  quality  but  also  capable  of  ad- 
vising with  the  patrons  on  the  whole 
matter  of  dairy  farming,  particularly  in 
the  feeding  of  cows  and  the  handling  of 
milk  so  that  it  will  be  clean  and  reach 
the  factory  in  a  wholesome,  sound  con- 
dition. It  requires  also  a  diplomat  to 
reject  a  can  of  milk  and  not  antagonize 
the   patron  furnishing   it. 

Methods  of  delivering  milk — The 
more  common  way  has  been  to  deliver 
the  whole  milk  to  the  factory  once  every 
day,  taking  back  about  three-fourths  as 
much  sour  skim  milk  for  use  on  the 
farm.  With  the  introduction  of  farm 
separators  the  practice  has  been  grow- 
ing of  sending  only  the  cream  to  the 
factory,  delivery  being  made  about 
once  every  other  day  and  twice  a  week 
in  winter.  The  best  butter  is  made 
when  the  whole  milk  is  delivered  but 
the  daily  delivery,  especially  when  a 
patron  lives  four  or  five  miles  from  the 
creamery,  and  the  hauling  back  of  the 
skim  milk  is  a  burden  both  in  time  and 
cost.     The  utilization  also  of  cold,  sour, 


often  putrid  milk  for  calf  and  hog  feed- 
ing is  unsatisfactory,  and  except  in 
skilled  hands  dangerous  and  unprofit- 
able. The  cost  of  delivering  milk  under 
such  conditions  is  from  10  to  15  cents 
a  100  pounds.  Some  relief  in  time  and 
cost  is  obtained  where  milk  routes  arc 
established  and  one  man  hauls  the  milk 
of  a  number  of  patrons. 

The  farm  separator—When  the  milk 
is  separated  on  the  farm  as  soon  as 
milked  the  skim  milk  can  be  fed  sweet 
and  warm  to  calves  and  pigs.  With 
delivery  only  every  other  day,  the  ex- 
pense of  hauling  is  reduced  more  than 
one-half  and  double  the  time  is  given 
for  home  work.  With  a  farm  separator 
more  calves  can  be  milked,  since  there 
is  more  time  for  the  work,  and  the 
separator  must  be  made  to  pay  for  itself. 
The  introduction  of  the  farm  separator 
in  rural  districts  has  tended  greatly 
to  increase  the  number  of  cows  kept 
on  each  farm.  The  profits  have  been 
increased  in  a  corresponding  measure. 
It,  therefore,  has  been  an  important 
factor  in  popularizing,  making  perma- 
nent, and  developing  the  creamery  in- 
dustry. 

For  these  reasons  the  method  of  de- 
livering cream  rather  than  whole  milk 
to  the  factory  is  growing  in  favor  in 
many  dairy  sections.  In  fact,  in  many 
western  localities  where  creameries  were 
a  failure  by  the  old  method  of  deliver- 
ing whole  milk,  they  have  been  re-es- 
tablished on  a  permanent  basis  by  the 
introduction  of  the  farm  separator  and 
the  delivery  of  cream.  Besides,  if  care 
is  taken  to  deliver  the  cream  at  the 
factory  in  a  sweet  condition  as  good 
butter  can  be  made  as  when  whole  milk 
is  delivered  daily. 

Iaterature — See  also  Minnesota  Sta- 
tion Bui.  35;  Montana  Bui.  53;  Oregon 
Bui.  65;  South  Dakota  Bui.  46;  U.  S. 
Dept  Agr.  Farmer's  Bui.  201;  Creamery 
Butter  Making  by  John  Michels,  (1904)  ; 
Principles  and  Practices  of  Butter  Mak- 
ing by  McKay  and  Larsen,  (1906) ; 
Cheese  Making  by  John  W.  Decker, 
1900;  Modern  Methods  of  Testing  Milk 
and  Milk  Products  by  Dr.  L.  L.  Van 
Slyke,  1906;  Practical  Dairy  Bacteriol- 
ogy by  Dr.  H.  W.  Conn,  1907. 


PART  IX 


Swine 


1       li  -  II  ills  -s*sf 

II  Illll-llHI  lit  1 1  111  111  iSlII -llgli  .i^Ill 


w 
£ 

26  Forearm    extensors 
Extensor  of  foot 
Serratus   magnus 
Sterno-humeral 
Outer    oblique    ab- 
dominal 

Rectus   abdominis 
Lumbodorsal  fascia 
34  Gluteals 
Thigh   extensor 
Semitendinosus 
Semimembranosus 
Superficial    gluteal 
Section    of    skin 
Extensor    of    foot 
44  Toe    extensors 
46  Flexors  of  foot 
Extensor   pollicis 

49  Tendons 
,   51  Flexors   of   foot 
Peroneal 

Extensor     of     third 
toe 

Extensor  of  fourth 
toe 

Flexor  pedis 
58  Muscles  of  lower 
leg 

Lnternal  Organs 

Cerebrum 
Cerebellum 
Optic   lobes 
Medulla    oblongata 
Spinal    cord 
Cross   section   verte- 
bral   column 
Ligamentttm   nucha* 
Turbinated   bone* 
Pharynx 

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30  Saphenous 
Outer    tarsal 
Tarsea     perforans 
Tibial 
Digital 

VEINS 
Anterior    vena    ca 
Jugular 

Posterior  vena  ca 
Hepatic 

Capillaries     of     pc 
Portal 
Pulmonary 

Muscles 

Orbicularis    oris 
Levator  naso-labia 
Zygomatic 
Pyramidal    nasal 
Depressor    of    the 
Levator    labii    pri 
prius 

Buccinator 
Orbicularis  palpe- 
brarum 
Buccal 
Masseter 
Parotid 
■14  Neck     muscles 

ear 
■16  Brachio-cephali 
Cleidomastnideus 
Parotid     gland 
Sternohyoid 
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Latissimus    dorsi 
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Coronary 

Tracheal 

Esophageal 

Omocervical 

Temporal 

Masseter    branch 

same 

Anterioi   auricula 

Facial 

Lower    labial 

Upper  labial 

Infraorbital 

Upper    nasal 

Brachial 

Humeral 

Radial 

Digital 

Intercostal 

Anterior     abdomi 

aorta 

Anterior  mesente 

Renal 

Lumbar 

Branch  to  ureter 

Inner    spermatic 

Posterior  mesent 

Outer  spermatic 

Gluteal 

Pelvic    arteries 

Pudic 

Iliac 

Iliolumbar 

Circumflex   iliac 

Deep   femoral 

Epigastric 

Femoral 

Dorsal  is     penis 

Lateral   caudal 

Rectal 

O 

ssassss  SSSSS&8 

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Cannon     bones 
Coronary 
Coffin    bones 
Femur 
Patella 
Tibia 
Fibula 
Hock    joint 
■55  Tarsal   bones 
Metatarsals 
Cannon   bones 
Coronary    bones 
Coffin  bones 

Blood  System 

Heart 

Trachea 
I  Esophagus 
/  Liver 
Stomach 

I  Right    fore     foot 

II  Right    hind    foot 

III  Spleen 
£  Kidney 

Large    intestines 
I  Small 

rteries  red,   veins  bl 

ARTERIES 

Aort.i 

Posterior    aorta 

Brachio-cephalic 

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502 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


in  the  market.  While  feeding  has  a 
marked  influence  on  the  strength  of  the 
bone,  conformation  is  perhaps  of  even 
more  importance.  It  is  especially  de- 
sirable that  the  pasterns  be  erect  and 
that  the  hog  should  stand  on  his  toes 
and  only  in  the  case  of  old  animals 
should  the  dew-claws  reach  the  ground. 
Medium  sized  feet  are  desired  because 
large,  heavy  feet  hamper  the  movement 
of   the   hogs   and   indicate   coarseness. 

The  neck  should  be  short,  well  rounded, 
arched  and  increasing  in  size  from  the 
head  to  the  shoulders. 

The  shoulders  should  be  full  and 
square,  the  legs  set  well  apart  so  as  to 
afford  ample  room  for  the  lungs  and 
heart,  and  the  heart  girth  just  behind 
the  shoulders  should  be  nearly  equal 
to  the  girth  at  any  other  point. 

The  back  should  be  broad  and  straight, 
and  should  be  slightly  arched,  rather 
than  swayed  between  the  shoulders  and 
hams.  The  ribs  should  be  well  sprung 
to  make  the  back  broad  and  should  drop 
nearly  straight  at  the  sides.  The  belly 
should  be  wide  and  straight,  not  flabby 
nor  drawn  in  at  the  flanks. 

The  hams  should  be  as  wide  as  the 
shoulders,  nearly  flat  across  the  top  and 
drooping  but  a  little  to  the  root  of  the 
tail;  they  should  be  well  rounded  behind 
and  come  well  down  on  the  stifle,  so  as 
to  make  the  lower  part  of  the  hams  full 
and  plump. 

Bacon  type — Within  recent  years 
there  has  been  considerable  talk  in  re- 
gard to  the  bacon  type  of  hogs.  In 
Canada,  a  considerable  export  trade  has 
been  built  up  with  England  along  this 
line.  In  Denmark,  and  also  in  Ireland, 
large  quantities  of  bacon  are  annually 
shipped  to  England,  and  England  itself 
produces  considerable  quantities  of 
bacon.  The  lard  type  of  hogs  does  not 
meet  this  demand  as  well  as  a  longer- 
bodied,  less  fat  hog.  At  present,  the 
most  of  American  bacon  is  produced 
from  the  lighter  hogs  of  the  lard  type. 
The  quality  of  meat  produced  by  the 
lighter  weight  bacon  hogs  is  considered 
superior  to  that  of  the  heavy  weight 
lard  hogs  and  there  is  hardly  a  doubt 
that  this  type  will  continually  increase 
in  importance.  The  points  of  the  bacon 
hog  and  their  relative  importance  given 
by  Craig  are  as  follows : 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  BACON  HOGS. BARROW. 

General  Appearance: 

Weight,  170  to  200  pounds,  largely 
the  result  of  thick  cover  of 
firm  flesh    6 

Form,   long,   level,   smooth,   deep.  .   10 

Quality,  hair  fine,  skin  fine;  bone 
fine;  firm,  even  covering  of 
flesh  without  any  soft  bunches 
of  fat  or  wrinkles    10 

Condition,  deep,  uniform  covering 
of  flesh,  especially  in  regions 
of  valuable  cuts  10 

Head  and  Neck: 

Snout,    fine    

Eyes,  full,  mild,  bright 

Face,  slim    

Ears,  trim,  medium  size   

Jowl,  light,  trim 

Neck,  medium  length,  light 

Fore  Quarters: 

Shoulders,  free  from  roughness 
smooth,  compact  and  same 
width  as  back  and  hind  quar- 
ters     -6 

Breast,  moderately  wide,  full   ....     2 
Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  bone 
clean ;  pasterns   upright,   feet 
medium    size     2 

Body: 

Chest,  deep,  full  girth   4 

Back,    medium    and    uniform    in 

width,  smooth    8 

Sides,  long,  smooth,  level,  from 
beginning  of  shoulders  to  end 
of  hind  quarters.  The  sides 
at  all  points  should  touch  a 
straight    edge    running   from 

fore  to  hind  quarter   10 

Bibs,    deep     2 

Belly,  trim,  firm,  thick  without 
any  flabbiness  or  shrinkage  at 
flank     10 

Hind  Quarters: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide,  proportionate 

to   rest   of  body    2 

Bump,       long,       even,       straight, 

rounded  toward  tail    2 

Gammon,  firm,  rounded,  tapering, 
fleshed  deep  and  low  towards 
hocks    8 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  feet, 
medium  size ;  bone  clean ;  pas- 
terns   upright    2 

Total    100 

Contrast    of   bacon   with   lard   type — 

The  most  desirable  weight  of  the  bacon 


SWINE 


503 


hog  ranges  from  170  to  200  pounds  and 
this  weight  should  be  mostly  flesh  rather 
than  fat.  The  bacon  hogs,  however, 
must  carry  a  reasonable  amount  of  fat, 
but  should  never  exceed  a  depth  of  2 
inches  on  the  back.  The  form  of  the 
hog  is  entirely  different  from  that  of 
the  lard  type,  since  the  choice  cuts  are 
in  the  sides,  and  hence  a  longer  bodied 
hog  is  desired. 

Furthermore,  the  body  is  deep,  rather 
than  broad,  and  the  depth  carried  well 
back  from  the  front  to  the  rear.  The 
head  as  a  rule  is  more  trim,  there  is  less 
fat  on  the  jowl,  but  it  is  expected  that 
the  hind  quarters  will  have  the  same 
rounded  appearance  as  in  the  lard  type. 
The     sides     should     be     long,     smooth, 


statistics  indicating  that  they  are  nearly 
twice  as  numerous  as  all  other  breeds 
put  together  and  may,  therefore,  be 
considered  first. 

Poland-Chinas—This  hog  originated 
in  the  Miami  valley  of  Ohio,  in  Butler 
and  Warren  counties,  from  miscellaneous 
crosses  of  Big  China,  Poland,  Byfield, 
Berkshire  and  Irish  Grazier  breeds  on 
the  common  stock. 

In  the  early  days  the  breed  was  vari- 
ously known  under  such  names  as  But- 
ler County,  Warren  County,  Poland, 
Dick's  Crick,  Magie,  Moore,  etc,  and  it 
was  not  until  the  year  1872  that  the 
name  "Poland-China"  was  permanently 
adopted. 


Fig.    319 — PRIZE    WINNING    POLAND-CHINA  BOAR 


straight  and  deep,  and  the  belly  well 
developed.  Since  the  bacon  is  taken  en- 
tirely from  the  sides  and  belly,  it  is  in 
these  parts  that  we  wish  to  see  the  most 
perfect  development.  The  belly  should 
not  come  to  a  sharp  edge,  as  it  often 
does  in  lard  hogs,  but  be  trim  and  firm 
without  flabbiness.  The  principal  bacon 
breeds  are  the  Tamworth,  Yorkshire, 
and,  to  a  less  extent,  the  Berkshire. 

BREEDS  OF  HOGS 

The  breeds  of  hogs  in  the  United 
States  mentioned  in  the  order  of  their 
importance  are  the  Poland-Chinas,  Berk- 
shires,  Duroc- Jerseys,  Chester  Whites, 
Yorkshires,  Essex,  Victorias,  Tamworths, 
Cheshires,  Hampshires,  etc.  The  Poland- 
Chinas  lead  all  other  breeds  in  numbers, 


Further  improvement  of  the  breed 
occurred  in  Illinois  and  Iowa,  and  they 
now  constitute  the  most  popular  breed 
in  the  corn  belt.  The  type  is  now  firmly 
fixed  and  the  breed  undoubtedly  pure. 
It  is  perhaps  the  best  suited  of  all  breeds 
to  quickly  convert  corn  into  pork.  It 
will  stand  close  confinement  and  heavy 
feeding,  perhaps  better  than  any  other 
of  the  large  breeds,  but  is  not  as  good 
a  rustler  and  able  to  take  care  of  itself 
as  many  other  breeds.  The  sow  is  not 
as  fertile  as  the  Berkshire,  though  some 
strains   are   excellent  breeders. 

The  Poland-China  is  a  black  hog, 
with  six  white  points,  feet,  face  and  tip 
of  tail.  The  face  is  slightly  dished  and 
the  ear  broken  about  one-fourth,  to  one- 
third  from  the  tip.     The  breed  is  char- 


504 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


acterized  by  early  maturity  and  nearly 
perfect  form  of  the  lard  hog  type,  being 
very  blocky  and  compact.  Boars  at  two 
years  of  age  should  weigh  600  pounds 
and  sows  500  pounds. 

There  are  five  record  companies  in 
the  United  States  which  register  Po- 
land-China hogs.      (See   appendix.) 

Berkshires_The  Berkshire  breed  is 
of  English  origin  and  stands  next  to  the 
Poland-China  in  popularity  in  America. 
It  was  first  brought  to  this  country 
about  1830.  It  is  a  black  hog,  with 
six  white  points,  marked  much  like  the 
Poland-China,  white  on  feet,  face  and 
tip  of  tail.  The  face  is  dished,  ears 
short  and  erect  or  slightly  inclined  for- 


is  not  positively  known.  Eed  hogs  were 
known  to  exist  in  New  York  as  early  as 
1823  and  in  Connecticut  in  1830.  Red 
hogs  were  imported  into  New  Jersey 
from  Spain  in  1832,  and  in  1850  into 
Kentucky  from  either  Spain  or  Portu- 
gal. In  New  Jersey,  they  were  first  ad- 
vertised in  1870  as  Jersey  Reds.  In  New 
York,  the  breed  was  called  Duroc,  after 
a  noted  stallion,  as  early  as  1823.  These 
two  families  of  hogs  possessed  like  char- 
acteristics and  were  undoubtedly  of  the 
same  origin. 

In  form,  the  Duroc-Jerseys  closely  re- 
semble the  Poland-Chinas,  but  are  red  in 
color.  The  standard  is  a  cherry  red 
without    spots.     It    is    a    coarser    breed 


Fig.    320 — champion  poland-china  sow 


ward,  the  neck  very  short  and  the  back 
arched.  The  feet  of  the  Berkshire  are 
not  as  strong  as  those  of  the  Poland- 
China.  While  the  Berkshire  in  England 
is  largely  used  for  bacon,  under  Ameri- 
can influences  it  has  developed  into  the 
lard  hog  type.  They  are  of  about  the 
same  size  as  the  Poland-Chinas  and  pos- 
sess about  the  same  qualities.  Good  hogs 
weigh  240  to  300  pounds  nine  to  12 
months  of  age,  and  mature  hogs  500  to 
600  pounds.  The  specially  good  points 
in  regard  to  the  Berkshire  are  its  early 
maturity,  good  grazing  qualities,  adapt- 
ability and  excellent  carcass.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  popular  breeds  in  the  South. 
Duroc-Jerseys — This  is  an  American 
developed    breed.      Its    origin,    however, 


than  either  the  Poland-China  or  Berk- 
shire, with  lop  ears  and  numerous  wrin- 
kles and  creases  about  the  back  and 
hind   quarters. 

The  breed  is  chiefly  notable  for  its 
great  fecundity  and  remarkably  good 
grazing  powers.  At  six  months  of  age, 
good  specimens  of  the  breed  should 
Weigh  150  pounds  and  at  eight  or  nine 
months,  the  average  should  be  275 
pounds.  Mature  hogs  in  good  condition 
average  500  to  600  pounds  in  weight. 
The  breed  is  of  a  quiet  disposition,  easily 
handled,  have  vigorous  appetites  and 
fatten  rapidly.  They  are  one  of  the  best 
of  all  breeds  for  the  South,  as  they  never 
sun  scald.  The  breed  is  most  popular  in 
New    Jersey,    Pennsylvania     and    New 


SWINE 


505 


York   and   is   rapidly   gaining   in   favor 
throughout    the    South   and   West. 

Chester  White — This  breed  originated 
in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania.  It 
appears  that  a  sea  captain,  James  Jef- 
feries  by  name,  imported  a  pair  of  white 
hogs  from  Bedfordshire,  England,  in 
1811.  This  stock,  in  connection  with 
some  Big  Chinas,  was  used  on  the  na- 
tive stock  of  the  country,  mostly  de- 
scendants of  the  large  Yorkshire  breed, 
and  formed  the  foundation  stock  of  the 
present  Chester  White  breed.  This  hog 
is  the  most  popular  of  the  white  breeds, 
and  its  blood  makes  up  a  large  portion 
of  the  mixed  black  and  white  grades 
seen    throughout    the    country. 


The  Ohio,  or  Todd's  Improved  Ches- 
ter White,  has  for  its  foundation  Ches- 
ter County  White  hogs,  crossed  with  a 
hog  owned  by  S.  II.  Todd,  which  traced 
its  ancestry  back  to  the  Norfolk  Thin 
Rind  hog  of  England  and  Irish  grazer 
breeds,  mixed  with  Normandy  blood.  In 
1865  this  hog  was  crossed  with  Chester 
Whites  from  which  sprung  the  Improved 
Chester   White. 

Yorkshire—This  is  an  old  English 
white  breed.  Its  blood  has  entered  into 
the  formation  of  practically  all  modern 
breeds  either  of  English  or  American 
origin.  There  are  three  breeds,  the  Im- 
proved Large  Yorkshires  or  the  Large 
Whites,  the  Medium  Yorkshires  or  Me- 


Eig.      321 — BERKSHIRE     BOAR 


The  breed  is  white  and  the  hogs 
among  the  largest,  if  not  the  largest,  in 
the  country,  weighing  at  maturity  600 
to  700  pounds  and  dressing  175  to  25G 
pounds  when  eight  to  nine  months  old. 
The  hogs  are  of  a  quiet  disposition,  easy 
fatteners,  with  good  grazing  powers. 
The  sows  are  prolific,  but  are  incli  led  to 
a  sullen  disposition  at  pigging  time. 
Like  all  other  white  breeds,  the  Chesters 
are  not  well  adapted  to  southern  condi- 
tions because  of  injury  from  sun  scald, 
mange  and  other  troubles.  The  Chester 
Whites,  while  a  large  hog,  have  strong, 
fine  bones  and  a  big,  lengthy  body.  The 
face  is  slightly  dished,  snout  fine  and 
long,  the  ears  pendent,  jowl  rather  light, 
neck  short  and  deep. 


dium  Whites  and  the  Small  Yorkshires 
or   Small   Whites. 

These  differ  chiefly  in  matter  of  size. 
The  Small  Yorkshires  owe  their  refine- 
ment to  a  cross  with  a  Chinese  hog, 
while  the  Medium  Yorkshire  is  the  out- 
come of  the  cross  between  the  Large  and 
the  Small  Yorkshire.  The  old  York- 
shire is  long  in  head,  body  and  legs 
large,  with  coarse,  erect  ears,  with  a 
strong  coat  of  white  hair.  There  are  usu- 
ally a  few  pale  blue  spots  in  the  skin 
but  the  hair  on  these  is  white.  They 
are  prolific  but  slow  in  maturing. 

This  old  type  has  been  considerably 
improved  and  the  new  form  under  the 
name  of  Improved  Large  Yorkshires  has 
been  recently  imported  into  Canada  and 


506 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  United  States  in  comparatively  large 
numbers;  Large  Yorkshires  of  the  old 
type  have  existed  in  the  United  States 
for  nearly  a  hundred  years.  The  Large 
Yorkshires  are  most  numerous  in  On- 
tario, Minnesota  and  Iowa. 

The  Large  Improved  Yorkshire  is 
fully  as  large  as  the  Chester  White  and 
represents  the  longest  breed  of  hogs  we 
have,  though  they  are  not  so  broad  as  the 
Chester  Whites  and  do  not  generally 
grow  to  such  heavy  weights.  They  are 
especially  suitable  for  the  production 
of  bacon,  have  good  strong  legs,  are  ex- 
cellent rustlers,  impart  a  vigorous  con- 
stitution to  their  offspring  and  are  of 
great  value  in  crossing  on  over-refined 
stock.     The  sows  are  prolific  and  good 


worth.  The  Tamworth  resembles  the 
large  Improved  Yorkshire,  being  practi- 
cally equal  to  it  in  size. 

They  are  a  long-bodied,  long-legged 
hog,  of  a  red  or  chestnut  color,  and  es- 
pecially suitable  for  the  production  of 
bacon.  They  possess  great  vigor  and 
stamina,  and  impart  these  characteris- 
tics when  crossed  upon  other  breeds. 
They  mature  fully  as  rapidly  as  the 
larger  breed  of  lard  hogs  when  heavily 
fed.  They  are  the  equal  of  any  breeds 
in  grazing  qualities  and  give  good  re- 
sults under  a  forced  feeding.  The  pro- 
portion of  lean  to  fat  meat  in  this  breed 
is  usually  high,  which  makes  the  pork 
and  bacon  produced  of  superior  quality. 
No  breed  surpasses  them  in  prolificacy. 


Fig.    322 — HERD    OF    BERKSHIRE3 


mothers,  being  probably  superior  in  these 
respects  to  the  Chester  Whites. 

As  compared  with  the  Chester  Whites, 
they  have  somewhat  longer  heads  with 
face  dished,  more  pronounced  jowl, 
longer  sides,  with  less  girth  in  proportion 
to  length,  and  are  slightly  larger  in 
limb,  and  rather  more  active. 

The  Small  Yorkshire  is  finer  in  qual- 
ity than  the  Improved,  presents  greater 
symmetry  and  is  much  more  compact 
in  form;  they  mature  much  earlier,  but 
do  not  attain  as  heavy  a  weight  as  the 
Large  Yorkshires. 

Tamworth — These  pigs  originated  in 
England,  and  have  been  bred  for  many 
years,  being  one  of  the  oldest  and  purest 
breeds  of  Britain.  The  blood  of  othei 
breeds  has  been  used  to  but  very  little 
extent  in  the  improvement  of  the  Tam- 


The  Tamworths  have  come  into  great 
prominence  during  recent  years,  espe- 
cially in  Canada,  where  an  extensive 
bacon  trade  is  being  developed  with 
England.  The  breed  is  also  increasing 
in  favor  in  the  United  States.  At  pres- 
ent they  are  most  numerous  in  Canada, 
Michigan,  Iowa  and  Illinois. 

Cheshire — This  white  breed  of  swine 
originated  in  Jefferson  county,  New 
York.  It  is  the  outcome  of  crosses  be- 
tween Large  Improved  Yorkshire  and 
the  Suffolk  breeds  upon  native  white 
hogs.  They  were  first  exhibited  at  fairs 
in  New  York  state  in  1859.  They  are 
smaller  than  any  of  the  breeds  described 
above,  and  possess  early  maturing  qual- 
ities in  a  marked  degree.  They  have 
fair  grazing  qualities,  are  docile,  rank 
high  among  the  medium  breeds  as  bacon 


SWINE 


507 


producers,  and  are  valuable  in  crossing 
upon  the  more  slowly  maturing  breeds 
for  the  purpose  of  refining  the  bone  and 
increasing  early  maturity.  They  con- 
siderably resemble  the  Berkshire  in  gen- 
eral appearance  except  that  they  are 
white,  are  not  quite  so  heavy  and  are 
more  refined  in  frame  and  bone.  The 
ears  are  small,  fine,  erect  and  in  old 
animals  point  slightly  forward. 

In  1906,  four  volumes  of  the  Cheshire 
Herd  Book  had  been  issued  registering 
a  total  of  3,349  females  and  males  oi 
which   about    1,000    are    alive. 

Hampshire  or  Thin-Rind — This  hog 
traces  its  origin  to  Hampshire,  England. 
It  was  introduced  in  Kentucky  as  early 
as  1835,  where  it  has  been  carefully  bred 


and  other  good  qualities  is  very  likely 
to   increase   in   popularity. 

Suffolk — The  hog  known  in  England 
as  the  Suffolk  is  a  black  hog,  while  the 
hog  called  Suffolk  in  America,  refers 
generally  to  a  white  breed.  Good  author- 
ities, however,  consider  the  American 
strain  of  white  pigs  as  merely  the  little 
Yorkshire  under  another  name.  The 
Black  Suffolk  is  one  of  the  smaller 
breeds  of  hogs.  The  head  is  short,  snout 
turned  up  similar  to  that  of  the  small 
Yorkshires,  body  deep,  ribs  well  sprung, 
with  short,  small  bones  and  legs.  The 
breed  possesses  early  maturing  quali- 
ties in  a  marked  degree,  is  medium  in 
size,  lays  on  fat  rapidly  and  dresses  out 
a  high  percentage  of  meat. 


Eig.    323 — DUROC    JERSEY    SOW 


ever  since.  These  hogs  are  black  in 
color  with  a  band  4  to  12  inches  wide  en- 
circling the  body  and  including  the 
front  legs,  which  are  also  white.  This 
gives  the  breed  a  striking  appearance. 
The  head  is  small,  ears  of  medium 
length,  slightly  inclined  forward,  light 
jowls,  broad  back  of  nearly  uniform 
width,  heavy  hams,  legs  set  well  apart, 
active  and  muscular.  The  sows  are  pro- 
lific and  uniformly  good  mothers.  The 
breed  has  excellent  grazing  qualities  and 
easily  attains  a  weight  of  300  pounds  at 
12  months  of  age. 

In  crossing  they  transmit  their  qual- 
ities and  markings  with  great  uniform- 
ity. The  breed  is  comparatively  new, 
but  owing  to  its  handsome  appearance 


What  is  known  as  the  American  or 
White  Suffolk,  is  a  hog  somewhat  simi- 
lar in  general  appearance  except  that  the 
color  is  a  pale  yellowish  white,  perfectly 
free  from  spots  or  other  colors.  In 
general,  it  may  be  described  as  a  short- 
legged  pig,  with  a  moderately  long  body, 
but  wide  and  deep  and  a  much  dished 
head.  It  is  adapted  to  intensive  condi- 
tions where  grazing  lands  are  scarce  and 
expensive,  and  for  producing  a  good 
quality  of  quickly  grown  pork. 

Essex — The  Essex  is  another  rep- 
resentative of  one  of  the  smaller  black 
breeds  of  England,  originating  in  Essex. 
As  bred  in  America,  they  attain  a  weight 
of  250  to  400  pounds  at  maturity.  They 
have  a  fine  head,  short  nose,  nicely 
dished  face,  thin,  erect  ears,  heavy  jowl, 


508 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


with  the  short,  firm  boned  leg.  Espe- 
cially good  results  have  been  reported 
with  this  breed  in  the  South,  but  in  the 
northern  states  it  will  never  be  a  se- 
rious competitor  of  the  larger  breeds 
like  the  Poland-Chinas  or  Berkshires. 

Large  Black — This  is  one  of  the  Eng- 
lish breeds  only  recently  brought  into 
prominence,  though  it  has  existed  in 
Cornwall,  Devon,  Essex  and  Suffolk 
counties  for  many  years.  The  Large 
Black  Pig  Society  was  established  in 
England  in  1899,  and  a  few  of  these 
pigs  have  appeared  in  America  and 
Canada. 


to  the  more  southern  states.  This  breed 
is  a  long-bodied,  long-legged,  thin,  long- 
nosed  hog,  exceedingly  hardy  and  with 
remarkably  good  foraging  powers,  but 
too  slow  in  maturing  and  too  light  in 
weight  to  compare  with  the  improved 
breeds  of  swine.  It  has  no  place  in 
modern  agriculture. 

Victorias—There  are  two  distinct 
breeds  of  Victorias,  the  Davis,  originated 
by  Geo.  Davis  in  Indiana  about  1870, 
from  crossings  between  Poland- Chinas, 
Chester  Whites,  Berkshires  and  Suffolks, 
and  the  Cnrtis,  originated  by  F.  D. 
Curtis,    in    New   York    about    1S50,    ob- 


Fig.    324 CHESTER    WHITE    BOAR 


The  characteristics  of  this  breed  are 
a  black  color,  a  large,  coarse,  lop  ear, 
falling  well  forward,  medium,  dished 
face,  rather  long  body,  partaking  in  gen- 
eral of  the  appearance,  and  counted  as 
a  bacon  hog.  The  legs  are  strong,  the 
breed  very  hardy,  the  sows  docile,  pro- 
lific and  good  mothers.  In  general,  the 
breed  has  a  rather  coarse  appearance. 
They  dress  160  to  190  pounds  at  six  to 
eight  months  old.  We  are  not  aware 
that  any  herd  book  has  been  established 
as  yet  in  America. 

Razorbacks — The  hog  commonly 
known  as  the  Razorback  is  a  representa- 
tive of  the  unimproved  breed  in  this 
country,  and  is  confined  almost  entirely 


tained  by  crossing  natives  of  the  Graz- 
ier strain  with  the  Bayfield,  Yorkshire 
and  Suffolk.  Both  are  white  breeds, 
with  erect  ears  and  are  very  nearly  as 
large  as  the  Poland-Chinas.  They  re- 
semble the  Suffolk  in  general  appear- 
ance, but  are  a  little  larger.  The  breed 
seems  to  be  average,  without  striking 
qualities  along  any  line. 

Breeds  to  grow—Under  present  con- 
ditions in  the  United  States,  farmers 
will  find  it  most  generally  profitable  to 
grow  the  larger  breeds  of  hogs,  since 
they  gain  as  rapidly  as  the  smaller 
breeds  up  to  a  marketable  weight  of  180 
to  250  pounds  and  if  not  marketed  at 
this   time   will  continue  to  grow,   while 


8  WINE 


509 


the  smaller  breeds  will  reach  their  limit 
of  growth  at  about  this  age. 

Popularity  op  different  breeds — 
Some  idea  of  the  popularity  of  the  dif- 
ferent breeds  can  be  obtained  from  the 
number  of  pure  bred  animals  registered 
in  the  different  associations  and  which 
are  now  alive.  In  1905  the  figures  for 
the  Poland-Chinas  were  113,000;  for 
Berkshires,  30,000;  Duroc-Jerseys,  20,- 
040;  Chester  White,  8,400;  Yorkshires, 
4,600;  Essex,  1,300;  Victorias,  1,200; 
Tamworths,  1,200;  Cheshires,  1,000; 
Hampshires,  500. 

These  figures  indicate  that  the  Po- 
land-Chinas are  much  in  the  lead,  fol- 
lowed   at    some    distance   by    the   Berk- 


ing  surpasses  all  others  in  good  qualities. 
The  experiment  stations  of  the  country 
have  secured  good  representatives  of  the 
different  breeds  and  have  made  exten- 
sive observations  and  tests  to  determine 
which  breeds  can  be  fattened  for  market 
most  economically.  Rommel  has  sum- 
marized the  data  secured  at  the  Maine, 
Vermont,  New  York  state,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  and  Iowa  experiment  sta- 
tions, and  the  Ontario  Agricultural  Col- 
lege and  Central  Experimental  Earms 
in  Canada,  with  reference  to  the  feed 
required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain. 
The  data  are  given  in  the  following 
table : 


Fig.  325 — CHESTER  white  brood  sows 


shires,  the  Duroc-Jerseys  and  Chester 
Whites.  The  Poland-Chinas  are  partic- 
ularly satisfactory  to  hog  growers  in  the 
corn  belt.  Outside  of  this  region  they 
are  no  more  popular  than  a  number  of 
other  breeds.  In  the  South,  the  Berk- 
shires are  probably  most  popular  and 
numerous. 

So  far  as  can  be  learned,  there  is  no 
special  market  and  no  special  demand 
by  packers  in  this  country  for  bacon 
breeds  of  hogs  like  the  Tamworth  and 
Yorkshires.  These  breeds  sell  as  well 
on  the  market  as  any  other,  but  do  not 
bring  any  higher  price  at  present.  Ow- 
ing, however,  to  the  large  proportion  of 
lean  to  fat  in  the  carcasses  of  these  hogs, 
the  pork  is  superior  and  these  breeds 
are   likely   to    increase    in   popularity. 

Test  of  breeds — Swine  growers  and 
breeders  have  their  favorite  breeds  of 
hogs  and  believe  that  in  their  hands  the 
particular     breed     that     they  are  rais- 


FEED   REQUIRED    FOR    100    POUNDS    OF 
GAIN     BY     DIFFERENT     BREEDS. 

Si 

E  o  . 

Breed  "g«  -g  £| 

_•  *  _•  ©    .5 

Tamworth 16  92  344 

Chester   White    13  71  347 

Poland-China     22  96  357 

Berkshire    23  121  369 

Large    Yorkshire     ....  11  67  407 

Duroc- Jersey    11  66  418 

The  table  shows  the  food  requirements 
for  100  pounds  of  gain  to  vary  with  the 
different  breeds  from  344  pounds  in  the 
case  of  the  Tamworths  to  418  pounds  for 
the  Duroc-Jerseys. 

Tests  at  Iowa  station — Very  exten- 
sive experiments  have  been  made  by  the 
Iowa  station  in  feeding  different  breeds 
of  hogs.  The  cost  of  producing  1  pound 
of  gain  after  weaning  with  the  different 


510 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


breeds  for  three  years  was  as  follows: 
Yorkshires,  2.14;  Poland-Chinas,  2.23; 
Duroc- Jerseys,  2.27;  Berkshires,  2.33; 
Tamworths,  2.42,  and  Chester  Whites, 
2.46  cents. 

Before  weaning  it  cost  less  to  produce 
a  pound  of  gain  with  the  Yorkshires 
than  with  any  other  breed. 

In  the  slaughter  tests,  Yorkshires  gave 
a  larger  percentage  of  dressed  weight 
than  other  breeds.  In  quality  and  suit- 
ability for  the  export  trade,  the  Tam- 
worths stood  first,  followed  by  Berk- 
shires, Chester  Whites,  Duroc-Jerseys, 
Poland- Chinas  and  Yorkshires,  in  the 
order  named. 

Tests  at  Central  Experimental 
Farms — A  large  number  of  feeding  ex- 
periments have  been  reported  by  the 
Central  Experimental  Earm  in  Canada, 


with  different  breeds  of  hogs.  In  this 
work  no  one  breed  has  been  found  con- 
stantly superior  to  any  other.  There 
was  often  a  greater  difference  in  the 
gains  made  between  different  animals  of 
the  same  litter,  than  between  animals 
of  different  breeds. 

Eor  fattening  purposes,  however,  cross 
bred  swine  and  grades  have  given  better 
results  than  pure  bred  hogs. 

The  Ontario  Agricultural  College 
has  also  carried  on  extensive  feeding  ex- 
periments with  different  breeds  of  hogs. 
Six  of  the  leading  breeds  have  been 
tested  by  the  college  for  a  number  of 
years,  to  determine  the  economy  of  gain 
and  value  for  bacon.  The  following 
table  shows  the  rank  of  the  different 
breeds  for  the  years  1896  to  1900.  In 
each  case  the  breeds  are  arranged  in 
order  of  economy  of  production. 


^  ** 

^Jjj# 

#388 

wr       % 

r-$&^"- 

■       1    .* 

i*tf 

l 

Bw^"'  -»" 

-'•''-«":""~ 

W'W* 

'  ~^?ii^m    '"  ^h^h 

f'iiif^Hr 

W$L 

JBf     SK 

Hr,JBralI 

CkP 

Fig.     326 — YORKSHIRE     SOW 


RANK    OF    BREEDS    IN    ECONOMY    OF    PRODUCTION. 


1896 
Berkshire, 
Tamworth, 
Poland-China, 
Duroc-Jersey, 
Chester  White, 
Yorkshire. 


1897 
Berkshire, 
Tamworth, 
Poland-China, 
Chester  White, 
Yorkshire, 
Duroc-Jersey. 


1898 
Yorkshire, 
Berkshire, 
Duroc-Jersey, 
Tamworth, 
Chester  White, 
Poland-China. 


1899 
Berkshire, 
Tamworth, 
Yorkshire, 
Chester  White, 
Duroc-Jersey, 
Poland-China. 


1900 
Berkshire, 
Yorkshire, 
Duroc-Jersey, 
Chester  White, 
Tamworth, 
Poland-China. 


In  all  five  tests,  Yorkshire  took  the 
lead  as  to  suitability  for  the  export 
bacon  trade.  Tamworth  stood  next, 
Berkshire  easily  ranked  third  in  the  five 
years'  work,  while  for  economy  of  pro- 
duction they  stood  first  in  four  out  of 
five  tests. 


In  these  experiments  the  grain  re- 
quired to  produce  100  pound  of  gain 
averaged  379  pounds  for  the  Berkshires, 
390  for  the  Tamworth,  369  for  the 
Duroc-Jerseys,  395  for  the  Yorkshire, 
400  for  the  Chester  White,  and  401 
pounds  for  the  Poland-Chinas. 


SWINE 


511 


At  the  Minnesota  station,  first  cross 
Improved  Yorkshire  pigs  made  slightly 
better  gains  in  a  test  than  second  cross 
Improved  Yorkshire  pigs,  but  the  dif- 
ference was  too  slight  to  indicate  any 
superiority  of  one  cross  over  the  other 
for  fattening.  Tests  of  a  number  of 
breeds  and  crosses  resulted  in  showing 
that  pork  could  be  produced  more  cheap- 
ly from  the  Large  Improved  Yorkshire 
and  Tamworth  than  from  the  Poland- 
Chinas.  A  cross  of  these  breeds  on  the 
Poland-Chinas  produced  vigorous,  shape- 
ly  pigs   that   gained   more   rapidly   and 


tests  of  breeds  and  crosses  op  pigs. 


.Sa 

| 
fe2 

I 

O 

H 

Razorback- 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Poland-China 

..4.3 

433 

166 

$5.00 

Razorback- 

Berkshire    .... 

..2.9 

505 

119 

5.78 

Small  Yorkshire 

..3.5 

400 

148 

4.56 

Razorback 

..2.7 

547 

110 

6.23 

This    table    brings     out     clearly    the 
smaller   amount   of   food   eaten   by   the 


Fig.    327 — A    GOOD    TYPE    OF    TAMWORTH    SOW 


fattened  more  perfectly  than  Poland- 
Chinas. 

These  experiments  did  not  sustain  the 
views  sometimes  advanced  that  the  re- 
sults will  be  less  satisfactory  from  each 
succeeding  cross  with  Yorkshire  or 
Berkshire.  The  lard  types  did  not  grow 
faster  up  to  196  days  from  birth  than 
swine  of  the  bacon  type. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station  tests  were 
made  of  Razorbacks,  small  Yorkshires, 
and  Razorbacks  crossed  on  Poland- 
Chinas,  and  on  Berkshires.  The  amount 
of  grain  eaten  daily,  the  total  gain  of 
the  pigs  and  the  cost  per  100  pounds  of 
gain  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Razorbacks  in  comparison  with  the  im- 
proved crosses  and  the  pure  bred  York- 
shire, the  smaller  gain  made  during  the 
same  feeding  period  and  the  much  great- 
er cost  per  pound  of  gain.  The  experi- 
ment also  emphasizes  the  fact  that  all 
of  our  improved  breeds  are  much  heavier 
eaters  than  the  unimproved  breeds  and 
they  make  much  better  use  of  the  food, 
gaining  more  rapidly  and  reaching  a 
marketable  size  much  sooner  than  the 
unimproved  forms. 

A  farmer  must  never  make  the  mis- 
take of  thinking  that  because  he  has 
pure  breeds  or  improved  breeds  he  can 
feed  them  less  and  that  they  will  make 
better  gain  than  with  unimproved  stock. 


512 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


They  are  improved  breeds  simply  be- 
cause they  can  utilize  much  more  feed  to 
advantage  than  the  common  unimproved 
stock. 

Poland-Chinas  at  the  Oregon  station 
made  a  gain  on  wheat  of  about  0.7 
pound  per  day  as  compared  with  0.57 
pound  per  day  made  by  Tamworth-Po- 
land-Chinas.  The  cross  bred  pork  in 
this  case  was  superior  in  quality  for  cur- 
ing because  of  a  thinner  rind,  less  fat 
and  a  larger  percentage  of  lean.  The 
cooking  test  of  the  meat  showed  it  to  be 
of  superior  quality  also. 

The  Kansas  station  reports  that  it  re- 
quires from  23  to  30  per  cent  more  feed 
to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  with  hogs 


dryness,  which  greatly  adds  to  the  clean- 
liness and  comfort  of  the  animal. 

Where  large  numbers  are  kept,  the 
pens  may  be  built  on  either  side  of 
the  building  with  an  alleyway  running 
through  the  center  containing  feed  bins, 
scales  for  weighing,  and,  if  need  be,  a 
kettle  for  cooking  and  heating  food 
and  water.  In  such  cases,  the  long  way 
of  the  house  should  extend  north  and 
south.  This  will  insure  plenty  of  sun- 
light for  each  pen  at  some  period  of  the 
day.  The  pens  may  be  made  8x10  feet 
square,  with  a  section  divided  off  for 
sleeping. 

Cement  floors  are  generally  recom- 
mended now  as  being  the  cheapest  and 


Fig.      328 — CHESHIRE      PIGS 


of  mixed  breeding  than  with  pure  bred 
hogs. 

BUILDINGS  FOR  HOGS 

For  the  economical  production  of 
pork,  in  the  northern  states,  some  form 
of  comfortable  pen  in  which  the  hogs 
may  be  housed  in  winter,  is  essential. 
These  houses  need  not  be  made  of  ex- 
pensive material,  but  they  should  be 
made  tight  and  comfortable,  with  sepa- 
rate spaces  for  feeding  and  sleeping.  In 
all  good  hog  houses,  attentionmust  be  paid 
to  suitable  lighting,  ventilation,  clean- 
liness and  warmth.  The  building  should 
be  located  on  high,  well-drained  ground, 
so  that  the  pigs  will  have  to  ascend  an 
incline  to  enter  the  pen.     This  insures 


most  serviceable  material  for  flooring. 
The  sleeping  quarters  for  the  hogs,  how- 
ever, should  be  made  of  boards  laid  on 
the  cement.  Bare  cement  floors  are  ex- 
ceedingly objectionable  if  hogs  are  re- 
quired to  make  their  nests  on  them  dur- 
ing the  winter  season.  Even  when  an 
abundance  of  bedding  is  used  in  these 
floors  they  are  cold  and  bad  results  are 
likely  to  follow.  At  farrowing  time  it  is 
especially  dangerous,  as  the  newly  born 
pigs  wriggle  around  onto  the  bare  floor, 
which  is  slippery,  and  prevents  them 
from  getting  on  their  feet,  where  they 
soon  become  chilled  and  die.  For  these 
reasons,  therefore,  cement  floors  should 
always  have  a  portion  overlaid  with  wood, 
on  which  the  hogs  may  make  their  beds. 


SWINE 


513 


Ventilation — Provision  should  be 
made  for  ventilation  on  sunny  days  in 
winter.  The  air  which  enters  the  open 
windows  is  usually  sufficient  for  this 
purpose,  but  it  should  be  directed  up- 
ward and  especial  care  be  taken  that 
no  drafts  come  on  the  pigs.  From  two 
to  five  hogs  may  be  kept  in  each  pen, 
8x16  feet  square,  but  for  sanitary  rea- 
sons, no  more  than  50  should  be  main- 
tained in  one  building. 

Small  yards  should  be  attached  to 
the  pens  in  which  the  pigs  can  take  ex- 
ercise in  pleasant  weather.  This  is  par- 
ticularly desirable  for  breeding  and  stock 
hogs. 

Floors — Where  it  is  possible  to  keep 
the  floors  of  the  pens  dry  and  clean, 
there  is  nothing  better  for  flooring  than 
well-packed  earth.  Where  the  floors  are 
thus    constructed    the    ground   must    be 


Eunning  along  the  whole  front  of  the 
building  is  a  passage  way  with  feed  bins, 
troughs  and  feed  floor.  In  the  center  of 
the  building  is  a  driveway  and  manure 
pile,  and  back  of  this  the  beds  for  the 
hogs.  The  location  of  the  manure  pit 
in  the  center  and  below  the  level  of 
the  sleeping  and  feeding  floors,  with 
all  the  drainage  running  into  it  is 
a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  pen,  which 
materially  aids  in  maintaining  good  san- 
itary conditions.  The  manure  is  easily 
removed,  as  the  pen  is  so  arranged  that 
a  wagon  can  be  driven  through  it.  At 
such  time  the  gates  are  simply  swung 
around  and  the  pigs  fastened  in  their 
sleeping  or  feeding  quarters.  The  swing- 
ing fronts  of  the  pens  allow  food  to  be 
placed  in  the  trough  and  evenly  dis- 
tributed so  that  the  pigs  all  have  an 
equal    chance    at    feeding    time.      This 


.¥' 

Fig.    329 — HAMPSHIRE    HOGS 


well  drained  both  underneath  and  on  the 
surface.  Good  houses  are  in  most  de- 
mand at  farrowing  time.  Then  the  pens 
should  be  warm  and  comfortable  or  the 
pigs  may  become  chilled  and  the  litter 
lost. 

Maryland  pig  pen— In  the  latitude  of 
Maryland,  where  the  winters  are  more 
open,  a  more  open  and  less  expensive 
form  of  pen  may  be  constructed. 

The  Maryland  experiment  station  de- 
scribes a  pen  erected  at  that  institution 
which  has  proved  exceedingly  satisfac- 
tory and  at  the  same  time  easy  of  con- 
struction and  convenient.  The  pen 
faces  the  south,  in  order  to  permit  the 
sun  to  shine  upon  the  beds  of  the  pigs 
at  the  farthest  end  of  the  pen,  in  the 
winter  season,  and  to  give  shade  in  that 
portion  during  the  summer.  The  illus- 
tration shows  the  general  form  of  this 
pig  pen,  and  the  diagram  the  details  of 
the  ground  floor. 


form     of    front    is    shown  in  Fig.  337. 

In  the  southern  states  buildings  for 
pigs  are  exceedingly  simple  contrivances. 
There,  hogs  can  run  out  all  winter  and 
it  is  seldom  necessary  to  build  any  expen- 
sive pens.  A  simple  shelter  in  time  of 
storm  answers  practically  all  purposes. 
This,  however,  should  be  in  a  dry  and 
comfortable  place. 

Portable  hog  houses— In  recent  years 
the  portable  hog  houses  in  the  more  ex- 
tensive swine  growing  districts  of  the 
north  have  become  exceedingly  popular. 
These  are  small  houses  which  can  be 
moved  by  one  or  two  men  or  by  attach- 
ing a  team  to  the  runners  under  them 
from  one  location  to  another.  They 
vary  in  size  from  6x6  to  8x8  feet,  are 
built  of  good  lumber  and  well  roofed. 
They  are  made  without  floors  and  when 
lined  are  sufficiently  warm  for  brood 
sows  and  pigs  even  in  zero  weather.  The 
advantage  of  these  houses  is  the  greater 


514 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


control  of  the  grower  over  disease,  as 
any  outbreak  which  may  occur  may  be 
promptly  isolated,  and  a  few  pigs  to- 
gether do  better  than  when  in  large 
herds. 

Figure  338  shows  the  one  form  of  these 
cots  which  is  especially  satisfactory  in 
winter,  but  objectionable  in  summer, 
as  it  does  not  afford  sufficient  protection 
against  heat.  It  is  considered  an  espe- 
cially good  form  of  cot  for  breeding  sows 
as  at  farrowing  time  the  sow  cannot  lie 
down  so  close  to  the  sloping  roof  but 
that  the  pigs  can  get  behind  her  and 
thus  prevent  themselves  from  being 
crushed. 

The  house  is  arranged  on  skids  so  that 
it  may  be  easily  moved  by  hitching  a 


Shaw  at  the  Michigan  station.  It  i9 
6x8  feet  at  the  foundation,  with  the 
sides  raised  perpendicularly  3  feet  be- 
fore receiving  the  half  pitch  roof  board. 
The  center  boards  on  the  sides  are  hinged 
so  that  they  can  be  swung  open  in  hot 
weather;  the  opening  thus  made  is  cov- 
ered with  strong  woven  wire  clamped 
above  and  below  with  inch  boards;  the 
inner  clamp  boards  project  an  inch 
above  the  outer  boards,  thus  breaking 
joints  and  preventing  any  draft  when 
the  openings  are  closed.  The  roof  boards 
are  also  hinged  so  that  they  can  be  opened 
during  hot  weather.  These  openings 
permit  a  free  circulation  of  air  which 
lowers  the  temperature  and  contributes 
to  the  comfort  of  the  pigs.    These  open- 


Fiff.  330 — ESSEX  BOAR 


team  to  it.  These  skids  should  not  be 
attached  to  the  house  as  they  soon  rot 
out.  Another  form  of  these  pens  is 
shown  in  Fig.  342.  This  house  is  built 
6x8  and  is  formed  of  five  separate  pieces 
so  constructed  that  they  can  be  bolted 
together,  and  taken  down  and  removed 
when  desired.  This  form  is  especially 
warm  in  summer  unless  raised  up  slightly 
from  the  ground.  The  sections  are  also 
difficult  for  one  man  to  handle  and 
on  this  account  it  is  not  moved  as  fre- 
quently as  it  should  be.  On  this  account 
also  it  is  desirable  that  all  portable 
hog  houses  be  built  on  skids  so  that  they 
can  be  removed  by  one  man  and  a  team. 
Fig.  341  shows  an  improved  form  of 
these  portable  hog  houses,  designed  by 


ings  close  down  tightly,  leaving  warm 
quarters  during  the  coldest  weather. 
"This  form  of  house  is  rather  expensive 
as  it  contains  160  feet  stock  lumber, 
60  feet  matched,  20  feet  4x6-inch,  12  feet 
4x4-inch  and  44  feet  2x4-inch." 

FENCES     FOR     YARDS     AND     PAS- 
TURES 

Good  fences  are  absolutely  necessary 
to  peace  of  mind  in  growing  hogs.  For 
the  small  runs  adjacent  to  the  pens, 
tight  board  fences  are  perhaps  the  most 
satisfactory  of  anything,  but  lumber 
is  becoming  so  expensive  that  this  kind 
of  a  fence  is  more  costly  than  a  wire 
fence.  A  woven  wire  fence  3  feet  high 
will  be  sufficient  to  retain  the  hogs  at 


SWINE 


515 


all  times,  provided  good  posts  are  used. 
A  number  of  firms  manufacture  special 
hog  fences.  Wire  fences  are  also  the 
cheapest  to  erect  around  the  small  hog 
lots,  and  if  one  or  two  wires  are  stretched 
above  these  the  fence  will  be  sufficiently 
high  to  turn  cattle  and  horses. 

The  lower  wire  of  the  fence  should 
be  placed  tight  to  the  ground  and  the 
first  four  or  five  spaced  not  more  than 
2y2  to  3  inches  apart.  Midway  between 
the  posts  the  bottom  wire  should  be  se- 
curely stapled  to  a  well-grounded  stake 
to  prevent  the  pigs  from  working  their 
way  underneath.  Barbed  wire  should 
never  be  used  as  a  fencing  material  for 
hogs  and  is  dangerous  for  any  stock. 

Where  hogs  are  pastured  on  forage 
crops  like  rape  or  peas  and  oats,  it  will 


The  vermin  are  usually  most  numer- 
ous around  the  ears,  in  the  fold  of  the 
skin  on  the  jowls,  sides  and  flank,  and 
on  the  inside  of  the  leg.  If  only  a  few 
hogs  are  affected,  they  can  be  eradicated 
by  washing  or  spraying,  but  if  the  whole 
herd  is  infested,  more  thorough  work 
can  be  done  by  dipping  in  a  vat  similar 
to  that  used  for  sheep.  The  common  to- 
bacco dips  are  effective  for  this  purpose; 
all  loose  bedding  should  be  burned  in 
the  case  of  badly  infested  herds,  and  the 
pens  or  yards  thoroughly  disinfected  by 
spraying  with  a  solution  of  creolin  or 
similar  material.  With  dry  and  clean 
yards,  pure  drinking  water,  and  good 
pastures,  the  danger  from  various  se- 
rious diseases  which  affect  hogs  is  re- 
duced to  a  minimum. 


Fig.    331 PRIZE-WINNING    ESSEX    SOW 


be  desirable  to  confine  them  to  small 
portions  of  a  field  at  a  time,  since  they 
are  wasteful,  and  trample  down  much 
feed  unnecessarily.  For  this  purpose, 
small,  light  movable  fences  made  of 
lumber  are  usually  very  convenient. 
See  Fig.  348. 

Dipping  vats — Hogs  may  become  in- 
fested with  vermin  of  various  sorts, 
which  are  not  only  a  source  of  great  an- 
noyance to  them,  but  prevent,  often- 
times, their  rapid  growth,  and  their 
economic  utilization  of  feeding  stuffs. 
The  herd  may  become  infested  by  the  in- 
troduction of  new  stock,  as  a  boar  or  sow 
into  the  flock,  or  by  other  means.  Lice 
are  especially  serious,  often  causing 
losses  among  the  herd,  especially  among 
the  young  pigs. 


THE      BOAR     AND     HIS     MANAGE- 
MENT 

The  boar  used  should  be  a  typical  rep- 
resentative of  his  breed.  It  is  better  to 
use  pure  bred  boars  than  to  use  grades 
or  crosses,  because  normally  a  pure  bred 
boar  will  transmit  his  characteristics  to 
the  offspring  with  greater  certainty 
than  grades  or  crosses. 

In  selecting  the  boar  the  character  of 
the  sows  which  are  to  be  bred  should 
be  considered  and  one  secured  which 
will  offset  any  very  great  defects  in  the 
sows,  to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible. 
Thus,  fine  boned,  delicate  sows  should 
be  bred  to  strong,  rangy  boars  to  impart 
vigor  to  the  offspring,  and  coarse,  slow 
maturing  sows  to  fine  boned,  quick  ma- 
turing, meat  producing  types  of  boars. 


516 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  breeding  sows  can  be  selected 
from  among  the  best  in  the  herd  each 
year,  but  new  boars  should  be  selected 
from  outside  stock  as  soon  as  the  sows 
have  passed  their  prime,  and  are  re- 
placed by  their  progeny. 

If  a  man  is  growing  hogs  for  sale  as 
pure  bred  animals,  he  cannot  be  too 
careful  in  buying  a  boar  that  corre- 
sponds in  every  detail  of  form,  vigor, 
marking,  etc,  to  the  standard  set  for 
the  breed;  but  in  growing  hogs  for  pork, 
less  expensive  boars — those  that  are  cor- 
rect in  form  but  may  be  slightly  off  in 
marking  or  defective  in  some  minor  re- 
spect, which  would  debar  them  as  show 
animals,  but  in  no  wise  injure  them  for 


are  four  or  five  months  old,  as  they  do 
not  show  their  form  fully  before  this 
time. 

Keep  the  boars  away  from  the 
sows — The  boar  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  run  with  the  sows,  as  he  is 
likely  to  be  a  source  of  continual  worry 
to  them.  He  should  be  kept  in  a  pen  and 
lot  by  himself,  entirely  away  from  the 
sows.  He  should  be  given  pasture  and 
some  grain  like  oats,  barley,  bran,  mid- 
dlings and  a  little  corn  and  kept  in  good 
condition,  but  not  fat  and  unwieldy. 
Grazing  on  a  pasture  will  give  him  ex- 
ercise and  keep  him  in  good  condition. 
With  old  sows  he  may  be  used  for  breed- 
ing when  eight  to  10  months  old,  but 


Fig.     332 — CHAMPION    VICTORIA    BOAR 


breeding,  may  be  selected.  Good,  typi- 
cal boars,  slightly  off  in  marking,  can 
usually  be  gotten  for  from  $10  to  $20  each 
at  two  to  four  months  of  age,  while 
fancy  representatives  of  the  same  litter, 
such  as  the  grower  of  pure  bred  hogs 
would  want,  might  sell  for  ten  times 
these  prices. 

Kind  of  boar  to  buy— The  kind  of 
boar  that  the  producer  of  pork  should 
look  for  is  one  of  good  size  and  form, 
active,  with  short,  strong  legs,  short 
neck  and  vigorous  constitution.  Boars 
with  a  long  head,  neck  and  leg,  are 
likely  to  be  slow  growers,  and  to  require 
much  more  feed  to  produce  a  pound  of 
gain  than  when  of  the  low,  blocky  type. 
Boars  should  not  be  bought  until  they 


with  young  sows,  older  boars  should  be 
used.  Boars  give  their  best  service 
when  two  to  five  years  old. 

SOWS,   SELECTION  AND  BREEDING 

The  sows  used  to  breed  pigs  for  the 
production  of  pork  should  be  selected 
from  the  best  animals  in  the  herd,  and 
from  mothers  that  are  prolific  and  good 
milkers.  They  should  all  be  of  uniform 
type  and  of  as  nearly  the  same  color  as 
possible,  since  uniformity  in  the  herd 
at  the  market  adds  to  the  selling  price 
of  the  animals. 

Desirable  characteristics  of  a  sow-- 
The  sows  should  have  all  the  prominent 
characteristics  of  the  market  hog,  such 
as  the  wide,  straight,  deep  fleshed  back, 


SWINE 


517 


well  sprung  ribs,  straight  deep  sides, 
deep  well  rounded  hams,  and  a  body 
long  for  the  breed  with  moderately 
short  and  strong  legs.  A  wide,  deep 
chest  should  be  looked  for,  as  this  indi- 
cates well  developed  vital  organs. 

The  sow  should  be  a  good  feeder^ 
otherwise  the  litters  will  be  small  and 
she  will  give  but  little  milk,  and  unless 
young  pigs  get  all  the  milk  they  need 
during  the  first  six  weeks  of  life,  they 
are  often  stunted  in  growth  and  require 
a  long  time  for  recovery.  It  is  not  the 
fat,  plump  sows  in  the  herd  that  should 
be  picked  out,  but  rather  the  longer 
bodied  and  more  vigorous  animals  which 
show  good  grazing  and  feeding  powers. 

Breeding — For  pork  production,  sows 
may  be   bred  any  time   after  they  are 


tory,  which  may  be  until  they  are  six 
to  eight  years  old. 

It  is  claimed  that  an  aged  sow  mated 
with  a  young  boar  will  produce  pigs 
that  will  mature  earlier  than  those  pro- 
duced when  the  sow  is  young  and  the 
boar  aged. 

Size  of  litters — In  0ne  experiment  re- 
ported by  the  Wisconsin  experiment  sta- 
tion, the  litters  of  eight  breeds  of  hogs 
ranged  from  six  to  10  pigs  each,  and 
weighed  from  13.5  to  22.5  pounds  per 
litter.  At  birth  the  pigs  weighed  from 
1.3  to  3.1  pounds  each.  In  another  ex- 
periment, at  the  same  station,  observa- 
tions were  made  on  12  Poland-China 
and  Berkshire  sows,  or  crosses  of  these, 
one  to  four  years  old.  The  average 
weight  at  birth  in  this  instance  was  2.2 


HfHHH 

i^^pppppj 

■  W" ; 

"**|bi 

hB 

HflBBEB 

Fig.   333 — VICTORIA  SOW  AND  PIGS 


eight  months  old,  but  in  case  of  pure 
bred  stock  for  breeding,  better  results 
will  be  obtained  if  the  sow  is  not  bred 
until  at  least  12  months  old. 

The  period  of  pregnancy  for  young 
sows  or  sows  in  poor  condition  is  about 
16  weeks.  Old  sows  may  carry  their 
pigs  two  or  three  days  longer.  It  is  the 
general  practice  to  breed  twice  a  year, 
having  one  litter  come  in  early  spring, 
and  the  other  about  September  or  Oc- 
tober. Good  breeding  sows  should  be 
kept  as  long  as  they  produce  satisfactory 
litters.  The  second  litter  will  usually  be 
larger  than  .the  first,  so  that  it  is  advis- 
able to  keep  promising  sows  until  they 
have  had  their  second  litter  at  least.  If 
then  they  prove  good  mothers  they  may 
be  kept  as  long  as  they  prove  satisfac- 


pounds  per  pig  or  16.7  pounds  per  lit- 
ter. In  only  two  instances  was  the  last 
pig  farrowed  the  smallest. 

Recently,  Carlyle  at  the  same  station, 
made  observations  on  the  litters  of  large, 
medium  and  small  sows.  There  were 
four  sows  representing  the  Poland- 
China,  Berkshire,  Razorback  and  crosses 
between  these  in  each  group.  The  re- 
sults obtained  are  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 

SIZE     OF     SOWS     AS      RELATED     TO     LITTERS 
PRODUCED. 


-^5 


Size  of  Sow  w> 

Large  sows   482 

Medium  sows   ....  307 
Small  sows    238 


fc.S 

£S 

9.2 

27 

6.7 

16 

5.5 

14 

518 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  table  shows  that  the  large  sows 
produced  a  greater  number  of  pigs  in  a 
litter,  and  that  the  total  litter  weighed 
considerably  more  than  in  the  case  of 
either  medium  sows  or  small  sows. 
While  the  large  sows  produced  over  nine 
pigs  per  litter,  small  sows  produced  only 
5.5  pigs  per  litter. 


Fig.  334 — hog  house  for  the  south 

Old  vs.  young  sows — Old  sows  usually 
produce  more  pigs  and  larger  litters 
than  young  sows;  this  is  brought  out  in 
the  work  of  Carlyle  and  is  shown  in  the 
table  below. 

SIZE    AND    WEIGHT     OF     LITTERS     AS     INFLU- 
ENCED BY  THE  AGE  OF  SOWS. 


Sows  4  and  5  years  old  ....  9.0 
Sows  2  and  3  years  old  ...  .7.5 
Sows  1  year    old    7.8 


26.0 
19.7 
14.2 


The  table  when  considered  with  the 
one  above  shows  that  older  and  larger 
sows  make  better  mothers  than  younger 
and  smaller  sows. 


< 


BEO 

'     1 

"V" 

OfllVCWAYK                \«v          £-. 

AND  MANURE  \                         \          A 

FEED 
FLOOR 

PASSAGE 

FEED  8IN3 

1                      1                 II 

> 


Fig.   335 — FLOOR   PLAN   OF   HOG  HOUSE   FOR 
THE    SOUTH 

In  the  light  of  these  data  it  would 
seem  unwise  to  dispose  of  old  brood  sows 
to  replace  them  each  year  with  young 
and  immature  animals.  Experiments 
have  generally  shown  that  sows  three 
to  five  and  six  years  old  are  much  more 


profitable  and  satisfactory  breeders  than 
sows  one  or  two  years  old. 

Gains  made  by  litters — The  weight  of 
pigs  at  birth  and  the  subsequent  gains 
made  have  been  determined  in  several 
instances  at  the  Oklahoma  station.  The 
average  weight  of  nine  litters  was  2.65 
pounds  per  pig.  The  weight  of  six  lit- 
ters when  seven  days  old  averaged  4.8 
pounds ;  of  nine  litters  when  28  days  old, 
12.1  pounds;  and  of  nine  litters  six 
weeks  old,  23.8  pounds. 

On  this  matter  of  growth  of  litters, 
investigations  by  Carlyle  at  the  Wiscon- 
sin station  show  that  with  five  sows 
which  had  litters  averaging  23y2  pounds 
in  weight,  each  pig  of  the  litter  gained 
4  pounds  per  week  for  the  12  weeks  be- 
fore weaning.  With  three  sows  which 
had  litters  averaging  16  pounds  each, 
each  pig  gained  on  the  average  3.6 
pounds  per  week,  and  with  three  other 
sows    with    litters    averaging    only    13 


i^ 

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11                 >^^ 

i 

^^ 

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r^^ 

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5 

I    rsco      i 

>FLOOR       1 

fc7 

DR/rEhtor 

BED       \ 

i' 

i 

a          I 

Fii 


336 SIDE    ELEVATION    OF    HOG    HOUSE 

FOR  THE   SOUTH 


pounds  each,  each  pig  in  the  litters 
gained  only  2.9  pounds  per  week  during 
the  12  weeks  before  weaning. 

From  these  data  it  appears  that  the 
pigs  in  large  litters,  owing  to  the  vitality 
transmitted  to  them  from  their  prolific 
mother,  or  to  some  other  physiological 
cause,  are  more  thrifty  and  better  feed- 
ers than  those  in  small  litters.  The  prac- 
tice, therefore,  of  some  breeders  of  kill- 
ing off  some  of  the  pigs  where  large  lit- 
ters are  produced  in  order  to  give  a 
better  chance  to  the  remaining  ones,  is 
of  doubtful  economy.  The  data  here 
given  are  also  a  further  argument  for 
the  desirability  of  using  the  more  ma- 
ture sows  for  breeding  purposes. 

Milk  of  sows — The  milk  yield  of  sows 
in  one  experiment  at  the  Wisconsin 
station,  in  which  four  sows  ranging  in 
weight  from  220  to  458  pounds  were 
observed,   was   found  to  vary   from  4.1 


SWINE 


519 


to  5.8  pounds  per  day  and  in  one  in- 
stance reached  8.7  pounds.  When  ana- 
lyzed, seven  samples  of  sows'  milk 
showed  an  average  composition  of  81 
per  cent  water,  7  per  cent  fat,  6.2  per 
cent  casein  and  albumen,  4.8  per  cent 
sugar,  1  per  cent  ash  and  12  per  cent 
solids  not  fat. 

Carlyle,  studying  the  milk  yield  of 
sows  further  at  the  Wisconsin  station, 
found  that  four  Berkshires  ranging  in 
weight  from  274  to  532  pounds  each 
gave,  on  the  average,  6.31  pounds  ot 
milk  per  day  for  84  days.  Four  Poland- 
China  sows  gave  an  average  daily  yield 
of  4.86  pounds  per  day  for  the  same 
period  and  four  Bazorback  sows  5.44 
pounds  daily  during  the  84  days.  The 
average  for  the  12  sows  was  5.44  pounds 
daily  for  the  12  weeks.  Some  sows  were 
found  to  yield  almost  double  as  much 
milk  as  others.     The  most  milk  is  found 


Fig.     337 — PEN     WITH     SWINGING     FRONT, 
OPEN   FOR   FILLING   TROUGHS 

in  the  front  teats.  From  the  fourth  to 
the  eighth  week  there  was  an  average 
falling  off  of  3  per  cent  in  the  milk 
yielded. 

Care  of  sows — The  pregnant  sows 
should  be  kept  on  pasture  and  forage 
crops  as  much  as  possible  during  the 
growing  season,  because  of  the  cheapness 
of  this  method  of  feeding  and  of  the  de- 
sirability of  keeping  the  sow  in  good 
form  by  exercise,  fresh  air  and  sunshine. 
Such  bulky  and  succulent  foods,  how- 
ever, must  be  supplemented  with  some 
more  concentrated  feed  like  grain,  as 
the  period  of  pregnancy  advances  if  the 
best  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

At  the  Michigan  station,  five  brood 
sows  weighing  158  to  360  pounds  each 
were  maintained  on  blue  grass  and  rape 
pasture  for  105  days  and  just  about 
maintained  their  weight. 


The  maintenance  ration  for  12  sows 
made  up  of  Berkshire,  Poland-China, 
Bazorback  and  crosses  between  these, 
was  found  by  Carlyle  at  the  Wisconsin 
station  to  average  daily  for  each  100 
pounds  weight  of  sow  1.19  pounds  of 
grain  and  2.4  pounds  of  skim  milk. 


Fig.    338 — hog   cot 

The  best  pasture  for  the  brood  sow 
is  alfalfa,  clover  and  rape.  These  pas- 
tures, however,  furnish  but  little,  if  any, 
more  than  a  maintenance  for  mature 
hogs,  and  in  case  of  a  brood  sow  must 
be  supplemented  with  liberal  allowances 
of  muscle,  bone  and  flesh,  making  foods 
such  as  shorts,  middlings,  ground  oats, 
bran,  etc.  It  is  not  desired  to  make  the 
sow  fat  but  she  must  be  kept  in  a  good, 
thrifty  condition.  The  sows  should  be 
allowed  a  lot  by  themselves  and  not  be 
put  in  with  a  mixed  herd. 

Exercise  is  essential  to  the  produc- 
tion of  vigorous  offspring  and  easy  par- 


Fig.  339 — individual  hog  house 

turition  and  can  be  obtained  by  the  pas- 
turing method  or  in  the  winter  time  by 
distributing  the  feed  in  the  straw  or  by 
having  the  pen  at  one  end  of  the  lot  and 
the  feeding  ground  at  the  other.  More 
difficulties  will  be  experienced  in  cold 
weather  in  keeping  the  sows  in  good  con- 
dition than  in  warm  weather  when  at 


520 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


pasture.  Kitchen  slops,  skim  milk,  and 
some  roots  furnish  succulence  and  keep 
the  bowels  in  good  condition.  In  addi- 
tion, they  may  be  given  some  bulky  food 
like  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  either  cut  into 
short  lengths  or  fed  whole  in  a  rack. 


Fig.    340 — INDIVIDUAL    HOG    HOUSE,    TAKEN 
APART 

A    BOX    OP    CHARCOAL,    ASHES    AND    SALT 

should  be  within  reach  of  the  brood  sow 
at  all  times,  either  summer  or  winter. 
These  materials  act  as  a  vermifuge  and 
preventive  of  disease  and  tend  to  meet 
the  craving  of  the  hog  for  mineral  mat- 
ter in  the  feed.  The  use  of  these  mate- 
rials in  connection  with  a  varied  ration 
is  one  of  the  best  means  of  preventing 
the  sow  from  eating  her  young  at  pig- 
ging time. 

Before  the  pigs  come — The  condition 
of  the  bowels  should  be  noted  carefully 
as  the  farrowing  time  approaches,  since 
at  this  time  sows  are  likely  to  become 
constipated.  A  good  feed  of  bran  will 
usually  overcome  this.  About  a  week 
before  farrowing  time  the  sow  should  be 
separated  from  the  other  hogs  and  put  in 


a  pen  by  herself.  It  is  extremely  de- 
sirable that  during  this  period  and,  in 
fact,  all  during  her  life,  she  should  be 
accustomed  to  being  handled.  A  small 
amount  of  bedding  should  be  given  her 
and  the  farrowing  pen   should  have   a 


10xl2-inch  plank  running  round  the  sides 
of  it,  6  or  8  inches  above  the  floor,  as  a 
protection  for  the  young  pigs,  so  that 
the  sow  cannot  crush  or  smother  them. 
The  pigs  soon  learn  to  creep  under  this 
protection  when  the  sow  lies  down. 

At  farrowing  time  the  sow  will 
seldom  need  any  attention.  In  cold 
weather,  however,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
take  the  pigs  as  fast  as  they  are  born, 
and  keep  them  covered  up  and  warm  un- 
til the  last  one  is  born,  when  they  should 
be  at  once  put  back  with  the  sow  and 
placed  at  the  teats.  Sometimes  a 
blanket  thrown  over  the  sow  will  suffice. 
The  afterbirth  should  be  taken  and 
burned.  If  the  sow  is  allowed  to  eat 
this  it  may  be  the  beginning  of  the 
habit  of  eating  her  pigs. 

After  farrowing,  for  the  first  24  hours 
the  sow  will  require  little,  if  any,  food. 
If  she  show  signs  of  hunger,  however, 


Fig.  342 — hog  cot 

she  may  be  given  plenty  of  water  and 
a  thin  slop  of  bran  or  shorts,  or  oatmeal 
gruel.  Tepid  or  warm  water  should 
always  be  given  in  winter.  The  laxative 
effect  of  a  little  oil  meal  will  be  found 
beneficial  at  this  time.  For  the  first 
three  or  four  days,  the  rations  should 
be  light  and  the  sow  put  on  full  feed 
very  gradually. 

Feeding  the  sow_Within  a  wee*  or 
10  days  the  sow  should  be  getting  a  good 
ration  of  nutritious  milk-producing 
foods,  such  as  skim  milk,  middlings, 
shorts,  ground  barley,  or  peas,  pasture 
or  roots,  but  she  should  not  be  put  on 
full,  heavy  rations  before  three  weeks. 
During  the  whole  after  period  in  which 
the  sow  is  giving  suck  to  her  pigs  she 
should  be  fed  heavily.  At  the  Wisconsin 
station,  Henry  found  it  profitable  to  feed 
suckling  sows  so  heavily  that  they 
gained  in  weight.  The  gains  thus  pro- 
duced in  the  suckling  pigs  indirectly 
through  the  sow,  were  cheaper  and  more 
economical  than  later  gains. 


SWINE 


521 


When  the  pigs  are  three  or  four 
weeks  old  they  will  begin  to  eat  a  little 
grass  and  take  notice  of  the  sow's  feed. 
At  this  time  a  low  trough  should  be  ar- 
ranged to  which  the  young  pigs  can 
have  access,  but  away  from  the  sow,  in 
which  a  little  skim  milk  or  thin  gruel 
may  be  placed  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

Rations  for  the  pigs — As  the  pigs 
learn  to  eat,  the  feed  may  be  increased. 
Skim  milk  is  one  of  the  best  rations  to 
feed  at  this  time.  It  may  be  mixed  with 
cornmeal  or  meal  of  any  of  the  grains  in 
the  proportion  of  about  1  pound  to  6  to 
12   pounds   of   milk.      The   pigs    should 


12  weeks.  It  is  not  advisable  to  wean 
as  early  as  four  weeks,  since  at  that 
time  the  young  pigs  will  only  have  just 
begun  to  learn  to  eat  solid  food.  If  the 
pigs  are  not  well  accustomed  to  skim 
milk  rations,  grass  and  grain,  the  time 
of  weaning  may  well  be  delayed  until 
eight  to  10  weeks  of  age.  If  the  sow 
is  not  to  be  bred  again,  the  pigs  may  be 
allowed  to  run  with  her  as  long  as  12 
weeks;  by  that  time  all  the  pigs  should 
be  eating  well  and  will  scarcely  miss  the 
sow's  milk  when  taken  away  from  her. 
At  weaning  time,  if  the  sow  is  giving 
considerable  quantities  of  milk,  two  or 


Fig.   343 — HOGS   GRAZING    ON    SOY   BEANS 
(Courtesy  Tennessee  Exper.  Station) 


be  kept  growing  constantly  from  the 
time  they  are  born  until  the  time  they 
are  taken  to  market  at  eight  or  nine 
months  of  age,  and  in  order  to  do  this 
satisfactorily  and  economically  it  will 
be  necessary  to  feed  them  a  small 
amount  of  grain  every  day. 

Scours  and  thumps,  which  often 
cause  serious  losses  among  young  pigs 
are  largely  due  to  overfeeding  or  the 
feeding  of  unsuitable  foods  during  the 
early  life  of  the  pig.  Plenty  of  exercise 
and  a  reduction  in  the  ration  will  usu- 
ally correct  these  troubles. 

Weaning  pigs_The  pigs  are  usually 
allowed  to  run  with  the  sow  from  four  to 


three  of  the  smaller  pigs  in  the  lot 
should  be  left  with  her  a  few  days  to 
gradually  dry  her  off. 

Breeding  the  sow  again — Within  two 
or  three  weeks  from  the  time  of  weaning, 
the  sow  will  come  in  heat  and  be  ready 
to  breed  again.  It  is  advisable  where 
only  one  litter  of  pigs  is  raised  to  plan 
the  breeding  as  to  have  the  litter  come 
in  the  spring,  in  April  or  May,  when 
the  weather  begins  to  moderate,  anJ 
when  they  can  be  allowed  to  run  on  pas- 
ture at  once.  If  two  litters  are  to  be 
raised  the  first  litter  should  come  in 
March  and  the  second  litter  in  Septem- 
ber.     This    gives    the    second    litter    a 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


chance  to  run  on  grass  during  the  fall 
and  get  a  good  start  before  winter  sets 
in.  There  is  no  reason  why  two  litters 
should  not  be  produced  by  the  same  sow 
every  year  she  is  used  for  breeding. 


Fig.    344 BREEDING    CRATE    FOR    HOGS 

Care  of  the  young  pigs — As  stated 
above,  the  young  pigs  will  begin  to  take 
a  small  amount  of  food  in  addition  to 
the  sow's  milk  at  three  or  four  weeks 
of  r.ge.  From  now  on,  they  should  be 
fed  an  abundance  of  such  substantial 
muscle,  bone-making,  and  growing  foods 
as  skim  milk,  shorts,  pea  meal,  ground 
barley,  and  pasture.  They  should  gain 
on  the  average  a  pound  a  day  up  until 
the  time  they  are  slaughtered  for  market 
at    eight    or    nine    months    of    age.    Of 


be  no  loss  in  growth;  if  not  done  at  this 
time,  the  operation  should  be  delayed 
until  about  a  month  after  weaning,  or 
until  the  pigs  have  become  accustomed 
to  eating  solid  food. 

After  castration,  a  young  boar  pig 
is  known  as  a  "barrow."  All  the  female 
pigs  up  to  the  time  they  are  bred  are 
commonly  called  "gilts,"  "yelts,"  or 
"hilts."  The  term  "gilts"  is  most  com- 
monly used  in  America.  If  wanted  for 
pork  the  gilts  should  be  spayed  when 
about  three  months  old.  (See  Spaying 
in  Chapter  III.) 

The  pigs  intended  for  breeding  pur- 
poses should  be  fed  nutritious  growing 
rations,  consisting  of  pasture,  skim  milk 
and  some  of  the  more  nitrogenous  grains 
or  mill  feeds.  They  need  plenty  of  ex- 
ercise and  fresh  air  and  such  rations  as 
will  keep  them  growing  well  without  the 
production  of  an  excessive  amount  of 
fat.  They  must  be  kept  growing.  A 
pig  stunted  in  growth  never  satisfac- 
torily recovers.  The  object  in  the  case 
of  breeding  stock  is  to  build  up  a  strong 
framework,  good,  healthy,  well-developed 
vital  organs  and  digestive  system.  The 
boars  should  be  kept  separate  from  the 
sows  after  the  third  or  fourth  month 
of  age.  All  pigs,  whether  for  breeding 
purposes  or  for  pork,  need  grain  while 
at  pasture.     Skim  milk  is  not  so  essen- 


Fig.     345 — FARROWING     PENS    AT    THE    KANSAS   EXPERIMENT   STATION 


course,  during  the  first  few  weeks  of 
growth,  they  will  not  make  so  large  a 
gain  as  this,  but  towards  the  end  of  the 
feeding  period  they  should  gain  much 
more  than  this. 

Castrating — When  four  to  six  weeks 
of  age,  or  about  a  month  before  weaning, 
all  the  male  pigs  intended  for  pork 
should  be  castrated.  If  done  at  this 
time,  while  sucking  the  sow,  there  will 


tial  and,  in  fact,  can  well  be  dispensed 
with  when  hogs  have  good  and  sufficient 
pasture.  For  young  pigs,  however,  two 
to  three  months  old,  skim  milk  will  be 
found  very  useful  when  at  pasture. 

FOOD  EATEN  BY  PIGS  FROM  BIRTH 
TO   MATURITY 

Professor    Carlyle    at    the    Wisconsin 
station  investigated  the  amount  of  feed 


SWINE 


required  to  grow  pigs  from  birth  to  ma- 
turity, that  is,  to  eight  months  of  age, 
when  they  were  ready  for  market  and 
slaughter.  The  hogs  consisted  of  Po- 
land-Chinas, Berkshires,  Razorbacks,  and 
crosses  between  these.  The  net  gain 
made  by  each  pig  and  the  average  cost 
of  feed  per  100  pounds  of  gain  is  shown 
in  the  table  below  for  weekly  periods: 

AVERAGE     NET    GAIN    OF    PIGS    AND    AVERAGE 

COST   OF    FEED    PER    100    POUNDS 

GAIN    FROM    BIRTH    TO 

MATURITY. 

First    four    weeks    8.8  $1.17 

Second   four   weeks    ....12.6  1.71 

Third    four    weeks    21.4  2.06 

Fourth  four  weeks    20.0  2.74 

Fifth  four  weeks   23.3  3.34 

Sixth  four  weeks   29.1  3.19 

Seventh  four  weeks 29.3  3.95 

Eighth  four  weeks    32.4  4.20 

Average      176.9  $2.80 


The  table  brings  out  clearly  the  in- 
crease in  weekly  gains  made  as  the  hogs 
increase  in  age  to  the  eighth  month. 
For  the  first  four  weeks  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  gain  is  but  8.8  pounds,  while 
the  eighth  month  the  gain  is  32.4 
pounds  per  pig.  The  cost  of  gain,  how- 
ever, per  100  pounds,  increases  regularly 
with  the  age  of  the  animal.  In  the  be- 
ginning it  costs  but  $1.17  per  100  pounds 
of  gain,  while  for  the  eighth  month  the 
cost  is  $4.20  per  100  pounds,  the  average 
being  $2.80  for  the  whole  period. 

In  the  above  work  Carlyle  fed  four 
different  rations  to  the  different  lots  of 
pigs.  The  following  table  shows  the 
kinds  of  foods  fed,  the  amount  of  diges- 
tible nutrients  they  contained,  the  gains 
made  on  each  ration,  the  amount  of 
digestible  material  required  per  pound 
of  gain,  and  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the 
different   rations. 


DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   CONSUMED    AND    GAINS   MADE    BY   PIGS   FROM 
BIRTH   TO   MATURITY. 

Ration,  Corn         Corn,  shorts, 

corn  and  skim      Corn  and  and  beef  beef  meal,  and 

milk  1:6.25       shorts  1 :1.5      meal  2  :1    milk  8:6:2:25 

Pounds  nutrients  fed ,...3,536.4               2,214.3  2,714.3               3.335.3 

Pounds  net  gain 1,251.4                   927.2  877.0               1,192.0 

Pounds  nutrients   for   each   pound 

of  gain  made   2.82                    2.38  3.10                    2.80 

Cost   of   nutrients   for   100   pounds 

gain   $3.29                  $2.36  $3.61                   $3.24 

Nutritive  ratio  in  rations  fed 1:4.5                  1:5.4'  1:2.6                  1:3.4 


GRAIN   REQUIRED  FOR   100  POUNDS   OF   GAIN. 
Corn       Kafir  corn  Oats  Peas  Wheat  Barley  Mixed  grain 

lbs  lbs  lbs 


485 


529 


472 


lbs 
439 


lbs 
452 


lbs 
418 


lbs 
432 


RELATION    BETWEEN    WEIGHT    OF    HOGS,    GAINS    MADE    AND    FOOD 
REQUIRED. 

Feed 

Average       Feed  required 

No.  of  No.  feed     eaten  daily     Aver-  to  make 

Average     states  No.         of  ani-       eaten    per  100  lbs  age  gain  100  lbs 

weight  reporting  of  trials  mals  fed    per  day  live  weight  per  day    of  gain 


Weight 
of   pigs 

lbs 
15-50 
50-100 
100-150 
150-200 
200-250 
250-300 
300-350 


lbs 

39 

79 

123 

178 


•  >•> 


ii 


209 
322 


45 

112 

133 

110 

76 

51 

21 


190 

508 
635 
509 
316 
247 
115 


lbs 
2.41 
3.62 
5.03 
5.98 
6.60 
7.34 
7.54 


lbs 
5.82 
4.58 
3.96 
3.44 
2.96 
2.71 
2.39 


lbs 
0.78 
0.94 
1.20 
1.26 
1.35 
1.48 
1.47 


lbs 
305 
402 
439 
479 
493 
509 
532 


In  examining  this  table  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  pigs  fed  corn  and  shorts  in 
the  proportion  of  1 :1.5  required  the  least 
nutrients  for  a  pound  of  gain.  This 
lot  also  makes  the  cheapest  gain  of  any 
in  the  test.     The  nutritive  ratio  of  this 


ration  is  seen  to  be  about  1:5.4,  which 
is  the  widest  of  any  in  the  test.  The 
group  fed  the  beef  meal  and  corn  in 
the  proportion  of  2  :1  had  the  narrowest 
ration  1:2.6,  made  the  least  gain,  re- 
quired the  greatest  amount  of  nutrients 


524 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


per  pound  of  gain,  and  made  gains  at 
the  greatest  cost  of  any  of  the  pigs  in 
the  test.  On  the  average,  it  required 
277  pounds  of  digestible  feed  to  produce 
100  pounds  of  gain  from  birth  to  ma- 
turity. The  average  cost  is  $3.12  for 
each  100  pounds  of  gain  made. 

Gains  before  and  after  weaning — In 
an  experiment  at  the  Michigan  station, 
it  required  on  the  average  2.8  pounds  of 
dry  matter  per  pound  of  gain  for  the 
four  weeks  before  weaning  and  2.35 
pounds  for  the  four  weeks  after  wean- 
ing. 

In  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  sta- 
tion, it  required  316  pounds  of  corn 
meal  to  make  100  pounds  of  gain  in 
sows  and  pigs  before  weaning,  while 
pigs  alone  after  weaning  required  384 
pounds  of  meal  per  100  pounds  of  gain. 
It  is  Professor  Henry's  judgment  that 
the  gain  in  young  pigs  is  never  made  so 


Fig.    346 FARROWING    PEN    WITH    FENDERS 

cheaply  as  when  they  are  sucking  the 
dam.  In  the  case  of  the  four  sows  and 
28  pigs  used  in  the  test  made  above,  the 
gains  were  21  per  cent  more  economical 
before  weaning  than  after  weaning. 

At  the  Alabama  station,  however, 
Duggar  found  that  the  pigs  made  the 
more  economical  growth  just  after  wean- 
ing than  the  sow  and  pig  did  just  before 
weaning. 

While  these  results  are  conflicting, 
the  practical  point  in  the  matter  is  that 
the  sows  require  heavy  nutritious  ra- 
tions while  they  are  sucking  their  pigs. 
They  are  oftener  underfed  at  this  time 
than  overfed. 

PASTURE  FOR  HOGS 

The  cheapest  pork  on  the  farm  is  made 
on  grass.  Young  and  growing  pigs  as 
well  as  fattening  hogs  should  have 
plenty  of  pasture,  pure  water  and  some 
grain.  Hogs  will  gain  in  weight  on 
pasture  alone,  but  the  gains  are  too  slow 
for  the  greatest  profit.  On  pasture 
alone,  hogs  cannot  be  brought  to  a  mar- 
ketable   condition   within    six   to    eight 


months,  but  if  fed  a  small  amount  of 
grain  with  pasture  they  can  be  made  to 
weigh  175  to  250  pounds  at  this  time, 
which  is  usually  more  economical  than 
to  keep  them  pastured  on  grass  and  run- 
ning in  the  woods  for  six  to  eight  months 
without  grain,  then  bring  them  up  for 


Fig.   347 DOUBLE  PEN  FOR  SUCKLING  PIGS. 

THE  PIGS  CAN  RUN  UNDER  CENTRAL  PAR- 
TITION 

finishing  off  with  two  or  three  months' 
corn  feeding. 

The  benefits  of  pasture  for  pigs  have 
been  shown  in  many  experiments  reported 
by  the  experiment  stations.  At  the 
Utah  station,  pigs  at  pasture  on  a  full 
grain  ration  made  33  per  cent  better 
gains  than  pigs  on  the  same  ration  with- 
out pasture.  The  average  daily  gain3 
were  29  per  cent  greater  with  pasture 
than  without  and  there  was  a  saving  of 
more  than  10  per  cent  in  the  feed  re- 
quired to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain. 

At  the  Central  experimental  farm  in 
Canada,  pigs  at  pasture  made  10  per  cent 
larger  gain  and  11  per  cent  cheaper 
gain  than  when  fed  in  pens. 

The  Arkansas  station  reports  an  ex- 
periment in  which  five  pigs  farrowed 
in  March  were  fed  10  months  on  a  suc- 
cession of  green  crops  harvested  by 
themselves.  The  land  was  such  as  to 
produce  about  25  bushels  of  corn  per 
acre.  The  green  crops  pastured  were 
red  clover,  sorghum  and  Spanish  peanuts. 


i  [ 

— j>-z< ' — 

Fig.  348 — wing's  portable  hog  fence 

Up  to  the  age  of  six  months,  the  pig 
were  given,  in  addition,  a  total  of  21 
pounds  of  bran  and  5  bushels  of  shelled 
corn  and  had  made  an  average  daily  gain 
of  1.3  pounds  per  head.  These  pigs  were 
then  taken  off  pasture  and  fed  19  bushels 
of  corn  to  harden  them  up,  and  slaugh- 
tered.    The  average  weight  at  this  time 


SWINE 


525 


was  240  pounds  per  pig.  The  total  cost 
of  thus  producing  pork  on  these  forage 
crops,  with  a  small  amount  of  gain  from 
birth  to  10  months  of  age,  was  but  V/2 
cents  per  pound.  The  important  fea- 
ture of  this  whole  experiment  is  that 
only  6.6  bushels  of  corn  was  required 
for  each  pig,  a  fact  of  great  importance 
to  southern  farmers  in  pig  production. 

Pasture  crops — There  are  any  number 
of  plants  suitable  as  pasture  crops  for 
hogs.  Among  the  most  valuable  are  al- 
falfa, clover,  rape,  peanuts,  cowpeas  and 
blue  grass.  Throughout  the  northern 
states,  clover,  alfalfa,  rape,  peas  and  oats 
ivill  furnish  the  best  kind  of  pasturage 
throughout  the  season.  Eye  can  be  sown 
for  early  spring  pasturage  and  nothing 
better  can  be  found  late  in  the  season 
than  rape  or  peas. 

The  southern  states  are  rich  in  forage 
plants  for  hogs.  Fall  sown  Dwarf  Essex 
rape  will  furnish  a  pasture  from  Decem- 
ber to  April  and  if  spring  sown,  from 
May  to  June.  Vetch  and  oats  may  be 
had  for  pasture  from  March  to  May, 
cowpeas  from  July  to  November,  Span- 
ish peanuts  from  August  to  December, 
sorghum  from  July  to  November  and 
chufas  from  November  to  March.  Arti- 
chokes, sweet  potatoes  and  various  other 
roots  and  forage  crops,  besides  grasses 
and  clover,  are  also  available. 

Hogs  are  wasteful  grazers  and  the 
fields  in  which  they  are  pastured  should 
be  arranged  with  movable  fences  so  that 
the  hogs  can  be  confined  on  limited  area 
and  when  this  is  well  grazed  off  can  be 
moved  to  new  and  fresh  pasture.  Every 
hog  raiser  should  plan  to  have  a  suc- 
cession of  forage  crops  for  his  hogs  from 
early  spring  until  late  fall,  and  the  fat- 
tening should  be  done  while  the  pigs  are 
running  at  pasture,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
possible. 

Alfalfa  for  pasture — At  the  Arkansas 
station,  alfalfa  was  ready  for  pasture 
10  days  before  red  clover.  It  could  ha?e 
been  cut  four  times  during  the  season 
and  produced  considerably  more  feed 
than  clover. 

At  the  Montana  station,  nine  brood 
sows  with  44  pigs  maintained  their 
weight  on  alfalfa  pasture  without  other 
food  from  August  22  until  October  10. 

The  Oklahoma  station  pastured  four 
pigs  averaging  about  62  pounds  each  on 
a  field  of  alfalfa.  They  were  turned  in- 
to the  pasture  April  27  and  given  no 
other  feed.  In  five  weeks  they  had  gained 


about  5  pounds  each.  During  the  next 
three  weeks  they  gained  a  little  less  than 
2  pounds  each.  The  season  was  favorable 
and  there  was  a  good  stand  of  alfalfa. 
It  was  kept  well  eaten  down,  however, 
by  these  four  pigs.  During  the  same 
time  these  pigs  were  being  fed,  four 
others  averaging  about  68  pounds  each, 
were  turned  into  a  field  of  alfalfa  and 
were  given  at  the  same  time  full  feed  of 
kafir  corn  meal  or  shelled  corn.  The 
first  five  weeks  they  gained  on  an  average 
50  pounds  each  and  for  the  next  three 
weeks  about  31  pounds  each. 

They  required  but  2.2  pounds  of  grain 
with  the  alfalfa  to  produce  a  pound  of 
gain.  The  alfalfa  lot  used  to  pasture 
the  pigs  fed  grain,  carried  at  the  same 
time  a  half  more  stock  than  the  other 
lot  and  the  alfalfa  remained  green  and 
fresh. 

At  the  Utah  and  Mississippi  sta- 
tions, alfalfa  proved  simply  a  main- 
tenance ration  for  hogs.  Hogs  on  this 
pasture  produced  large,  coarse  frame3 
and  large  stomachs. 

At  the  Kansas  station,  hogs  without 
pasture  required  371  pounds  of  grain 
per  100  pounds  of  gain.  On  rape  pas- 
ture, 301  pounds  of  grain  and  on  alfalfa 
pasture  300  pounds.  The  area  of  rape 
required  was  about  twice  as  great  as  in 
the  case  of  alfalfa.  In  this  experi- 
ment we  see,  therefore,  that  alfalfa  was 
fully  as  valuable  as  rape  and  supplied 
twice  as  much  food  on  the  same  area. 
In  another  experiment  at  the  Kansas 
station,  1  acre  of  alfalfa  pasture  pro- 
duced 776  pounds  of  pork. 

In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  in 
the  corn  belt,  wherever  alfalfa  can  be 
grown,  the  combination  of  alfalfa  pas- 
ture with  corn  produces  about  as  cheap 
pork  as  it  is  possible  to  produce  in 
America.  And  so  far  as  experiments 
have  shown  alfalfa  is  the  equal  of  any 
crop  grown  in  the  country  as  a  hog  pas- 
ture. 

Brome  grass  has  been  used  as  a  pas- 
ture for  pigs,  with  satisfactory  results. 
It  was  greatly  relished  by  hogs  at  the 
Ottawa  station  and  gave  good  returns. 

Clover  pasture — Common  red  clover, 
white  clover,  alsike  and  mammoth  clover 
are  all  available  throughout  the  North 
for  hog  pasturage.  In  some  of  the  east- 
ern states,  crimson  clover  is  also  success- 
fully grown  and  used  as  a  pasture  for 
hogs.  In  speaking  of  clover  pasture, 
common  red  clover  is  usually  meant. 


526 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


At  the  Oregon  station,  12  hogs,  three 
months  old,  were  fed  for  three  months 
hurdled  on  clover  pasture  and  given 
shorts  and  skim  milk  in  addition.  Dur- 
ing this  period  they  gained  253  pounds, 
from  which  it  is  calculated  that  1  acre 
of  good  clover  pasture  has  a  feeding 
value  of  $44.36  for  growing  pigs,  valu- 
ing the  gains  made  at  41/2  cents  per 
pound.  Generally  speaking  clover  may 
be  regarded  as  the  equal  of  alfalfa  for 
hog  pasture. 

Cowpeas  for  pasture — Cowpeas  are 
available  for  pasturing  throughout  the 
South  from  July  to  November,  and  in 
the  North  from  July  20  to  September  20. 

At  the  Alabama  station,  hogs  gained 
at  the  rate  of  229  pounds  per  acre,  on 
cowpeas,  consuming  at  the  same  time  3 
pounds  of  gain,  while  on  corn  alone  586 
On  a  field  in  which  cowpeas  were  about 
half  matured  and  yielded  at  the  rate  of 
13.2  bushels  per  acre,  pigs  required  but 
307  pounds  of  corn  to  produce  100 
pounds  of  gain,  while  on  corn  alone  586 
pounds  were  required.  On  this  basis  it 
is  calculated  an  acre  of  cowpeas  would 
replace  1662  pounds  of  corn.  The  qual- 
ity of  the  pork  made  on  cowpeas  and 
corn  was  equally  as  good  as  that  made 
on  clear  corn,  and  the  lard  of  about 
equal  firmness. 

In  another  test  at  the  same  station, 
pigs  averaging  about  57  pounds  in  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment  were  grazed 
for  35  days  on  ripe  cowpea  vines  of  the 
Whippoorwill  variety.  They  were  given 
no  grain  during  this  time  and  made 
a  total  gain  of  51  pounds,  or  an  aver- 
age of  0.48  pound  per  day  per  pig.  There 
was  considerable  loss  in  grazing  the  ripe 
cowpeas,  as  many  of  the  peas  fell  to  the 
ground  and  sprouted.  These  results  and 
others  show  that  much  better  results 
will  be  secured  if  cowpeas  are  pas- 
tured a  little  before  they  are  ripe,  and 
a  small  amount  of  grain  fed  in  addition. 

Experiments  in  pasturing  cowpeas  at 
the  Maryland  station  also  show  thai 
this  crop  is  well  suited  to  young  and 
growing  hogs.  The  ground  is  put  in 
fine  condition  by  pasturing  off  with  hogs 
as  it  is  worked  over,  manured,  and  the 
vines  well  trampled  down. 

At  the  Mississippi  station,  14  young 
pigs  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1 
pound  per  day  on  1.7  acres  of  cowpeas 
for  23  days  without  grain. 

Peanuts  for  pasture — As  a  result  of 
investigations    at   the   various   southern 


experiment  stations,  the  use  of  peanuts 
as  a  grazing  crop  for  hogs  is  becoming 
more  general  throughout  the  South.  Ex- 
periments have  shown  that  this  crop  is 
satisfactory  during  the  early  stages  of 
feeding,  but  that  the  pork  produced  on 
peanuts  is  softer  than  that  produced  on 
corn  and  for  this  reason  it  is  usual  to 
take  the  pigs  off  the  peanuts  a  month 
before  marketing  and  harden  them  up 
on  corn.  Peanuts  are  available  for  pas- 
turage from  about  August  to  December. 

In  seven  tests  at  the  Alabama  station, 
hogs  raised  on  Spanish  peanuts  and  fed 
one-fourth  to  one-half  the  usual  grain 
ration  gained  on  the  average  333  pounds 
per  acre.  In  two  tests  when  young  pigs 
were  pastured  on  peanuts  and  given  no 
other  food  in  addition  the  gains  were 
281  pounds  per  acre.  In  the  cases  where 
grain  was  fed  with  peanuts,  it  required 
2^  pounds  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain. 
The  crop  was  much  more  profitable  when 
fed  with  grain. 

Peanuts  tend  to  produce  an  oily  pork 
and  soft  lard.  Cowpea  meal  was  found 
a  little  more  effective  in  raising  the 
melting  point  of  the  lard  from  pigs 
grown  on  peanuts  than  corn  meal. 

In  experiments  at  the  station  when 
pigs  were  hurdled  on  peanuts  not  quite 
come  to  full  maturity,  and  fed  corn  in 
addition,  they  made  an  increased  growth 
sufficient  to  give  a  value  of  $13.34  per 
acre  for  the  peanuts,  valuing  pork  at  3 
cents  per  pound. 

The  Arkansas  station  reports  an  ex- 
periment in  which  hogs  weighing  124 
pounds  at  the  beginning  of  the  test  were 
pastured  132  days  on  peanuts  and  made 
an  average  gain  of  73.5  pounds  each. 
A  similar  lot  of  pigs  pastured  for  the 
same  time  on  soy  beans  made  an  aver- 
age gain  of  22.75  pounds,  and  another 
lot  on  chufas,  39.33  pounds.  Hogs  the 
same  size  gained  76.75  pounds  when 
shut  up  and  fed  dry  corn  in  a  pen  dur- 
ing the  same  period.  On  the  basis  of 
this  work  it  is  estimated  that  313  pounds 
of  pork  was  produced  on  one-fourth  acre 
of  peanuts.  The  yield  of  peanuts  with 
87  per  cent  of  a  good  stand  was  90 
bushels  per  acre. 

Peanuts  in  this  experiment  made  soft 
pork  and  oily  fat,  but  the  meat  was  of 
good  flavor.  Other  experiments  at  the 
same  station  have  shown  that  when  pigs 
were  raised  on  peanuts  and  chufas, 
either  alone  or  combined,  and  fed  corn 
in  addition,  as  good  a  quality  of  ports 
and  lard  was  produced  as  when  the  pigs 


SWINE 


527 


were  fed  exclusively  on  corn.  By  feed- 
ing pasture-fed  pigs  corn  exclusively  for 
a  month,  the  pork  was  made  much 
firmer  and  the  melting  point  of  the  lard 
was  raised  a  few  degrees. 

In  these  experiments  the  melting  point 
of  the  fat  in  hogs  pastured  on  peanuts 
was  87.6°  F.,  while  on  corn  it  was  114°  F. 

Peas  for  pasture—Canada  field  peas 
make  an  excellent  pasture  for  hogs. 
They  may  be  used  green,  that  is,  just  as 
the  vines  are  coming  into  blossom,  or 
pasturing  may  be  deferred  until  the  pods 
are  filled  and  the  peas  begin  to  harden. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  grain  itself  fur- 
nishes  an   excellent  fattening   ration. 

At  the  Montana  station,  an  acre  of 
peas  produced  at  the  rate  of  35  bushels 
per  acre.  Pigs  turned  onto  pea  pasture 
when  the  peas  were  beginning  to  harden 
consumed  all  the  peas  and  a  portion  of 
the  vines  as  well,  furnishing  a  fattening 
ration  for  ten  150  to  200  pound  hogs  for 
from  40  to  45  days. 

In  Montana,  and  a  number  of  western 
states,  climatic  conditions  permit  of 
pea  harvesting  by  pigs  even  as  late  as 
December.  This  is  one  of  the  easiest 
fattening  methods  now  practiced.  In 
order  to  make  the  best  use  of  forage  in 
this  condition,  the  station  holds  that 
winter  litters  of  pigs  must  be  raised. 
"Pigs  from  spring  litters  do  not  reach 
a  large  consuming  capacity  soon  enough 
to  take  advantage  of  the  early  forage. 
Both  late  fall  and  early  spring  litters 
should  be  raised  in  order  to  get  the  most 
out  of  the  food  and  the  market  condi- 
tions." In  one  experiment  at  the  sta- 
tion 10  pigs  pastured  on  an  acre  of 
nearly  ripe  peas  gained  277  pounds  in 
47  days. 

At  the  Oregon  station,  when  pork 
was  selling  at  $6  per  hundredweight,  pea 
pasture  had  a  value  for  pork  production 
of  $59.56  per  acre.  With  the  peas,  it 
required  2.2  pounds  of  grain  and  4.4 
pounds  of  skim  milk  to  produce  a  pound 
of  gain.  In  these  experiments,  Black- 
eyed  Marrow-fat  were  found  superior 
to  the  Canada  field  peas. 

Peas  and  oats  when  mixed  in  the 
proportion  of  three  parts  peas  to  one 
part  oats  and  seeded  at  the  rate  of  2^4 
bushels  per  acre,  make  an  excellent  for- 
age crop   for  hogs. 

At  the  Michigan  experiment  sta- 
tion, such  pasture  when  the  crop  had 
nearly  reached  maturity,  and  the  peas 
were  just  past  cooking  stage,  maintained 
2,340  pounds  of  live  hogs  and  produced 


210  pounds  of  pork  in  27  days.  The 
following  year,  1  acre  maintained  3,963 
pounds  of  live  hogs  for  13  days  and 
produced  I66M2  pounds  of  gain.  The 
vines  in  these  experiments  were  heavy 
in  proportion  to  the  grain. 

Purslane— Prof.  Plumb  fed  purslane 
to  sows  confined  in  pens.  They  were 
fed  21  days  and  given  a  part  grain  ra- 
tion in  addition.  The  pigs  made  fairly 
good  gains  on  this  material  at  a  cost 
of  2.2  cents  per  pound.  The  pigs  did  not 
appear  to  relish  the  purslane. 

Rape  for  pasture— The  Wisconsin 
station  was  one  of  the  first  to  point  out 
the  value  of  rape  for  hogs.  It  has  long 
been  used  in  England  and  Canada  as  a 
soiling  crop  for  both  sheep  and  swine. 
Good  results  have  also  been  reported  for 
this  crop  when  cut  and  fed  green.  It 
is  greatly  relished  by  hogs  as  soon  as 
they  learn  to  eat  it.  Hogs  at  the  Wis- 
consin station,  four  to  10  months  old, 
fed  grain  and  hurdled  on  rape,  have 
made  more  rapid  and  cheaper  gains  than 
hogs  fed  grain  alone.  An  acre  of  rape  fed 
in  connection  with  grain  showed  a  feed- 
ing value  equivalent  to  about  40  bushels 
of  grain,  estimating  grain  at  about  60 
pounds  to  the  bushel. 

In  another  test  at  the  same  station, 
an  acre  of  rape  proved  equal  in  feeding 
value  to  3,318  pounds  of  corn  and  shorts 
mixed,  and  in  still  another  test,  it  proved 
equivalent  to   2,767   pounds   of  grain. 

On  rape  alone,  without  any  grain 
whatever,  hogs  did  not  make  satisfactory 
gains  in  one  experiment  reported  along 
this  line;  36  pigs  averaging  6.5  months 
old  lost  a  total  of  60  pounds  when  fed 
for  two  weeks  on  rape  alone. 

As  a  pasture  crop,  rape  at  the  Wiscon- 
sin station  proved  a  little  better  than 
good  clover  pasture  for  hogs.  It  re- 
quired on  an  average  of  two  trials,  33.5 
pounds  less  grain  to  make  100  pounds 
of  gain  on  rape  than  on  clover.  On 
tb  is  basis,  the  rape  pasture  was  about 
7  per  cent  more  valuable  than  clover. 
That  station  recommends  Dwarf  Essex 
rape,  planted  in  drills  30  inches  apart, 
pasturing  to  begin  when  the  plants  are 
from  4  to  12  inches  high.  The  crop 
does  not  cause  scouring  or  bloating  when 
properly  fed. 

At  the  Ontario  agricultural  college, 
rape  was  fed  to  hogs  in  pens  to  deter- 
mine its  value  in  hog  rations.  In  one 
instance  it  was  fed  with  corn  and  in 
another  with  peas,  barley  and  shorts.    In 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


both  oases  it  constituted  about  one-third 
of  the  ration.  The  tests  show  that  7 
pounds  of  rape  had  a  feeding  value  of  1 
pound  of  grain.  The  average  daily  gain 
when  rape  constituted  a  part  of  the  ra- 
tion was  1.4  pounds.  On  grain  alone  it 
was  1.3  pounds. 

The  Oregon  station  reports  an  experi- 
ment in  which  10  pigs,  between  four 
and  five  months  old,  were  pastured  on 
rape,  without  any  other  feed  from 
August  2  to  October  1,  and  gained  164 
pounds  in  weight.  During  all  this  time 
they  kept  in  a  thriving,  healthy  condi- 
tion. 

At  the  South  Dakota  station,  rape  had 
a  value  of  $7.04  per  acre  for  swine  fed 
barley  in  addition. 

Professor  Duggar  of  the  Alabama  sta- 
tion, reports  a  gain  of  452  pounds  per 
acre  for  hogs  consuming  at  the  same 
time  2.7  pounds  of  grain  per  pound  of 
gain.  In  two  tests  it  proved  more  valu- 
able per  acre  than  chufas,  cowpeas  or 
peanuts  by  25  to  50  per  cent. 

These  experiments  show  rape  to  have 
a  very  high  feeding  value  as  a  pasture 
for  swine,  scarcely  being  equaled  by  any 
other  plant  for  this  purpose,  except  al- 
falfa.    (See  Alfalfa.) 

Sorghum  and  kafir  corn — Both  these 
crops  are  exceedingly  valuable  pasture 
crops  for  hogs  and  have  been  used  ex- 
tensively for  this  purpose  throughout 
the  West  and  South.  Kafir  corn  is  es- 
pecially valuable  for  the  drier  south- 
western states.  Sorghum  is  available 
throughout  most  of  the  southern  states 
from  July  to  November.  When  fed 
with  grain  at  the  Alabama  station 
hogs  gained  174  pounds  per  acre,  con- 
suming 3.7  pounds  of  grain  per  pound 
of  gain.  This  was,  however,  only  12 
per  cent  less  grain  than  was  required 
by  hogs  fed  entirely  on  grain.  The  sor- 
ghum was  fed  when  partly  headed  out. 
When  the  sorghum  was  cut  and  carried 
to  hogs,  using  it  as  a  soiling  crop,  there 
was  much  less  waste  of  food,  and  an 
acre  went  much  farther.  Sorghum 
should  be  grazed  any  time  between  early 
bloom  and  late  maturity,  for  best  results. 
Grazing  may,  however,  be  begun  as  soon 
as  the  plants  have  reached  10  to  12 
inches  in  height  and  continued  until 
late  fall.  Kafir  corn,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  of  greater  value  after  it  is  headed 
out. 

Stubble  field—After  the  harvesting  of 
wheat,    oats,    barley,    peas,    rye,    etc,    is 


over,  hogs  should  be  turned  in  the  stub- 
ble field  to  pick  up  the  scattered  gram. 

At  the  Oregon  station,  young  pigs 
were  turned  on  barley,  wheat  and  pea 
stubble  fields  without  other  grain,  ex- 
cept a  limited  amount  on  stormy  days. 
In  one  month  they  made  an  average  gain 
of  22.8  pounds,  17.5  pounds  of  which 
was  credited  to  the  grain  picked  up  in 
stubble,  and  which  would  have  otherwise 
gone  to  waste. 

The  percentage  increase  secured  at  the 
Montana  station  when  24  pigs,  230 
lambs  and  11  steers  had  the  run  of  a  212- 
acre  field  of  oats,  wheat,  peas  and  barley 
stubble,  was  32.1  per  cent  for  hogs,  19.2 
for  lambs,  and  5.2  per  cent  for  steers. 
These  results  show  considerable  value 
for  stubble  field  from  the  standpoint  of 
hog  feeding. 

It  will  be  noted  in  the  experiments 
above,  that  hogs  made  better  gains  than 
either  sheep  or  steers  on  this  kind  of 
pasturage. 

Soy  bean  pasturage— Soy  beans  were 
pastured  at  the  Arkansas  station  when 
the  pods  were  filled  and  some  were 
changing  color.  On  this  pasture,  hogs 
weighing  124  pounds  each,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  experiment,  gained  but  22.75 
pounds  in  32  days;  while  on  Spanish 
peanuts,  during  the  same  test,  the  gains 
were  73.5,  and  on  chufas,  39.3  pounds. 
The  soy  beans  were  clearly  not  equal 
to  either  peanuts  or  chufas  in  this  ex- 
periment for  pork  production.  The  yield 
of  soy  beans  was  about  27.2  bushels  per 
acre.  The  melting  point  of  the  fat  of 
hogs  pastured  on  soy  beans  was  103.3°F., 
while  on  corn  it  was  114°  F.  This  is 
not  a  very  satisfactory  pasture  crop  for 
hogs,  because  the  leaves  soon  drop  after 
maturing,  leaving  only  woody  stems. 

Vetches — This  crop  has  been  found  an 
excellent  green  food  for  hogs  at  the 
Oregon  station.  Hogs  seem  very  fond  of 
vetches  and  frequently  leave  their  grain 
to  eat  them.  Less  waste  occurs  when 
the  vetches  are  cut  and  fed  to  the  hog. 
The  hogs  were  also  successfully  hurdled 
on  small  portions  of  the  vetch  field  at 
a  time.  Vetches  are  strongly  recom- 
mended at  that  station,  where  clover 
is  unavailable  for  pasturage.  This  crop 
succeeds  throughout  the  eastern  states 
from  June  on  and  in  the  southern  states 
from  March  to  May.  It  is  usually  ad- 
visable to  plant  some  grain,  like  oats, 
with  the  crop,  to  hold  up  the  vetches. 


SWINE 


529 


ROOTS    AND    OTHER    SUCCULENTS 
FOR  PASTURAGE  AND  FEED 

In  experiments  at  the  Ontario  college 
to  determine  the  feeding  value  of  roots, 
it  was  found  that  when  equal  weights 
of  roots  and  meal  were  fed  together,  the 
hogs  made  more  rapid  and  economical 
gains  than  when  meal  alone  was  fed,  and 
the  bacon  produced  was  superior  in 
quality.  This  and  many  other  experi- 
ments at  the  station  show  that  succu- 
lent foods,  whether  roots  or  green  for- 
age, tend  to  keep  animals  thrifty,  and, 
therefore,  to  produce  firm  bacon.  The 
amount  to  use  is  about  equal  weights  of 
succulent  foods  and  grains. 

Apples — Windfall  apples  are  often  used 
as  succulent  food  for  hogs  in  the  fall. 
Even  at  the  low  price  of  10  cents  per 
bushel  they  were  not  found  an  economi- 
cal food  at  the  New  Hampshire  sta- 
tion. At  the  Oregon  station  three  eight- 
months-old  shotes  were  confined  in  a  pen 
and  fed  all  the  apples  they  could  eat  for 
one  month.  At  the  beginning  of  the  test 
they  weighed  408  pounds  and  at  the  end 
443.5  pounds,  showing  a  gain  of  35.5 
pounds.  This  gain,  however,  was  mostly 
due  to  filling  up,  showing  that  the  apples 
were  no  more  than  a  maintenance  ration. 
The  hogs  during  the  test  kept  in  excel- 
lent condition.  At  the  Illinois  station, 
apple  pomace  when  too  much  fermented 
was  not  relished  by  hogs.  When  fresh 
it  may  be  used,  but  has  a  low  feeding 
value. 

Artichokes—The  tubers  of  this  crop 
are  frequently  pastured  by  hogs,  the 
hogs  being  allowed  to  root  them  out. 
The  crop  is  available  in  late  fall  and 
the  tubers  that  remain  in  the  ground 
over-'  winter  can  be  pastured  in  the 
spring.     Hogs  greatly  relish  these  roots. 

At  the  Oregon  station,  where  the  tu- 
bers were  left  in  the  ground  and  the 
hogs  allowed  to  root  them  out,  but  little 
gains  were  made  when  no  other  feed  was 
given.  When,  however,  a  small  grain 
ration  was  fed  in  addition,  an  average 
daily  gain  of  0.81  pound  per  head  was 
made.  This  gain  for  hogs  weighing  all 
the  way  from  133  to  215  pounds  when 
the  experiment  began,  is  considered  very 
satisfactory.  The  pigs  were  healthy  and 
vigorous  on  artichokes  and  their  use 
is  commended  to  farmers. 

At  the  Ottawa  station,  pigs  fed  on 
artichokes  were  allowed  a  daily  grain  ra- 
tion of  1.5  pounds  of  mixed  grain  and 
made    an    average    daily    gain    of   1.6 


pounds,  requiring  93  pounds  of  grain 
for  each  100  pounds  of  gain.  The  cost 
of  the  gain  in  this  test  was  $1.80  per 
100  pounds.  Professor  Grisdale,  who 
conducted  the  experiment,  estimates  that 
after  deducting  the  cost  of  the  meal  fed, 
the  artichokes  had  a  value  of  about  $140 
per  acre. 

At  the  Missouri  station,  a  bushel  of 
artichokes  and  3  bushels  of  corn  proved 
superior  to  4  bushels  of  corn  for  hogs. 
Good  results  are  also  reported  by  the 
Arkansas,  Alabama,  Indiana  and  Mary- 
land stations  in  the  use  of  artichokes  for 
swine. 

Cassava — This  plant  promises  to  be 
an  exceedingly  valuable  forage  crop  for 
Florida  and  the  immediate  coast  region 
westward  to  Texas.  The  starchy  roots 
of  the  plant  grow  1  to  3  feet  in  length 
and  from  2  to  3  inches  in  diameter  and 
are  readily  eaten  by  hogs.  Under  ordi- 
nary field  conditions  the  yield  is  5  to  8 
tons  per  acre.  In  experiments  at  the 
Florida  station,  hogs  fed  on  cassava 
made  gains  at  the  cost  of  only  1.4  cents 
per  pound,  while  on  corn  the  cost  was 
3.6  cents  per  pound.  Pound  for  pound, 
cassava  proved  35  per  cent  better  than 
corn.  This  plant  promises  to  be  ex- 
tremely useful  as  a  forage  crop  for  hogs 
wherever  the  season  between  frost  cov- 
ers a  period  of  eight  months. 

Chufas — This  root  crop  was  compared 
at  the  Arkansas  station  with  peanuts 
and  soy  beans  as  a  pasture  crop  for  hogs. 
The  yield  of  chufas  was  at  the  rate  of 
184  bushels  per  acre,  of  peanuts  90  bush- 
els per  acre  and  soy  beans  27.2  bushels 
per  acre.  The  gain  on  the  chufas  was 
50  per  cent  less  than  on  the  peanuts 
and  about  80  per  cent  more  than  on  the 
soy  beans.  The  fat  from  hogs  pastured 
on  chufas  melted  at  98.4°  F.,  which  was 
about  10  degrees  higher  than  that  made 
on  peanuts  and  5°  lower  than  that  made 
on  soy  beans. 

In  two  tests,  at  the  Alabama  station, 
of  this  crop,  pigs  gained  on  the  average 
307  pounds  per  acre  when  given  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  the  usual  grain  ra- 
tion. The  average  amount  of  grain 
required  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  on 
chufas  was  2.3  pounds.  Estimating  pork 
at  3.5  cents  per  pound,  chufas  had  a 
value  of  about  $13.09  per  acre  and  were 
fully  equal  to  Spanish  peanuts  for  pas- 
turage. 

Mangels — At  the  Indiana  station,  man- 
gels were  fed  with  corn  meal  and  shorts 


530 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


m  comparison  with  the  same  grains 
without  mangels  for  hogs.  The  lot  re- 
ceiving the  mangels  ate  less  food  and 
made  smaller  gains  at  a  greater  cost  than 
where  no  roots  were  fed. 

At  the  Central  experimental  farm  at 
Ottawa,  mangels  have  been  found  of 
considerable  value  as  a  winter  food  for 
stock  hogs.  They  have  also  been  fed  to 
fattening  hogs  without  any  injurious 
effect  on  the  quality  of  pork  produced. 
See  also  sugar  beets  for  comparative 
tests. 

Potatoes — This  crop  when  fed  to  hogs 
is  usually  given  cooked,  since  hogs  relish 
them  to  a  greater  extent  in  this  form, 
and  make  better  use  of  them.  The  crop 
is  too  valuable  usually  to  grow  as  a 
pasture  crop  for  hogs,  but  it  is  a  fre- 
quent practice  with  farmers  to  utilize 
the  small  tubers  by  cooking  them  and 
mixing  them  with  ground  corn  meal  or 
other  ground  grain. 

At  the  New  York  Cornell  station, 
Clinton  fed  potatoes  both  raw  and 
cooked  to  hogs,  which  received  at  the 
same  time  a  light  ration  of  skim  milk 
and  grain,  in  addition.  Over  400  pounds 
of  potatoes  were  thus  fed  but  the  pigs 
made  no  gains,  due  it  is  thought,  to  a 
low  temperature,  ranging  between  29 
and  30°  E. 

At  the  Oregon  station  well-cooked  po- 
tatoes formed  part  of  the  ration  in  one 
of  the  station  experiments.  Pigs  weigh- 
ing 175  pounds  each  were  fed  12.4 
pounds  of  potatoes  and  2.8  pounds  of 
shorts  per  day  per  head  and  made  a 
daily  gain  of  1.3  pounds.  Another  like 
lot  of  hogs  consumed  6.8  pounds  of 
mixed  grain  per  day  and  made  a  daily 
gain  of  1.8  pounds.  This  shows  that 
the  extra  4  pounds  of  grain  fed  to  the 
second  lot  of  pigs  more  than  counter- 
balanced the  12.4  pounds  of  potatoes  fed 
to  the  first  lot. 

In  another  experiment  at  the  station, 
100  pounds  of  cooked  potatoes,  fed  as  a 
part  of  the  ration,  had  a  value  of  21  to 
31  pounds  of  wheat  or  27  pounds  of 
barley. 

Experiments  with  hogs  at  the  Wiscon- 
sin station  indicate  that  it  requires 
about  4.4  pounds  of  cooked  potatoes  to 
equal  in  feeding  value  1  pound  of  corn 
meal.  At  that  station,  1  bushel  of  corn 
was  equal  to  4.5  bushels  of  potatoes. 
Professor  Henry  holds  that  potatoes 
should  be  cooked  before  feeding. 

The    Minnesota    station    found    that 


potatoes  were  no  more  digestible  when 
cooked  than  when  raw,  but  that  pigs  ate 
more  cooked  potatoes  than  raw  ones. 

At  the  Ottawa  experiment  station,  po- 
tatoes either  raw  or  cooked,  were  unsat- 
isfactory rations  for  hogs.  Even  when 
fed  with  skim  milk,  grain  had  to  be 
added  in  order  to  make  satisfactory 
gains.  At  the  Central  experimental 
farm,  also,  potatoes  fed  raw  have  proved 
of  but  little  value.  When  cooked  they 
were  about  one-fourth  as  valuable  as 
mixed  grain. 

The  experiment  on  the  whole  goes  to 
show  that  in  feeding  potatoes  to  hogs 
they  should  be  cooked  and  fed  with 
grain  and  that  the  best  results  are  se- 
cured when  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
ration  is  made  up  of  potatoes. 

Pumpkins — The  New  Hampshire  sta- 
tion reports  that  pumpkins  fed  with 
corn  meal  and  milk  have  considerable 
feeding  value  for  hogs,  and  are  about 
equally  valuable  raw  or  cooked.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Ottawa  station  found 
cooked  pumpkins  more  satisfactory  for 
hogs  than  raw  pumpkins,  and  reports 
that  pigs  made  exceedingly  economical 
gains  on  rations  containing  pumpkins. 

The  average  of  experiments  at  the 
Ottawa,  Oregon  and  New  Hampshire 
stations  in  feeding  pumpkins,  show  that 
it  required  273  pounds  of  grain  and  276 
pounds  of  pumpkins  (raw)  to  make  100 
pounds  of  gain  in  hogs.  When  the  pump- 
kins were  cooked  it  required  222  pounds 
of  grain  and  1,150  pounds  of  pumpkins 
for  each  100  pounds  of  gain. 

These  results  rather  favor  feeding  the 
pumpkins  raw  and  preferably  mixed  with 
corn  meal. 

When  pumpkins  were  used  for  hogs  at 
the  Oregon  station,  they  were  first  cut 
up,  the  seeds  removed  and  the  pieces 
thoroughly  cooked.  The  pigs  were  in- 
duced to  eat  as  much  pumpkin  as  they 
would  and  the  ration  then  filled  out 
with  shorts.  In  two  months'  time,  pigs 
eight  months  old  gained  125  pounds 
each  on  this  ration,  consuming  about  13 
pounds  of  pumpkins,  and  1.9  pounds  of 
grain  per  pound  of  gain  at  a  cost  of  2.9 
cents.  These  gains  were  entirely  satis- 
factory and  the  meat  produced  on  pump- 
kins was  of  excellent  quality. 

Sugar  beets — The  value  of  sugar  beets 
as  pasture  for  hogs  fed  grain  in  addi- 
tion, was  found  at  the  Michigan  station 
to  be  $37.77  per  acre,  and  for  sugar  beets 
and  mangels,  half  and  half,  $39.60  per 


SWINE 


531 


acre.  The  yield  in  this  experiment  was 
at  the  rate  of  19  tons  of  sugar  beets  and 
37.4  tons  of  mangels  per  acre.  The  hogs 
were  allowed  to  gather  the  crop  them- 
selves. It  is  stated  that  hogs  scour  con- 
siderably when  turned  onto  roots  in  this 
way  unless  considerable  dry  food  is  given 
the  first  few  days.  "Butcher  hogs  come 
off  this  kind  of  feed  paunchy  and  require 
three  or  four  weeks'  feeding  to  fit  them 
for  market.  This  method  should  bring 
breeding  stock  into  winter  condition  in 
strong,  vigorous  shape."  The  pigs  dug 
the  roots  out  to  the  very  tip.  Sugar 
beets  proved  superior  to  either  turnips 
or  mangels  at  the  Ottawa  station. 

At  the  Colorado  station,  Buffum  and 
Griffith  fed  sugar  beets  and  sugar  beet 
pulp  to  hogs,  and  arrived  at  the  conclu- 
sion that  sugar  beets  for  swine  feeding, 
either  alone  or  in  combination  with 
grain,  are  unprofitable,  since  green  pas- 
ture would  probably  serve  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  succulent  foods  at  a  less  ex- 
pense. When  fed  alone,  sugar  beets 
were  a  little  more  than  a  maintenance 
ration.  In  the  station  experiments, 
sugar  beets  and  sugar  beet  pulp  proved 
equally  valuable  for  feeding,  and  be- 
cause of  the  cheapness  and  effect  on 
growth  it  is  thought  that  pulp  may  be 
profitably  fed  to  growing  pigs  in  con- 
nection with  a  grain  ration,  or  during 
the  first  part  of  the  fattening  period. 

When  fed  with  grain,  sugar  beets  or 
sugar  beet  pulp  had  a.  value  of  about 
$1.50  per  ton  as  a  food  for  hogs.  It  was 
necessary  to  mix  the  pulp  with  grain  in 
order  to  teach  the  pigs  to  eat  it.  The 
station  recommends  that  not  more  than 
2  pounds  of  pulp  to  a  pound  of  grain 
be  given  in  a  ration  for  hogs  weighing 
from  100  to  200  pounds. 

At  the  Montana  station,  100  pounds 
of  sugar  beets  saved  38  pounds  of  grain 
worth  1  cent  per  pound,  which  gave  the 
sugar  beets  a  value  of  $7.60  per  ton 
for  hog  feed.  The  sugar  beets  were  fed 
raw  and  were  greatly  relished.  The 
station  holds  that  while  a  straight  grain 
ration  produced  gain  rapidly,  it  is  the 
most  expensive  method  of  feeding,  and 
that  roots  or  some  similar  material 
should  be  fed  with  it.  Sugar  beets  are 
stated  to  be  just  as  valuable  raw  as 
cooked  for  hogs  and  should  not  be  fed 
in  larger  quantities  than  2  to  2.5  pounds 
per  day  to  hogs  weighing  150  pounds. 
Ped  too  freely  they  have  a  laxative  ef- 
fect.   They  have  given  good  results  when 


fed  in  larger  quantities  with  store  hogs, 
receiving  very  little  grain  during  the 
winter,  and  for  brood  sows.  "They  have 
a  tendency  to  prevent  a  torpid  condi- 
tion of  the  digestive  tract,  render  partu- 
rition more  easy,  increase  the  flow  of 
milk,  and  produce  vigorous  offspring." 

They  should  be  fed  to  the  sow  only  in 
small  quantities  during  the  first  week 
after  farrowing;  otherwise  they  arc 
likely  to  affect  the  milk,  causing  bowel 
trouble  among  the  young  pigs. 

The  station  experiments  show  conflict- 
ing results  in  regard  to  the  use  and 
value  of  sugar  beets.  A  study  of  the 
data,  however,  indicates  that  in  small 
amounts,  2  to  5  pounds  per  day,  sugar 
beets  may  serve  a  very  useful  purpose 
in  the  rations  for  hogs,  cheapening  the 
gain,  giving  tone  to  the  system  of  the 
hog,  and  reducing  the  cost  of  the  gains. 
The  pulp  seems  to  answer  every  purpose 
of  the  original  sugar  beet  and  when 
available  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
sugar  beets.  The  beets  should  be  fed 
sliced.  Cooking  is  probably  without 
benefit  for  this  crop. 

Sweet  potatoes — Sweet  potatoes  are 
fed  more  or  less  extensively  throughout 
the  South  to  hogs.  They  are  available 
from  September  to  November  and  the 
hogs  do  their  own  harvesting. 

Professor  Duggar  reports  that  sweet 
potatoes  are  eaten  with  but  little  relish. 
When  two  shotes  were  fed  five  weeks  on 
sweet  potato  pasture  with  one-half  ra- 
tion of  grain  in  addition,  they  gained 
but  67  pounds,  requiring  3.1  pounds  of 
grain  for  a  pound  of  growth. 

In  another  experiment  at  the  station, 
1  pound  of  corn  was  found  considerably 
more  valuable  than  3  pounds  of  sweet 
potatoes  for  hogs.  Valuing  corn  at  40 
cents  per  bushel,  sweet  potatoes  were 
worth  about  13  cents  per  bushel  for  hogs. 
That  station  believes  that  sweet  potatoes 
cannot  be  profitably  grown,  stored  and 
fed  to  hogs,  even  if  each  bushel  could 
be  converted  into  pork  worth  10  to  15 
cents.  Sweet  potatoes,  however,  may  be 
cheaper  food  for  hogs  than  corn  if  the 
hogs  are  allowed  to  gather  the  potatoes 
themselves,  and  soils  are  used  that  yield 
10  to  15  times  as  many  bushels  of  sweet 
potatoes  as  corn.  Sweet  potatoes  are 
of  greatest  value  when  supplemented 
with  liberal  allowances  of  cowpeas  or 
peanuts.  The  Arkansas  station  also  re- 
ports that  pigs  do  not  take  readily  to 
sweet  potatoes  or  gain  as  rapidly  in  flesh 
as  pigs  on  peanuts. 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


At  the  Maryland  station  small  sweet 
potatoes  and  sweet  potato  strings  were 
fed  alone  to  hogs.  It  required  about  5 
tons  of  the  product  to  produce  100 
pounds  of  gain.  This  gives  the  sweet 
potato  a  value  for  pig  feeding  of  about 
60  cents  per  ton.  When  the  sweet  pota- 
to strings  were  fed  in  combination  with 
gluten  meal  and  milk,  they  made  con- 
siderably better  returns  and  had  a  feed- 
ing value  of  about  40  cents  per  100 
pounds. 

These  data  show  sweet  potatoes  to 
have  a  very  low  feeding  value  for  hogs. 
Like  other  roots,  their  greatest^  useful- 
ness will  be  obtained  when  fed  in  small 
amounts  with  a  liberal  allowance  of 
grain  in  addition. 

Turnips — This  crop  at  the  Ontario 
station  was  not  found  profitable  when 
replacing  one-half  of  a  mixed  meal  ra- 
tion. They  were  even  inferior  to  corn 
silage.  When  fed  at  the  Nevada  sta- 
tion with  alfalfa,  small  gains  were 
made.  At  another  station  when  sliced 
turnips  constituted  two-thirds  of  the  ra- 
tions fed  to  hogs,  they  were  used  at  a 
loss. 

Conclusions  regarding  roots — A  study 
of  the  experiments  recorded  above  in 
the  use  of  roots  for  hog  feeding,  indi- 
cates that  their  feeding  value  is  not 
high,  but  that  they  have  a  marked  bene- 
ficial effect  on  the  digestive  organs  of 
animals,  enabling  hogs  to  utilize  the 
dry  grains  fed  with  them  to  greater  ad- 
vantage. Eoots  act  in  a  manner  simi- 
lar to  pasture  crops  or  skim  milk.  On 
the  whole,  it  may  be  calculated  that  it 
requires  from  400  to  800  pounds  of  roots 
to  equal  100  pounds  of  grain  in  feeding 
value.  They  are  most  useful  when  fed 
in  small  amounts,  2  to  3  pounds  per  day. 

SOILING  HOGS 

Hogs  put  up  in  a  pen  at  the  Ontario 
college  in  summer,  and  fed  for  123 
days  on  mixed  meal,  gained  64  per  cent 
on  their  first  weight.  When  green  fod- 
der was  substituted  for  one-third  the 
meal  ration,  the  gain  of  another  like  lot 
of  hogs  was  50  per  cent  on  their  first 
weight,  and  when  fodder  cut  green  and 
mixed  with  the  meal  at  feeding  was  sub- 
stituted for  two-thirds  the  meal  ration, 
the  gain  was  but  13.4  per  cent  on  the 
first  weight. 

Taking  the  expense  of  feeding  into 
account  there  was  a  gain  in  feeding 
meal  alone  of  4.56  per  cent.    From  feed- 


ing two-thirds  meal  and  one-third  green 
fodder  the  gain  was  2.71  per  cent,  and 
from  feeding  one-third  meal  and  two- 
thirds  green  fodder,  there  was  a  loss  of 
27  per  cent.  From  this  experiment  it 
is  concluded  that  if  bulky  fodder  has 
any  value  as  an  aid  to  digestion  in  fat- 
tening hogs,  it  must  be  fed  in  a  smaller 
amount  than  used  in  this  experiment. 
The  green  foods  used  consisted  of  clover, 
oats,  vetches,  corn  and  millet,  in  their 
season,  and  was  cut  into  half-inch 
lengths  and  mixed  with  the  meal  in  . 
feeding. 

Vetch  and  rape — Day,  in  Canada,  se- 
cured slightly  better  gains  when  pigs 
were  fed  soiling  crops  of  vetch  followed 
by  rape,  than  when  the  hogs  were  pas- 
tured on  these  crops.  Cummings  found 
soy  beans  about  10  per  cent  better  for 
soiling  than  rape. 

Soiling  hogs  with  alfalfa,  at  the 
Oregon  station,  did  not  prove  satisfac- 
tory, owing  apparently  to  the  tendency 
of  the  alfalfa  to  become  woody.  Eape 
and  other  tender  succulence  gave  satis- 
factory results. 

In  one  experiment  at  the  station, 
Withycombe  fed  soiling  crops  of  crimson 
clover  and  alfalfa  to  mature  hogs  for 
one  month,  during  which  time  they  re- 
quired 85.5  pounds  of  green  feed,  and 
1.4  pounds  of  grain  mixture  for  each 
pound  of  gain.  During  the  succeeding 
month  it  required  328  pounds  of  green  al- 
falfa to  produce  a  pound  of  live  weight. 
It  is  believed  much  better  results  would 
have  been  secured  had  the  hogs  been  al- 
lowed to  run  on  alfalfa  pasture. 

Grass — When  pigs  were  fed  grass 
alone  in  pens  without  any  grain  what- 
ever, they  lost  in  weight  V^  pound  each 
per  day  for  a  feeding  period  of  90  days, 
at  the  Utah  station.  When  allowed  to 
run  in  pasture  without  grain  they  gained 
in  weight  on  an  average  0.36  pound  for 
three  seasons  in  succession.  On  an  av- 
erage of  four  years'  experiments  at  that 
station  pigs  confined  in  pens  on  full 
grain  rations  and  given  grass  in  addi- 
tion gained  1.13  pounds  per  pig  per  day. 
Without  the  grass  the  gain  was  1.09 
pounds  per  day.  Pigs  having  a  full 
grain  ration  in  yards  and  given  grass  in 
addition  gained  1.07  pounds  per  day; 
without  the  grass  the  gain  was  1.17 
pounds  per  pig  per  day.  This  gives  the 
grass,  which  consisted  of  about  50  per 
cent  alfalfa,  a  slight  feeding  value  for 


SWINE 


533 


hogs  confined  in  pens,  but  no  value  what- 
ever for  hogs  fed  in  yards.  In  a  later 
review  of  the  above  work  by  the  station 
it  is  suggested  that  the  hogs  in  yards 
gathered  up  a  considerable  amount  of 
roughage  in  the  form  of  hay,  which  may 
account  for   this  curious  result. 

When  hogs  were  given  a  full  grain  ra 
tion  and  allowed  the  run  of  an  18-acre 
pasture,  they  gained  1.3  pounds  per  head 
per  day.  This  is  a  considerably  larger 
daily  gain  than  was  made  by  the  hogs 
fed  either  in  pens  or  in  yards.  When 
pigs  were  confined  in  pens  and  fed  one- 
fourth  of  a  full  grain  ration  in  addi- 
tion to  all  the  grass  they  would  eat  they 
gained  0.32  pound  each  per  day.  On  the 
same  grain  ration  and  pasture  the  gain 
was  0.64  pound  each  per  day. 

Pigs  confined  in  movable  pens  on  pas- 
ture and  the  pens  moved  twice  a  day  re- 
quired 20  per  cent  more  grain  to  make 
a  pound  of  gain  than  pigs  allowed  to  run 
loose  in  the  pasture.  The  pigs  fed  grass 
in  these  movable  pens  did  not  gain  as 
rapidly  even  as  those  confined  in  pens 
or  yards  and  fed  cut  grass. 

The  experiments  taken  as  a  whole 
hardly  show  a  sufficiently  high  feeding 
value  for  cut  grass  for  hogs  confined 
either  in  pens  or  in  yards  to  pay  for  the 
trouble  of  feeding  it.  It  is  but  just  to  state, 
however,  that  when  the  hogs  fed  grain 
and  grass  were  subsequently  fed  on  full 
grain  rations  alone,  they  did  much  bet- 
ter than  those  that  had  been  fed  nothing 
but  grain.  In  the  Utah  experiments  the 
feeding  of  hogs  at  pasture  was  satisfac- 
tory under  all  conditions.  Averaging 
the  results  secured  in  feeding  full  grain 
rations,  one-fourth  grain  rations  and 
grass  alone  to  hogs  at  pasture  and  com- 
paring these  with  the  results  secured  in 
feeding  the  same  grain  rations  with 
grass  to  pigs  confined  in  pens,  a  gain  of 
92M>  per  cent  is  found  in  favor  of  the 
pasture.  The  amount  of  grain  eaten  by 
the  pigs  at  pasture  was  but  2  per  cent 
more  than  the  amount  eaten  by  the  pigs 
in  the  pens. 

Prickly  comfrey  was  f0(j  to  hogs  at 
the  New  York  state  station  at  a  loss. 
The  hogs  did  not  relish  this  green  forage 
plant.  Even  young  pigs  fed  the  prickly 
comfrey  chopped  and  dusted  with  meal 
would  not  eat  enough  to  produce  any 
gain. 

Many  other  plants  have  been  used  as 
soiling  crops  for  hogs,  but  on  the  whole 
this  method  of  feeding  is  never  so  satis- 


factory as  pasture.  It  has  a  value,  how- 
ever, in  the  case  of  hogs  which  are  being 
fed  grain  only.  In  such  cases  soil- 
ing crops  sufficient  to  add  variety,  suc- 
culence and  bulk  to  the  ration  will  gen- 
erally prove  beneficial. 

Silage — A  number  of  the  experiment 
stations  have  fed  different  kinds  of 
silage  to  swine,  usually  with  unfavorable 
results.  At  the  New  York  station  a  good 
quality  of  silage  made  from  corn  ripe 
enough  to  husk  was  fed  to  shotes  for  a 
period  of  five  months.  Preliminary 
trials  had  shown  that  the  pigs  fed  silage 
alone  would  not  eat  enough  to  make  any 
gain  unless  fed  in  such  large  quantities 
that  the  grain  it  contained  furnished  all 
the  food  required.  As  a  maintenance 
ration  for  mature  hogs  during  the  winter 
and  spring,  silage  served  very  well.  In 
feeding  the  silage  the  hogs  first  picked 
out  the  grain ;  the  remainder  was  chewed 
over  but  never  all  swallowed,  even  when 
fed  in  small  quantities.  The  hogs  in 
one  experiment  were  given  nearly  a 
maintenance  ration  of  bran  and  mid- 
dlings and  in  addition  as  much  silage  as 
they  would  chew  over.  When  the  silage 
constituted  about  40  per  cent  of  the  ra- 
tion the  cost  of  producing  pork  was 
about  the  same  as  where  no  silage  was 
fed.  When  70  per  cent  of  the  ration  was 
made  up  of  silage,  the  cost  of  producing 
pork  was  considerably  more  than  its 
market  value  (estimating  silage  to  be 
worth  $1  a  ton)  and  23  per  cent  higher 
than  where  corn  was  substituted. 

The  Kentucky  station  records  an  ex- 
periment in  which  silage  made  of  corn 
and  soy  beans  was  used,  not  as  a  partial 
substitute  for  grain,  but  as  a  kind  of 
appetizer  and  tonic  in  addition  thereto. 
Pigs  in  this  experiment,  on  shelled  corn 
alone,  gained  on  the  average  0.7  pound 
a  day.  While  on  shelled  corn  with 
silage  the  gain  was  0.87  pound  a  day. 
Here  it  is  seen  that  silage  had  a  value 
in  increasing  the  gains.  Based  on  the 
figures  obtained,  a  ton  of  silage  repre- 
sented a  gain  of  64  pounds  of  pork.  Its 
chief  purpose,  in  the  opinion  of  the  sta- 
tion, is  to  supplement  the  full  grain 
ration  as  a  corrective.  In  eating  it  the 
hogs  first  picked  out  the  grain  and  then 
chewed  the  remaining  portion,  swallow- 
ing only  a  small  part  of  it. 

At  the  Ottawa  station,  in  Canada, 
well  prepared  pea  silage  fed  with  grains 
to  pigs  appeared  to  have  no  feeding 
value.      When    fed    alone   pigs    steadily 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


534 

lost  in  weight  on  it  for  nine  weeks.  At 
Guelph,  in  a  test  lasting  about  six  weeks, 
hogs  fed  a  ration  of  middlings  alone 
made  TO  per  cent  better  gains  than  a  like 
lot  of  hogs  fed  only  one-third  as  much 
middlings  with  the  remainder  of  the 
ration  made  up  of  rape  silage.  In  this 
test  a  pound  of  middlings  equaled  5.12 
pounds  of  rape  silage  in  producing  gains. 
In  another  trial  corn  silage  was  fed  to 
hogs  at  a  loss,  and  when  sliced  turnips 
constituted  two-thirds  of  the  ration  the 
gains  were  but  little  better. 

The  Virginia  station  found  silage  eco- 
nomical when  fed  with  corn  in  a  main- 
tenance ration,  but  not  so  when  used 
alone.  At  the  Utah  station  silage  proved 
inferior  to  dried  fodder  corn. 

On  the  whole  we  see  that  silage  is  not 
a  desirable  feed  for  hogs  except  in  small 
amounts,  when  it  should  be  fed  in  ad- 
dition to  a  full  grain  ration.  Silage, 
however,  made  from  well-ripened  corn 
may  be  made  to  serve  as  a  maintenance 
ration  if  fed  in  sufficiently  large  amounts. 

GRAINS  AND  THEIR  BY-PRODUCTS 

FOR  SWINE 

Barley  is  quite  extensively  used  as  a 
food  for  hogs  in  Minnesota,  Canada  and 
some  northwestern  states  where  corn  is 
not  a  certain  crop.  At  the  Minnesota 
station  it  was  found  that  during  the 
early  stage  of  feeding  100  pounds  of 
barley  meal  produced  as  great  a  gain 
as  119.5  pounds  of  corn  meal;  and  100 
pounds  of  barley  meal  and  shorts  (half 
and  half)  as  great  a  gain  as  105.2  pounds 
of  corn  meal  and  shorts.  After  the  pigs 
had  attained  a  weight  of  125  pounds, 
100  pounds  of  corn  and  shorts  produced 
as  much  gain  as  119  pounds  of  barley 
and  shorts.  For  fattening  hogs  weigh- 
ing 160  to  300  pounds  each  it  required 
5.9  pounds  of  bright  meal  to  10.3  pounds 
of  barley  of  poor  quality  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain.  Similar  hogs  fed  corn 
required  but  5  pounds  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain. 

At  the  Michigan  station  hogs  weigh- 
ing 138  pounds  each  required  5  pounds 
of  barley  meal  to  make  a  pound  of  gain, 
while  another  lot  weighing  148  pounds 
required  but  4.4  pounds  of  corn  meal  to 
produce  a  pound  of  gain. 

At  the  Montana  station  hogs  weighing 
120  to  125  pounds  were  fed  53  days  on 
barley  alone  and  required  4.96  pounds 
of  grain  for  each  pound  of  increase  in 
weight ;  on  barley  and  wheat,  equal  parts, 


4.8  pounds;  on  barley  and  peas,  4.7 
pounds;  and  on  barley,  wheat  and  peas, 
equal  parts,  4.55  pounds. 

At  the  South  Dakota  station  the  pork 
produced  on  a  ton  of  barley  was  worth 
$13.60,  or  33  cents  a  bushel;  on  barley 
and  shorts  $13.70  a  ton;  and  on  barley 
and  corn  $12.04  a  ton.  At  the  Wash- 
ington station  it  was  found  that  barley 
chops  alone  was  more  valuable  than 
wheat  chops  alone  and  that  barley  and 
wheat  mixed  was  more  effective  in  pro- 
ducing gain  than  either  alone. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station  ground  bar- 
ley has  proved  to  be  8  per  cent  less  valu- 
able for  producing  gain  in  hogs  five  to 
14  months  old  than  ground  corn.  That 
station  states  that  pigs  relish  barley  meal 
most  when  soaked  in  a  comparatively 
large  amount  of  water,  at  least  3  pounds 
of  water  to  each  pound  of  meal.  Barley 
is  thought  especially  valuable  for  grow- 
ing hogs  and  for  adding  variety  to  the 
ration. 

When  whole  barley  was  fed  to  pigs 
at  the  Central  experimental  farm,  in 
Canada,  12.5  per  cent  passed  through  the 
animal  undigested,  none  of  which  ger- 
minated. In  experiments  at  the  Ontario 
college  barley  alone  has  given  good  gains 
and  produced  exceptionally  firm  bacon. 
"A  two-thirds  ration  of  barley  with  all 
the  rape  the  hogs  would  eat,  followed  by 
about  three  weeks  exclusive  barley  feed- 
ing at  the  close,  gave  economical  gains 
on  the  whole  and  produced  bacon  of 
good  quality,  but  scarcely  so  firm  as 
that  produced  by  barley  or  that  produced 
by  peas  and  middlings.  Barley  appears 
to  be  an  exceptionally  safe  and  valuable 
food  for  swine,  whether  fed  alone  or  in 
combination  with  other  feeds." 

Beans — Common  white,  navy,  field 
beans  are  usually  much  too  expensive 
to  be  used  as  a  feeding  stuff  for  hogs. 
From  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  crop  usually 
falls  into  the  class  known  as  damaged 
or  cull  beans,  as  a  result  of  which  more 
than  100,000  bushels  are  annually  put 
on  the  market  at  a  low  price  for  stock 
foods.  These  beans  should  be  thoroughly 
cooked  before  feeding.  Large  feeders  be- 
gin on  about  three  parts  corn  and  one 
part  beans  and  gradually  increase  the 
beans  until  they  constitute  from  one-half 
to  two-thirds  of  the  ration.  On  an  ex- 
clusive bean  ration  pigs  are  likely  to 
scour  or  get  off  feed.  Besides,  beans  are 
a  highly  nitrogenous  ration,  containing 
20  to  25  per  cent  of  protein  and  an  all 


SWINE 


535 


bean  ration  would  be  an  unnecessary 
use  of  tbis  expensive  food  material. 
Beans  have  the  reputation  of  making 
soft  pork  and  pork  that  shrinks  from 
4  to  8  per  cent  more  in  slaughtering 
than  that  made  on  corn. 

At  the  Michigan  station  the  dry  beans 
were  cooked  in  sufficient  water  and  when 
thoroughly  done  the  beans  and  water 
were  transferred  to  a  barrel  and  the 
proper  amount  of  corn  meal  added,  the 
whole  being  then  thoroughly  mixed. 
With  beans  at  $12  a  ton  there  was  a 
good  profit  in  feeding  them  to  hogs 
weighing  between  50  and  125  pounds 
each.  Fattening  hogs  made  a  gain  of 
about  a  pound  a  day  on  beans  alone  and 
1.5  pounds  where  an  equal  amount  of 
corn  was  fed  with  the  beans.  It  is  rec- 
ommended that  in  feeding  beans  they  be 
salted  for  hogs  to  about  the  same  extent 
as  required  for  man.  It  is  noted  that  a 
single  feed  of  half-cooked  beans  may 
rob  the  hogs  of  their  appetite  and  relish 
for  this  food,  if  indeed  it  does  not  put 
them  off  feed  entirely.  Cooking  can  be 
hastened  if  the  beans  are  soaked  over 
night. 

Bran  is  a  bulky  and  fibrous  food  of  but 
little  value  in  fattening  hogs.  It  is  very 
useful  in  lightening  such  heavy  rations 
as  corn  meal.  Breeders  use  it  extensively 
for  brood  sows,  to  prevent  fattening.  It 
is  not  nearly  as  effective  a  supplemen- 
tary feed  to  use  with  corn  as  middlings, 
yet  gives  better  results  when  used  in 
small  amounts  with  corn  than  when  corn 
alone  is  fed.  At  the  Nebraska  station, 
bran  did  not  prove  equal  to  either  shorts 
or  cut  alfalfa,  when  fed  as  one-fourth  of 
the  ration  for  pigs,  even  when  fed  with 
corn  meal.  Nothing  was  gained  by  fer- 
menting the  bran. 

Buckwheat  is  seldom  fed  to  hogs.  It 
should  never  be  made  to  constitute  over 
one-half  the  grain  ration  for  swine.  In 
larger  amounts  it  may  cause  skin  dis- 
eases and  other  unfavorable  symptoms. 
Kellner  recommends  that  when  the  whole 
grain  is  fed  it  be  cooked.  Canadian  ex- 
periments indicate  that  feeding  a  ra- 
tion of  one-half  buckwheat  is  not  a 
cause  of  soft  bacon.  Larger  amounts 
appear  to  produce  soft  pork.  At  the  Ot- 
tawa station  it  required  4.45  pounds  of 
ground  and  soaked  buckwheat  to  produce 
one  pound  of  gain  and  4.1  pounds  of 
wheat  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain.  Hogs 
fed  buckwheat,  dressed  out  a  larger 
percentage  of  live  weight  than  when  fed 


wheat.  Such  data  as  are  available  indi- 
cate that  buckwheat  has  a  high  feed- 
ing value  for  hogs  and  the  best  results 
are  secured  when  it  constitutes  only  a 
part  of  the  grain  ration. 

Cerealine — At  the  Hatch  station  in 
Massachusetts,  corn  meal  proved  equal 
to  hominy  meal  when  fed  with  skim  milk 
to  pigs  and  from  5  to  10  per  cent  better 
than  cerealine,  a  by-product  obtained  in 
the  preparation  of  the  breakfast  food 
known  as  Cerealine  Flakes.  The  mate- 
rial consists  of  the  hull  and  a  portion  of 
the  starch  of  corn. 

'Corn — This  is  the  chief  grain  fed  to 
hogs  in  the  United  States.  It  is  usually 
the  cheapest  grain  and  when  fed  with 
skim  milk,  pasture  or  some  nitrogenous 
food  it  is  the  most  effective  of  all  grains 
in  producing  rapid  and  cheap  gains.  As 
a  single  grain  ration  for  growing  ani- 
mals it  is  lacking  in  mineral  matter  and 
when  pigs  are  confined  in  pens  and  fed 
corn  alone  they  should  have  access  at  all 
times  to  hard  wood  ashes,  bone  meal  or 
like  material.  According  to  Snyder,  the 
ash  of  corn  is  entirely  undigestible  by 
swine.  As  a  result  the  bones  of  hogs  fed 
exclusively  on  corn  are  weak  and  not 
developed  to  the  full  extent,  the  muscles 
are  not  well  attached  and  in  shipping, 
hogs  break  down  and  arrive  in  market 
cripples. 

Hogs  fed  on  corn  shrink  less  when 
killed  and  are  more  desirable  and  profit- 
able from  the  packers'  standpoint  than  a 
hog  fed  bulkier  rations.  They  are  much 
less  profitable,  however,  to  the  farmer, 
than  when  the  corn  is  supplemented  by 
pasture,  skim  milk  or  other  material 
used  to  give  variety  to  the  ration  or  add 
protein  to  it.  When  hogs  are  closely  con- 
fined in  pens  they  will  make  satisfactory 
gains  on  either  ground  or  whole  corn 
for  a  few  weeks,  but  the  gains  are  not 
long  continued.  Growing  pigs  are  not 
able  to  secure  from  corn  the  elements 
necessary  to  build  up  their  bones  and 
muscles  and  when  fed  on  corn  continu- 
ously lose  their  appetite,  gain  but  slowly, 
and  show  marked  evidence  of  unthrift 
and  malnutrition. 

On  the  average  a  bushel  of  corn  will 
make  about  12  pounds  gain  in  live 
weight  of  hogs.  When  a  ration  made  up 
of  two-thirds  corn  and  one-third  oil  meal, 
barley  meal  and  bran  was  fed  at  the 
Iowa  station,  the  gain  was  17.3  pounds 
for  a  bushel  of  corn.  This  large  addi- 
tional increase  was  obtained  by  the  use 


S36 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


of  the  more  nitrogenous  feeds  as  a  sup- 
plement to  the  corn  and  brings  out 
dearly  the  great  desirability  of  supple- 
menting the  all-corn  diet  with  more  ni- 
trogenous feed.  Stated  in  another  way, 
the  use  of  this  supplementary  nitroge- 
nous food  made  the  corn  about  40  per 
cent  more  valuable  for  the  production  of 

P°rk-  .  1  X  J 

At    the    Michigan    station,    hogs    ted 

corn  meal  made  15.9  per  cent  better  gains 

for  a  period  of  four  weeks  than  similar 

hogs  fed  the  same  amount  of  corn  on  the 

cob.     Like  results  were  also  secured  at 

the  New  York  state  station. 

The  Kentucky  station  made  a  com- 
parison of  shelled  corn  alone  with  shelled 
corn  combined  with  a  number  of  other 
supplements.  On  shelled  corn  alone  the 
average  gain  was  0.7  pound  a  day;  on 
two-thirds  shelled  corn  and  one-third  soy 
beans  1.16  pounds;  on  one-half  shelled 
corn  and  one-half  dried  distillery  grains 
1  pound  a  day.  When  the  ration  was 
made  up  of  two-thirds  shelled  corn  and 
one-third  dried  distillery  grains  the  av- 
erage gain  was  0.63  pound  a  day. 

The  New  Hampshire  station  found 
ground  corn  and  cob  to  have  a  slightly 
higher  feeding  value  for  pigs  than  corn 
on  the  ear.  Nevertheless,  it  was  more 
economical  to  feed  corn  on  the  ear  than 
to  draw  it  to  the  mill  and  grind  it.  The 
Kentucky  station  found  corn  and  cob 
meal  a  rather  inferior  food  for  hogs 
and  it  was  but  little  relished.  Corn  and 
cob  meal  must  be  ground  much  finer  for 
hogs  than  for  cattle  if  as  good  results 
are  to  be  obtained.  If  the  proportion  of 
cob  to  grain  is  high  the  feed  is  bulky 
and  unpalatable  to  hogs.  When  corn 
shells  out  6  to  12  pounds  of  cob  to  the 
bushel  of  grain  it  can  be  profitably  used 
for  hogs,  but  when  it  goes  much  above 
these  limits,  hogs  do  not  do  as  well  on 
it  as  on  corn  meal  alone.  When  the 
amount  of  cob  constituted  14  pounds  per 
bushel  the  Missouri  station  found  that 
much  more  profitable  results  were  se- 
cured when  wheat  bran  was  used  as  a 
lightener  of  the  meal  than  when  ground 
cob  was  used.  It  contains  too  much 
bulky,  unpalatable  and  undigestible  fiber 
to  make  it  sought  for  as  a  feeding  stuff 
for  swine. 

At  the  West  Virginia  station  hogs  fed 
soaked  old  grain  required  but  385  pounds 
to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain,  while 
another  similar  lot  fed  dry  corn,  re- 
quired 410  pounds  to  produce  100  pounds 
of  gain. 


At  the  Ontario  agricultural  college, 
exclusive  corn  feeding  to  hogs  intended 
for  bacon,  for  a  somewhat  extended  pe- 
riod, produced  bacon  of  an  extremely 
soft  and  undesirable  character.  No  evil 
effects  were  noted  from  the  corn  when 
fed  to  hogs  that  had  plenty  of  exercise 
until  they  had  reached  100  pounds  live 
weight,  or  had  been  fed  skim  milk  with 
a  mixed  grain  ration  until  they  had 
reached  100  pounds  live  weight. 

Corn  meal — Generally  speaking, 
ground  corn  is  more  effective  in  produc- 
ing gains  than  whole  grain.  In  experi- 
ments at  the  Wisconsin  station  with 
nearly  200  medium  sized  hogs,  the  gain 
from  grinding  varied  from  8  to  17.6  per 
cent.  Only  in  two  cases  was  there  a 
loss  from  grinding.  Usually  the  gain 
did  not  exceed  8  per  cent,  an  amount 
which  usually  does  not  exceed  the  cost  of 
grinding.  The  gains  are  usually  a  little 
more  rapid  on  ground  grains.  With 
cheap  grains  it  probably  will  not  pay  to 
grind,  but  when  grains  are  expensive  and 
pork  high,  grinding  may  prove  profit- 
able. 

At  the  West  Virginia  station,  hogs 
fed  four  weeks  on  ground  corn  gained 
about  28  per  cent  more  than  similar  hogs 
fed  whole  corn.  It  is  explained,  how- 
ever, that  the  hogs  had  been  previously 
getting  ground  corn  and  the  change  to 
whole  corn  was  not  relished.  The  re- 
sult of  12  experiments  at  eight  differ- 
ent stations  along  this  line  show  an 
average  of  505  pounds  of  whole  corn,  or 
472.9  pounds  of  ground  corn  for  100 
pounds  of  gain.  This  shows  an  average 
of  about  6  per  cent  less  ground  corn  to 
make  a  pound  of  gain  than  of  whole 
corn.  It  is  generally  held  that  unless  a 
farmer  is  located  near  a  mill,  it  will  not 
pay  to  have  corn  ground,  the  extra  cost 
of  grinding  more  than  counterbalancing 
the  extra  feeding  value  of  the  corn. 
Corn  meal,  like  whole  corn,  gives  the 
best  results  when  supplemented  by  some 
more  nitrogenous  material  like  skim 
milk,  tankage  or  soy  beans. 

Hogging  corn — In  many  of  the  west- 
ern states  where  corn  stover  is  not  of 
special  value,  farmers  make  a  practice  of 
letting  the  hogs  gather  the  grain  from 
the  standing  corn.  The  hogs  are  turned 
into  the  fields  as  soon  as  the  grain  begins 
to  form  and  while  they  are  apparently 
wasteful  feeders,  they  usually  get  about 
every  kernel  of  corn  in  the  field.  The 
stover  is,  of  course,  practically  a  com- 
plete loss,  but  the  hogs  make  rapid  gains 


SWINE 


537 


and  are  vigorous  and  thrifty  and  the 
farmer  is  saved  the  expense  of  gather- 
ing and  husking  the  corn.  No  reliable 
figures  on  this  method  of  feeding  are  at 
hand,  but  the  practice  is  a  common  one 
with  many  successful  farmers. 

Corn  shives  or  Marsden  feed — This 
material  is  the  ground  outer  portion  of 
the  corn  stalk  after  the  pith  has  been 
removed  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
Several  experiments  were  made  with 
this  material  at  the  Maryland  station. 
As  a  part  of  the  ration  this  coarse  fod- 
der had  considerable  value  for  older  pigs, 
but  much  less  value  for  young  pigs.  It 
was  more  valuable  when  fed  without 
skim  milk  than  when  fed  with  it.  When 
fed  with  rich  foods  like  linseed  meal  or 
gluten  meal  it  materially  lessened  the 
amount  of  these  feeds  required  and 
cheapened  the  rations.  From  five  or 
six  tests  along  this  line  that  station  con- 
cludes that  it  is  desirable  to  mix  with 
hog  rations  some  such  coarse  material 
as  this  as  a  substitute  for  grazing  when 
pigs  are  fed  in  confinement. 

Cottonseed  and  cottonseed  meal — Ex- 
periments with  this  material  as  a  hog 
food  are  unanimous  in  showing  that  in 
large  amounts  it  acts  as  a  poison,  result- 
ing sooner  or  later  in  death.  In  small 
amounts,  properly  combined  with  other 
feeds,  it  is  an  excellent  food  and  may 
be  used  for  balancing  a  ration  of  corn 
and  of  increasing  the  rapidity  of  the 
gains.  In  the  following  record  of  ex- 
perimental data,  the  best  methods  of  us- 
ing it  are  pointed  out. 

One  of  the  first  stations  to  study  the 
value  of  cottonseed  and  cottonseed  meal 
for  hogs  was  the  Texas  station.  In  the 
first  experiments  rather  large  amounts 
of  this  material  were  fed,  either  boiled, 
roasted  or  raw  in  the  ration,  as  a  result 
of  which  the  station  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  "there  is  no  profit  whatever 
in  feeding  cottonseed  in  any  form  or 
cottonseed  meal  to  hogs  of  any  age."  In 
other  experiments  at  the  same  station, 
hogs  following  cattle  fed  cottonseed 
hulls  and  cottonseed  meal  required  4.4 
pounds  of  grain  additional  to  make  a 
pound  of  gain,  while  hogs  following 
cattle  fed  silage,  hay,  corn  in  the  ear 
and  raw  cottonseed  required  3.2  pounds 
of  grain  in  addition  to  make  a  pound 
of  gain. 

More  recently,  Marshall  at  the  same 
station  has  shown  that  cottonseed  meal 
in  small  amounts  may  be  fed  to  hogs  in- 


definitely and  that  if  the  meal  is  first 
fermented  and  fed  in  the  form  of  a  slop 
larger  amounts  can  be  used  than  if  fed 
dry,  especially  if  some  green  food  is  fed 
at  the  same  time  with  the  slop. 

Forbes  at  the  Missouri  station  found 
that  corn  meal  and  fermented  cottonseed 
meal  fed  in  the  proportion  of  8  :1  killed 
three  out  of  15  hogs  at  the  end  of  51 
days'  feeding.  Experiments  at  the  Iowa 
station  in  feeding  hogs  cottonseed  meal 
with  corn  show  that  while  good  gains 
were  made  on  these  feeds,  the  hogs  uni- 
formly died  when  they  consumed  from 
27  to  33  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  per 
hog.  The  hogs  in  the  experiments 
weighed  about  100  pounds  each.  It  was 
about  six  weeks  from  the  time  the  meal 
was  first  fed  until  the  hogs  began  to  die. 

The  Mississippi  station  investigated 
the  value  of  cottonseed  meal  raw  and 
cooked  for  hogs,  but  with  unfavorable 
results  in  both  cases.  The  Kentucky 
station,  finishing  hogs  off,  for  three 
weeks  used  cottonseed  meal  with  other 
grain  at  the  rate  of  one-half  pound  daily 
per  head.  Its  use  in  this  amount  is 
recommended  for  finishing  off  hogs,  but 
it  should  only  be  given  alternate  weeks. 

At  the  Alabama  station,  Duggar 
found  that  when  cottonseed  meal  con- 
stituted one-fifth  to  one-half  of  the  grain 
ration  for  shotes  weighing  60  to  118 
pounds  each,  sickness  or  death  followed 
within  from  34  to  38  days.  The  result 
was  the  same  whether  the  cottonseed 
meal  and  grain  were  fed  alone  or  with 
a  bountiful  supply  of  grain,  sorghum  or 
peanuts.  No  ill  effect  was  noticed  ear- 
lier than  the  31st  day  of  feeding.  With 
young  pigs  the  poisonous  effects  were 
noticeable  when  they  consumed  9.2 
pounds  per  100  pounds  of  weight.  With 
older  shotes  the  effects  were  noticeable 
after  consuming  a  little  more  than  21 
pounds. 

Experiments  have  been  reported  by  the 
Kansas  station  in  feeding  cottonseed 
meal  to  hogs.  The  pigs  refused  to  eat 
a  mixture  of  two-thirds  corn  meal  and 
one-third  cottonseed  meal.  They  did 
eat  a  mixture  of  five-sixths  corn  meal 
and  one-sixth  cottonseed  meal  and  after 
a  few  davs  appeared  to  improve  in  appe- 
tite. They  made  rapid  gains  and  finally 
were  fed  a  ration  consisting  of  one- 
fourth  cottonseed  meal.  All  died  within 
45  days  from  the  time  feeding  began  and 
some  within  three  weeks.  Two  sows, 
however,  weighing  135  and  308  pounds 
respectively,   were   made   to   consume   a 


538 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


ration  of  one-fourth  cottonseed  meal 
and  three-fourths  corn  meal  for  45  days 
without  apparent  injury  and  gained  on 
the  average  2  pounds  a  head  daily.  On 
this  ration  it  required  but  3.16  pounds 
of  the  mixed  grain  to  produce  a  pound 
of  gain,  while  on  corn  meal  other  like 
hogs  required  7.3  pounds  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain.  Following  this  experi- 
ment some  scrub  pigs  that  had  made 
poor  gains  on  such  feeds  as  corn  meal 
and  wheat  were  fed  rations  of  one-fourth 
to  one-half  cottonseed  meal  and  corn; 
the  pigs  weighed  40  to  50  pounds  each; 
they  made  rapid  gains  from  the  first  on 
these  feeds.  With  the  smaller  amount 
of  cottonseed  meal  they  required  but  3 
pounds  of  mixed  grain  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain,  and  with  the  larger 
amount  but  2.6  pounds  of  the  mixed 
grain  for  a  pound  of  gain.  They  com- 
menced dying  off  after  feeding  25  days 
while  still  gaining  rapidly.  The  con- 
clusion is  drawn  from  these  experiments 
that  "cottonseed  meal  produces  very 
rapid  gains  with  both  pigs  and  large 
hogs,  and  if  the  feed  is  changed  before 
symptoms  of  disease  appear,  hogs  can 
be  fed  cottonseed  meal  for  a  short  time 
with  the  best  results."  In  a  later  report 
by  the  station  it  is  stated  that  it  is  now 
the  practice  to  begin  by  feeding  one- 
fourth  pound  cottonseed  meal  per  day  to 
each  100  pounds  of  live  weight.  This  is 
gradually  increased  to  3  pounds  per  100 
pounds  of  live  weight  at  the  end  of  10 
days.  The  meal  is  mixed  with  other 
grain  and  may  be  profitably  fed  three  or 
four  weeks. 

Experiments  with  cottonseed  meal  at 
the  Oklahoma  station  indicate  that  when 
it  is  properly  fed  it  is  an  exceedingly 
valuable  feeding  stuff  for  hogs.  In  one 
experiment  17  shotes  were  fed  for  67 
days,  on  46  of  which  the  grain  ration 
consisted  of  four-fifths  kafir  corn  and 
one-fifth  cottonseed  meal.  All  lived  and 
made  good  gains.  Part  of  them  were 
then  fed  47  days  longer  on  the  same  ra- 
tion ;  one  died  at  the  end  of  21  days ;  the 
remainder  lived  and  were  sold  at  the 
end  of  the  feeding  period  as  fat  hogs. 
That  station  now  recommends  that  not 
more  than  one-fifth  the  grain  ration  fed 
to  hogs  be  made  up  of  cottonseed  meal 
and  that  a  rather  light  grain  ration  be 
fed.  It  is  believed  that  pigs  running 
on  green  range  and  given  a  light  grain 
ration  consisting  of  one-tenth  to  one- 
fifth  cottonseed  meal  can  be  fed  for  an 
indefinite  time.     "After  feeding  the  ra- 


tion two  or  three  weeks,  drop  the  cotton- 
seed meal  for  two  or  three  weeks,  after 
which  return  to  the  cottonseed  mixture 
for  a  like  duration,  to  be  followed  by  the 
omission  of  the  cottonseed  as  before." 

As  a  result  of  extensive  experiments 
in  feeding  cottonseed  products  to  hogs 
at  the  Arkansas  station,  Dinwiddie  states 
that  in  small  amounts  cottonseed  meal 
may  be  fed  indefinitely  to  hogs  and  in 
larger  amounts  for  a  limited  period  only 
without  inducing  poisonous  symptoms. 
The  amount  to  feed  daily  depends  on  the 
age  and  weight  of  the  hogs.  He  gives 
the  following  amounts  which  may  be  fed 
with  safety  to  pigs  of  different  ages : 

Pigs  under  50  pounds,  x/±  pound  per 
day;  pigs  from  50  to  75  pounds,  1-3 
pound  per  day;  pigs  from  75  to  100 
pounds,  2-5  pound  per  day;  pigs  from 
100  to  150  pounds,  V2  pound  per  day. 

If  fed  a  full  grain  ration,  one-eighth 
of  the  ration  for  50-pound  pigs  may  con- 
sist of  cottonseed  meal ;  one-seventh  for 
pigs  weighing  from  50  to  75  pounds; 
one-sixth  for  pigs  weighing  from  75  to 
100  pounds;  and  one-fifth  for  pigs 
weighing  from  100  to  150  pounds. 

"A  meal  ration  containing  cottonseed 
meal  should  also  contain  at  least  an 
equal  amount  of  wheat  bran  to  supply 
bulk."  The  cottonseed  meal  should  be 
used  simply  as  an  adjunct  and  to  balance 
a  highly  carbonaceous  ration  like  corn  or 
corn  meal.  "In  the  amount  prescribed 
above  cottonseed  meal  may  be  fed  in- 
definitely as  to  time,  just  as  any  other 
food."  This  station  did  not  find  that 
cottonseed  meal  had  any  especially  in- 
jurious effect  on  breeding  stock  inde- 
pendent of  its  general  poisonous  effect. 
Chopped  cottonseed  may  be  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  recommended  for  cot- 
tonseed meal  above.  "Cottonseed  and 
corn  make  probably  the  best  combina- 
tion, about  1 :6  or  more  if  on  full  feed, 
or  1 :3,  4  or  5  if  on  short  allowance  of 
grain." 

"Cottonseed hulls  are  not  toxic  for  hogs. 
They  are  only  available  for  hog  feed 
when  ground  into  bran,  and  at  the  prices 
charged  this  cotton  hull  bran  is  unprofit- 
able. Cottonseed  feed  should  also  be 
avoided.  Crude  cotton  oil,  when  fed 
apart  from  the  kernels,  has  not  occa- 
sioned symptoms  such  as  we  have  found 
in  cottonseed  meal  poisoning,  although 
in  the  quantities  fed  (3  to  4  ounces  per 
day)  it  seemed  to  act  harmfully,  giving 
rise  to  unthriftiness  and  possibly  even 
death." 


SWINE 


539 


From  all  these  data  we  may  conclude 
that  cottonseed  meal  used  to  balance  a 
carbonaceous  ration  like  corn  and  corn 
meal  or  kafir  corn  is  an  exceedingly  val- 
uable feeding  stuff  used  in  the  propor- 
tions recommended  by  the  Arkansas  sta- 
tion or  in  the  way  suggested  by  the  Ok- 
lahoma station.  Evidently  the  younger 
the  pig  the  more  injurious  the  meal. 
Very  rapid  gains  are  made  when  the 
meal  is  fed  in  small  amounts  for  short 
periods. 

Cowpeas — Cowpea  grain  is  too  expen- 
sive to  feed  to  hogs  under  present  meth- 
ods of  harvesting.  The  great  value  of 
this  crop  will  be  found  as  pasturage, 
(see  Cowpeas  for  Pasturage).  At  the  Ala- 
bama station  a  comparative  test  was  made 
between  corn  and  cowpeas  alone  and 
mixed  as  food  for  pigs.  The  food  re- 
quired to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  on 
corn  alone  was  4.87  pounds;  on  cowpeas 
alone  4.80  pounds;  on  corn  and  cowpeas 
(half  and  half)  4.33.  In  these  experi- 
ments the  manure  from  hogs  fed  cow- 
peas contained  about  50  per  cent  more 
nitrogen  than  that  from  the  hogs  fed 
corn.  The  liver,  kidneys,  heart  and 
spleen  of  the  hogs  fed  the  cowpeas  were 
considerably  larger  than  the  same  organs 
in  corn  fed  hogs  and  the  bones  were 
stronger.  On  the  whole  there  was  a 
greater  proportion  of  lean  meat  in  the 
hogs  fed  cowpeas  than  in  those  fed  corn. 
This  work  shows  the  value  of  mixed 
grain  for  fattening  hogs  and  the  neces- 
sity for  such  nitrogenous  food  as  cow- 
peas for  building  up  healthy,  vigorous 
internal  organs  and  a  strong  frame- 
work. 

In  a  test  at  the  same  station  of  ground 
cowpeas  and  corn,  versus  corn  alone  for 
hogs,  it  required  a  little  more  than  8 
pounds  of  corn  to  make  a  pound  of 
gain  and  less  than  5.3  pounds  of  tho 
mixture. 

Distillers'  grains— These  grains  were 
not  relished  by  hogs  in  any  amount  when 
fed  at  the  Kentucky  station.  The  hogs 
would  not  eat  this  feed  until  the  ration 
consisted  of  four-fifths  corn  and  one- 
fifth  distillers'  grains. 

Gluten  feed^  while  a  fairly  cheap 
source  of  protein,  is  not  especially  pal- 
atable to  the  hogs,  nor  is  it  as  cheap  or 
valuable  as  linseed  meal.  When  fed  in 
small  amounts,  say  one  part  to  10  of 
corn,  much  better  results  will  be  ob- 
tained in  rapidity  and  cheapness  of  pork 
production  than  when  corn  alone  is  fed. 


As  a  supplementary  ration  with  corn 
at  the  Missouri  station,  gluten  feed 
proved  superior  to  either  gluten  meal  or 
germ  oil  meal  for  hogs.  None  of  these 
feeds  proved  equal  to  linseed  meal  as  a 
supplement  to  corn. 

Kafir  corn—The  Kansas  station  was 
one  of  the  first  to  demonstrate  the  value 
of  kafir  corn  as  a  grain  for  hogs.  That 
station  has  fed  kafir  corn  whole,  ground, 
soaked,  alone  and  in  combination  with 
corn,  soy  beans,  alfalfa  hay  and  alfalfa 
pasture.  It  has  been  fed  to  pigs  in  all 
stages  of  growth.  In  all  10  or  more 
tests  with  nearly  400  hogs  have  been  re- 
ported. These  tests  show  on  the  whole 
that  kafir  corn  pound  for  pound  does 
not  equal  corn  for  hogs.  Hogs  do  not 
relish  it  as  well  nor  gain  so  rapidly  on 
it  as  upon  corn.  With  pigs  about  7% 
months  old,  red  kafir  corn  had  a  feed- 
ing value  equal  to  84  per  cent  of  that  of 
corn.  With  pigs  six  months  old,  kafir 
corn  fed  dry  equaled  in  feeding  value 
93V2  per  cent  of  that  of  dry  shelled  corn. 
Notwithstanding  this  result,  an  acre  of 
upland  kafir  corn  at  the  station  produced 
on  an  average  487  pounds  of  pork  as 
against  410  pounds  for  an  acre  of  up- 
land corn.  This  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  on  the  average  kafir  corn  yields 
better  per  acre  on  uplands  than  corn. 
The  average  for  10  years  at  the  station 
being  46  bushels  per  acre  as  against  34a/2 
for  corn.  Equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and 
kafir  corn  meal  mixed  gave  as  good  re- 
sults in  one  experiment  as  corn  meal 
alone. 

Hogs  relish  kafir  corn  at  first,  but  after 
about  four  weeks,  if  not  given  other 
feed  become  tired  of  it  and  long  for 
something  else.  It  should  therefore  al- 
ways be  fed  with  some  other  food  like 
skim  milk,  alfalfa  or  soy  beans.  Grind- 
ing kafir  corn  increased  its  feeding  value 
in  one  experiment  13  per  cent.  In  two 
other  experiments  there  was  a  loss  of  14 
and  9  per  cent  respectively  from  grind- 
ing. Soaking  the  kafir  corn  for  about 
30  hours  resulted  in  a  loss  of  feeding 
value  of  7  and  17  per  cent  respectively 
in  two  tests.  The  present  method  ob- 
served by  the  station  in  feeding  kafir 
corn  is  to  put  the  whole  grain  dry  into 
a  trough  and  pour  over  it  enough  water 
or  skim  milk  to  thoroughly  wet  it. 

Millet  seed_The  South  Dakota  sta- 
tion found  a  bushel  of  56  pounds  of 
millet  about  equal  in  feeding  value  to  a 


540 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


bushel  of  48  pounds  of  barley.  The  mil- 
let yielded  at  the  rate  of  30  bushels  per 
acre,  while  barley  went  32.7  and  wheat 
30.3  bushels  per  acre.  In  feeding  tests 
of  84  days  the  gain  of  hogs  on  barley 
averaged  105.5  pounds,  on  millet  95.5 
pounds  and  on  wheat  140.5  pounds.  The 
color  of  the  fat  and  the  quality  of  the 
meat  produced  on  millet  seed  was  excel- 
lent, though  the  pork  was  a  little  softer 
than  that  produced  on  either  barley  or 
wheat.  The  millet  proved  very  pala- 
table to  the  hogs.  It  should  be  fed 
ground. 

Oats — This  grain  is  not  commonly  fed 
to  hogs  excepting  in  moderate  amounts 
to  brood  sows  and  growing  pigs.  It  is  of 
less  value  in  fattening  than  most  of  the 
other  grains. 

Oats  either  chopped  or  whole  were  not 
relished  by  hogs  at  the  Oregon  station 
to  the  same  extent  as  wheat  under  sim- 
ilar conditions.  When  soaked  whole  oats 
were  fed  to  hogs  as  much  as  50  per  cent 
by  weight  of  the  entire  dry  excrement 
was  frequently  found  undigested.  The 
feeding  of  oats  to  swine  is  not  recom- 
mended unless  combined  with  some  other 
feed  like  ground  wheat,  barley  or  shorts. 
When  fed  whole  at  the  Ottawa  station 
one-seventh  of  the  grain  passed  through 
the  intestines  undigested. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station,  oats  in  the 
proportion  of  one-third  ground  oats  and 
two-thirds  corn  meal  were  fed  with  good 
results.  Whole  oats  scattered  thinly  on 
the  floor  are  reported  excellent  for  brood 
sows  when  maintenance  and  not  rapid 
gain  is  desired.  Better  results  were 
secured  from  ground  oats  than  from 
whole  grain.  At  the  Utah  station,  oats 
produced  fat  meat  of  excellent  appear- 
ance and  firmer  than  that  from  other 
grain.  When  oats  were  fed  as  the  only 
grain  at  the  Minnesota  station  they 
caused  a  loss  of  appetite  and  small  gains. 
Oat  feed — When  oat  feed  was  used  at 
the  Hatch  station  in  Massachusetts  it 
proved  only  84  per  cent  as  valuable  for 
fattening  hogs  as  corn  meal.  In  experi- 
ments reported  by  the  Mississippi  station 
about  20  per  cent  more  oat  feed  than  corn 
meal  was  required  to  produce  a  pound  of 
gain.  Oats  were  much  more  valuable 
as  an  adjunct  to  lighten  rations  than 
when  used  alone.  Forbes  states  that 
cheap  grades  of  oatmeal  are  very  largely 
used  in  fattening  fine  hogs  for  show,  and 
steamed  whole  oats  are  highly  valued  by 
some  breeders  of  pure  bred  swine. 


From  the  above  data  we  see  that  oats 
should  be  made  to  form  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  ration  for  hogs.  They  are 
better  ground  than  whole  and  better  for 
growing,  breeding  or  stock  animals  than 
for  fattening,  although  they  produce  a 
good  quality  of  pork  and  lard. 

Peanuts — At  the  Alabama  station, 
growing  pigs  fed  for  six  weeks  in  pens 
on  unhulled  Spanish  peanuts  made  a 
gain  of  9  pounds  for  each  bushel  of 
peanuts  fed.  One  pound  of  gain  was 
made  on  the  remarkably  small  amount 
of  2.8  pounds  of  peanuts.  At  the  same 
time  other  like  hogs  required  3.7  pounds 
of  peanuts  and  corn  mixed  half  and  half 
to  produce  a  pound  of  pork  and  10.7 
pounds  of  corn  alone  to  make  a  pound 
of  gain.  The  pigs  fed  peanuts  produced 
soft  oily  pork,  but  of  good  flavor.  The 
melting  point  of  the  lard  produced  on 
peanuts  was  76.1°  F.,  while  on  clear 
corn  or  corn  and  cowpeas  the  melting 
point  varied  from  109  to  114.8°  F.  The 
lard  made  on  peanuts  solidified  only  dur- 
ing the  coldest  weather  of  February. 

In  one  experiment  pigs  that  had  been 
fed  exclusively  on  peanuts  were  given 
nothing  but  corn  for  a  month  previous 
to  killing.  This  had  the  effect  of  rais- 
ing the  melting  point  of  lard  from  76.1 
to  101°  F.  (See  also  Peanut  Pasture.) 
Peas — Northern  or  Canada  field  peas 
fed  at  the  South  Dakota  station  gave 
much  better  results  with  growing  than 
with  older  hogs.  At  the  TTtah  station 
where  these  peas  were  fed  with  bran, 
half  and  half,  they  had  a  value  for  feed- 
ing purposes  of  $1.02  per  bushel,  while 
corn  had  a  value  of  but  70.4  cents  and 
barley  59  cents  per  bushel. 

Peas,  like  barley,  are  one  of  the  stand- 
ard grains  for  hogs  in  Canada.  When 
whole  peas  were  fed  at  the  Central  ex- 
perimental farm  only  three-quarters  of 
1  per  cent  of  undigested  grain  was  found 
in  the  excrement.  As  rapid  gains  were 
made  on  whole  soaked  peas  as  on  ground 
peas  soaked,  but  17  per  cent  less  ground 
grain  than  whole  grain  was  required  for 
a  pound  of  gain.  In  one  test  at  the  On- 
tario agricultural  college  it  cost  $3.97  to 
produce  100  pounds  of  gain  on  hogs  fed 
peas  and  barley  ground  and  $4.25  when 
they  were  fed  whole.  Pea  meal  alone  at 
this  station  resulted  in  unthrifty  ani- 
mals and  poor  gains,  but  when  mixed 
with  middlings  in  the  proportion  of 
three  parts  pea  meal  to  one  part  mid- 
dlings, good  gains  and  an  excellent  qual- 


SWINE 


541 


ity  of  bacon  were  produced.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  peas  always  be  fed  in 
combination  with  other  grains  for  hogs. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station,  ground  peas 
proved  more  valuable  for  pork  produc- 
tion than  corn.  Corn,  however,  being  so 
much  cheaper,  was  the  more  profitable 
feed.  The  thigh  bones  of  pigs  fed  on 
peas  were  26  per  cent  stronger  than 
those  of  corn  fed  hogs. 

Pea  meal  at  the  Maine  station  did  not 
prove  as  valuable  in  a  ration  for  young 
pigs  as  skim  milk,  but  with  older  ani- 
mals the  substitution  of  pea  meal  or  pea 
and  oat  meal  for  skim  milk,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  did  not  materially 
change  the  results. 

Peas  are  exceedingly  valuable  feed  for 
growing  hogs  and  for  the  production  of 
prime  bacon.  They  contain  about  23 
per  cent  of  protein  and  the  greatest 
amount  of  good  is  obtained  from  them 
when  they  are  fed  in  small  amounts  with 
a  more  carbonaceous  grain  like  corn. 
They  are  especially  valuable  for  growing 
pigs  and  should  always  be  fed  either 
ground  or  soaked  or  both.  (See  also 
Peas  for  Pasture.) 

Pigeon  grass  seed  wlien  fed  alone  to 
hogs  at  the  Wisconsin  station  was  not 
relished,  but  when  mixed  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one-third  pigeon  grass  seed  and 
two-thirds  corn  meal,  hogs  made  nearly 
as  good  gains  on  it  as  on  corn  meal 
alone.  When  pigeon  grass  seed  was 
cooked  it  appeared  to  be  more  palatable 
than  when  fed  raw.  When  cooked  it 
may  constitute  two-thirds  of  the  ration. 

Rice  by-products — At  the  Massachu- 
setts station  a  good  quality  of  rice  meal 
proved  equal  in  feeding  value  to  the 
same  quantity  of  corn  meal  fed  hogs 
weighing  from  65  to  190  pounds.  At  the 
Vermont  station,  corn  meal  proved  25 
per  cent  more  valuable  for  pigs  than  rice 
meal.  At  the  South  Carolina  station 
rice  meal  and  milk  proved  equal  in 
feeding  value  to  corn  meal  and  milk. 
In  this  experiment  2^2  pounds  of  rice 
meal  and  10  pounds  of  skim  milk  pro- 
duced 1  pound  of  gain. 

In  a  number  of  experiments  at  the 
Alabama  station,  Professor  Duggar 
found  rice  polish  decidedly  superior  to 
corn  meal  as  a  food  for  hogs.  The 
average  of  five  experiments  shows  that 
a  pound  of  increase  was  obtained  with 
3.7  pounds  of  rice  polish,  while  with 
corn  meal  4.7  pounds  was  required. 
Rice  bran  at  the  same   station  fed  in 


mixtures  was  unpalatable  and  resulted 
in  slow  growth. 

Rye — This  grain  is  seldom  used  for 
hogs  in  the  United  States.  In  Danish 
feeding  tests  with  110  animals,  rye  grain 
was  about  equal  to  barley  for  pork  pro- 
duction. Rye  shorts,  however,  pro- 
duced slow  gains  and  had  an  unfavor- 
able effect  on  the  quality  and  softness 
of  the  pork.  The  Massachusetts  station 
considers  rye  meal  a  very  unsatisfactory 
feed  for  hogs  for  long  time  feeding,  as 
the  animals  lose  their  appetites  and  have 
digestive  troubles.  It  is  recommended 
that  it  be  fed  with  wheat  meal  or  corn 
meal  and  in  small  amounts. 

Screenings—The  Minnesota  station 
fattened  hogs  on  ground  screenings,  cost- 
ing $6  a  ton  and  corn  costing  30  cents  a 
bushel  at  a  cost  of  $2  a  hundredweight. 
The  pigs  were  fattened  in  pens  for  11 
months  and  not  allowed  access  to  blue 
grass  or  clover  pasture  in  the  summer. 
These  results  show  that  screenings  may 
be  very  profitably  used  for  feeding  pur- 
poses. 

Sorghum  seed  {s  similar  in  composi- 
tion and  feeding  value  to  kafir  corn  seed 
but  proved  slightly  less  valuable  at  the 
Kansas  station  for  hogs.  At  the  Wis- 
consin station  sorghum  seed  meal  proved 
about  55  per  cent  as  valuable  a  feed  for 
hogs  as  corn  meal. 

Soy  beans  have  been  found  exceed- 
ingly valuable  as  a  supplement  to  kafir 
corn  at  the  Kansas  station.  The  in- 
creased gains  obtained  where  soy  beans 
constituted  one-fifth  to  one-third  of  the 
grain  ration  have  varied  from  14.8  to 
96.4  per  cent  and  there  has  been  a  sav- 
ing in  the  amount  of  feed  required  to 
produce  100  pounds  of  gain  of  from  13.2 
to  37.5  per  cent.  The  best  results  at 
this  station  have  been  obtained  by  feed- 
ing the  beans  whole.  When  they  were 
ground  in  one  experiment,  11  per  cent 
of  their  feeding  value  was  lost.  The  use 
of  soy  beans  in  the  ration  conduces  to 
strong,  thrifty  and  continuous  growth 
and  keeps  the  hair  and  skin  of  the  hog 
glossy  and  of  good  appearance.  The 
hogs  fatten  much  more  rapidly  and  less 
feed  is  required  to  produce  a  pound  of 
gain.  They  are  a  highly  nitrogenous 
food,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  table  of  anal- 
yses, and  should  be  made  to  constitute 
only  about  one-fifth  to  one-fourth  of  the 
grain  ration.  The  Kentucky  station  re- 
ports a  test  of  corn  alone  versus  a  grain 
ration  composed  of  two-thirds  corn  and 


542 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


one-third  soy  beans.  The  average  daily- 
gains  for  10  weeks  on  corn  alone  was  0.7 
pound  and  on  the  corn  and  soy  beans 
1.16  pounds.  The  addition  of  soy  beans 
to  a  corn  ration  at  the  Wisconsin  sta- 
tion has  also  resulted  in  increased  gains 
over  that  made  on  corn  and  middlings. 
Sunflower  seed — These  are  seldom  fed 
to  swine.  The  cake  made  after  the  oil 
has  been  expressed  from  the  seed  was 
used  in  some  Danish  feeding  tests  and 
proved  about  equal  to  rye  or  barley.  The 
whole  seed  is  readily  eaten  by  swine  and 
possesses  considerable  feeding  value,  as 
is  shown  in  the  table  of  analyses. 

Wheat  is  seldom  fed  to  hogs  except 
when  the  price  is  less  than  50  cents  a 
bushel.  The  grain,  however,  is  relished 
by  hogs  and  they  make  rapid  gains  on 
it,  producing  pork  of  good  quality.  A 
large  number  of  experiments  have  been 
reported  with  this  grain. 

In  a  feeding  test  extending  over  105 
days,  at  the  Indiana  station,  the  average 
daily  gain  on  corn  was  1.16  pounds,  on 
wheat  1.02  pounds  and  on  corn  and  wheat 
1.12  pounds,  while  on  soaked  wheat  alone 
it  was  1.05  pounds.  The  vital  organs  of 
the  hogs  did  not  appear  to  be  developed 
to  any  greater  extent  on  the  wheat  diet 
than  on  the  corn  diet,  but  the  bones 
were  appreciably  stronger.  In  this  ex- 
periment the  excrement  was  so  rich  in 
grain  that  the  pigs  ate  it  as  fast  as 
voided.  In  one  instance  a  five-ounce 
sample  of  dung  contained  1167  unbroken 
grains  and  when  soaked  wheat  was  fed 
1003  grains. 

It  is  concluded  that  whole  wheat  is 
fed  at  an  unjustifiable  loss  and  that  it 
should  be  well  broken  or  crushed  before 
feeding  to  pigs.  At  the  Michigan  sta- 
tion, pigs  fed  ground  wheat  with  skim 
milk  made  7  per  cent  better  gains  than 
on  whole  soaked  wheat  and  skim  milk. 
The  Missouri  station  reports  results  of 
experiments  made  to  test  the  value  of 
wheat  as  follows: 

One  bushel  of  wheat  chop  soaked  in 
water,  produced  13.2  pounds  of  pork;  1 
bushel  of  wheat  chop  dry,  produced  12.6 
pounds  of  pork ;  1  pound  of  whole  wheat, 
produced  11.2  pounds  of  pork;  1  pound 
of  corn  chop,  produced  10.3  pounds  of 
pork.  These  gains  were  made  with 
growing  pigs  and  the  conclusion  is 
drawn  that  wheat  is  superior  to  corn  for 
producing  gain  in  growing  pigs. 

The  New  York  station  at  Cornell  fed 
wheat  ration  in  comparison  with  a  corn 


ration  mixed  with  gluten  meal  in  such 
proportion  as  would  give  both  rations 
the  same  nutritive  ratio.  The  wheat 
was  fed  ground.  About  10  per  cent  bet- 
ter gains  were  made  on  the  corn  meal 
and  gluten   ration. 

The  Oregon  station  reports  a  gain  of 
from  12  to  14  pounds  for  a  bushel  of 
wheat  fed  to  hogs.  The  lean  meat  from 
the  wheat  fed  hogs  was  characterized  by 
light  color  and  juiciness,  the  quality 
was  excellent  and  there  was  a  good  thick- 
ness of  fat  laid  on.  The  same  station 
compared  the  relative  merits  of  wheat  in 
the  sheaf  with  mixed  grain  for  hogs. 
The  wheat  was  cut  high  and  yielded  35 
per  cent  of  grain.  The  pigs  did  not 
relish  the  sheaf  wheat.  They  worked 
three  to  four  hours  daily  in  getting  out 
the  grain  and  their  appetites  appeared 
never  to  be  satisfied.  During  a  feeding 
period  of  two  months  the  hogs  fed  a 
soaked  and  mixed  grain  ration  required 
but  4  pounds  of  grain  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain,  while  the  hogs  fed  sheaf 
wheat  required  7.4  pounds  and  made  only 
one-fourth  as  large  a  total  gain.  With 
pork  at  3  cents  a  pound,  60  pounds  of  the 
ground  mixed  grain  was  worth  31  cents 
more  for  pork  production  than  60  pounds 
of  sheaf  wheat.  This  is  more  than 
enough  to  pay  for  the  threshing  of  the 
wheat.  In  another  like  test  where  wheat 
chop  was  fed  against  sheaf  wheat,  a 
bushel  of  the  wheat  chop  was  worth  15 
cents  more  than  a  bushel  of  wheat  in  the 
sheaf.  The  average  of  the  experiments 
at  that  station  show  that  4.5  pounds  of 
grain  were  required  to  make  a  pound 
of  gain.  In  the  beginning  of  the  feed- 
ing only  3.8  pounds  were  required;  in 
later  stages  5.1  pounds,  showing  that  it 
required  34  per  cent  more  grain  the 
last  half  of  the  test  than  the  first 
half  for  a  pound  of  gain.  These  re- 
sults indicate  that  wheat  is  better 
adapted  for  producing  butcher  or  bacon 
hogs  than  lard  hogs. 

The  South  Dakota  station  has  shown 
that  when  hogs  weighing  about  100 
pounds  can  be  bought  for  $4.50  per  hun- 
dredweight and  fed  wheat  for  three 
months  and  then  sold  at  $5.50  per  hun- 
dredweight, the  wheat  would  return 
from  56  to  58  cents  per  bushel.  At  that 
station  it  required  4.8  pounds  of  ground 
wheat  or  4.9  pounds  of  whole  wheat  to 
produce  a  pound  of  gain.  The  gains 
were  more  rapid  and  uniform  on  the 
ground    grain.      At    the    Utah    station, 


SWINE 


543 


when  wheat  was  fed  with  bran  (half  and 
half)  and  pork  was  worth  4  cents  per 
pound  live  weight,  a  bushel  of  wheat  had 
a  feeding  value  of  89.4  cents. 

Considerable  work  has  been  reported 
by  the  Wisconsin  station  in  feeding 
wheat  to  hogs.  Ground  wheat  has  been 
found  to  have  about  the  same  feeding 
value  as  corn.  That  station  holds  that 
wheat  for  hogs  should  be  ground  and  fed 
moistened  either  with  water  or  milk.  Dry 
whole  wheat  has  not  been  found  satis- 
factory. Even  when  soaked,  a  large 
percentage  of  the  grain  was  found  to 
pass  tli  rough  the  hogs  and  appear  un- 
broken in  the  droppings.  The  best  re- 
sults have  been  obtained  when  wheat 
has  been  fed  ground  with  ground  corn. 
Wheat  shorts  produced  rather  dark  meat 
and  favored  the  development  of  liver 
and   kidneys. 

At  the  South  Dakota  station,  wheat 
damaged  by  frost  and  shrunken  was  fed 
to  hogs.  The  weight  per  measured 
bushel  in  one  instance  was  57  pounds, 
and  in  another  44  pounds.  With  pork 
worth  4  cents  per  pound  the  heavier 
wheat  had  a  value  for  pork  production  of 
63  and  the  lighter  57  cents.  The  Cen- 
tral experimental  farm  in  Canada  re- 
ports experiments  in  which  pigs  weigh- 
ing 61  pounds  at  the  beginning  of  a 
test  required  but  4.23  pounds  of  frozen 
wheat  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain. 
Older  pigs  averaging  186  pounds  each 
required  about  6  pounds  of  frozen  wheat 
to  make  a  pound  of  gain.  In  some  Dan- 
ish experiments  wheat  proved  slightly 
more  valuable  than  barley. 

Frozen  wheat  at  the  Montana  station 
proved  equal  in  feeding  value  to  a  mix- 
ture of  wheat,  barley  and  peas  The 
frozen  wheat  even  when  subsequently 
heated  by  fermentation  was  profitably 
and  safely  fed,  1  pound  of  the  frozen 
wheat  proving  equal  in  feeding  value  to 
7.9  pounds  of  skim  milk. 

Wheat  middlings  are  considered  one 
of  the  best  of  all  common  feeds  to  sup- 
plement a  ration  of  corn  for  hogs  and 
has  the  further  advantage  of  being  pro- 
duced in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  is 
usually  fed  with  corn  in  the  proportion 
of  one  part  middlings  to  two  or  three 
parts  corn.  Even  when  the  proportion 
of  middlings  is  much  smaller  than  this 
it  adds  greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  the 
corn  feed.  At  the  Ottawa  station  in  Can- 
ada it  required  4.4  pounds  of  middlings 
to  produce  1  pound  of  gain. 


The  conclusion  reached  at  the  Ne- 
braska station  as  a  result  of  feeding 
wheat  is  that  it  should  be  first  either 
soaked  or  ground  before  feeding.  Soak- 
ing is  the  more  economical  of  the  two 
unless  grinding  can  be  done  for  about 
2  cents  per  hundred  pounds.  Wheat  can 
profitably  be  fed  to  hogs  when  the  price 
is  not  more  than  9  per  cent  above  that 
of  corn. 

Wheat  should  always  be  fed  in  troughs 
or  on  the  feeding  floor.  On  this  point 
the  Washington  station  states  that  "to 
expect  to  reap  returns  by  throwing  wheat 
on  the  ground,  in  the  mud,  or  without 
crushing  or  soaking  it  or  in  some  way 
making  it  more  palatable  and  digestible 
is  sure  to  result  in  failure." 

Mixed  grains — No  single  grain  ordi- 
narily gives  as  good  results  when  fed 
alone  to  hogs  as  when  fed  in  combina- 
tion with  other  grains.  This  point  is 
well  brought  out  in  the  data  summarized 
in  the  Farmers'  Cyclopedia  of  Agricul- 
ture, in  which  the  amount  of  the  differ- 
ent grains  and  of  mixed  grain  required 
to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  is 
shown.  These  data  are  given  in  the 
table  below  and  represent  the  result  of 
about  75  experiments  with  500  animals: 

GRAIN  REQUIRED   FOR  100   POUNDS  GAIN 

Kafir  Bar      Mixed 

Corn     corn     Oats     Peas    Wheat     ley       grain 
Lbs       Lbs       Lbs       Lbs       Lbs       Lbs        Lbs 


The  table  shows  that  less  mixed  grain 
is  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of 
gain  than  of  any  single  grain  except 
barley  and  the  number  of  experiments 
reported  with  this  grain  is  rather  lim- 
ited. On  an  exclusive  grain  ration  pork 
is  produced  at  the  greatest  expense. 
Hogs  should  be  fed  as  mixed  and  varied 
a  ration  as  possible  and  for  cheap  gains 
should  always  have  access  to  pasture. 
At  the  Central  experimental  farm  the 
firmest  pork  was  produced  on  mixed 
grain,  peas,  oats  and  barley  in  equal 
parts. 

Linfield,  at  the  Montana  station,  gives 
the  following  data  showing  the  value  of 
mixed  rations:  On  grain  alone  it  re- 
quired 528  pounds  to  produce  100  pounds 
of  gain;  on  grain  and  clover  487  pounds 
of  grain  and  200  pounds  of  clover;  on 
grain  and  pasture  401  pounds  of  grain; 
on  grain  and  roots  376  pounds  of  grain 
and  280  pounds  of  roots;  on  grain  and 
skim  milk  311  pounds  of  grain  and  888 
pounds  of  skim  milk. 


544 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  effectiveness  of  corn  meal  was 
greatly  increased  at  the  Maine  station 
by  adding  pea  meal  or  gluten  meal  both 
during  growth  and  during  the  fattening 
period.  The  addition  of  milk  to  the  ra- 
tion always  reduces  the  amount  of  grain 
required.  Hogs  fed  on  cassava,  wheat 
middlings  and  cowpeas  made  gains  at 
half  the  cost  of  those  made  on  grain 
alone  at  the  Florida  station.  All  through 
this  book  the  fact  is  emphasized  that  the 
best  gains  are  made  on  mixed  grain  and 
varied  rations. 

PREPARATION      OF     GRAINS      FOR 

SWINE 

The  best  method  of  feeding  each  of 
the  different  grains  to  hogs  is  considered 
under  the  grains  themselves.  Here  the 
subject  is  considered  in  a  general  way. 

Whole  vs.  ground  grain — Generally 
speaking,  strong,  vigorous  hogs  do  not 
require  that  the  grain  be  ground,  espe- 
cially corn.  The  amount  of  pork  pro- 
duced, however,  on  ground  grains,  is  us- 
ually from  8  to  10  per  cent  greater  than 
on  whole  grains  and  if  the  cost  of  grind- 
ing does  not  equal  or  exceed  this  amount, 
it  will  be  profitable  to  grind  most  grains 
for  hogs.  Some  exceptions  are  noted  un- 
der soy  beans  and  kafir  corn  elsewhere. 
When  whole  dry  wheat  is  fed  to  hogs 
there  is  an  unjustifiable  loss,  since  so 
large  a  portion  passes  through  the  ani- 
mals undigested.  This  undigested  grain, 
however,  is  usually  eaten  again  by  the 
hogs  and  the  greater  part  of  its  nutri- 
tive value  obtained  in  this  manner. 

Wet  vs.  dry  feed — Generally  speaking, 
better  results  are  obtained  from  soaked 
grain  than  from  grain  fed  dry.  This  is 
particularly  true  when  the  grain  is  old 
and  either  very  hard  or  very  dry.  On 
the  average  experimental  results  show 
that  soaking  grains  is  nearly  equal  to 
grinding.  Hogs  usually  eat  more  soaked 
grain  than  dry  grain  and  hence  gain 
more  rapidly.  The  Ottawa  station  rec- 
ommends soaking  all  grains,  whether 
ground  or  whole,  for  24  to  30  hours  be- 
fore feeding.  The  results  of  tests  at 
the  Indiana  station  indicate  no  differ- 
ence in  the  results  whether  the  grains 
are  fed  dry  or  wet.  When  fed  wet  grains 
the  hogs  have  eaten  their  rations  more 
rapidly  and  have  been  more  subject  to 
indigestion.  They  more  frequently  got 
off  feed  also.  At  the  Oregon  station  it 
required  4.46  pounds  of  soaked  grain  and 
4.64  pounds   of   dry   feed  to   produce   1 


pound  of  gain.  That  station  notes  that 
hogs  fed  on  wet  feed  seemed  to  relish  it 
more  than  those  fed  dry  grain.  They 
ate  considerably  more  feed  and  made 
larger  gains  during  the  same  time.  The 
Wisconsin  station  reports  that  in  feeding 
corn  meal  and  shorts  better  results  were 
secured  when  the  ration  was  fed  wet 
than  when  fed  dry.  At  the  Ottawa  sta- 
tion both  grinding  and  soaking  grains 
have  added  materially  to  their  efficiency. 
The  North  Carolina  station  notes  that 
sloppy  feed  gave  poorer  results  than  feed- 
ing barley  moistened,  but  dry  grain  gave 
better  results  than  either.  At  the  In- 
diana station  the  best  results  were  se- 
cured when  about  twice  as  much  water 
as  dry  grain  was  used  in  mixing  the 
feed.  On  the  whole  it  appears  to  be 
desirable  and  advantageous  to  soak 
grain  for  hogs.  The  exceptions  are 
noted  under  the  different  grains  them- 
selves. 

Cooking  feed  for  hogs — The  average 
results  of  10  different  trials  in  cooking 
such  feeds  as  barley  meal,  corn,  corn 
meal  and  shorts  at  the  Wisconsin  station 
show  them  to  be  about  10  per  cent  less 
effective  when  cooked  than  when  fed 
raw.  These  results  have  been  confirmed 
in  experiments  at  the  Kansas,  Iowa  and 
Maine  stations  and  Ontario  agricultural 
college.  At  the  Ottawa  station  grain 
steamed  and  fed  warm  was  no  more  ef- 
fective in  producing  gain  than  grain  fed 
raw  and  cold.  Cooking  the  feed  at  that 
station  seemed  to  slightly  increase  the 
softness  of  the  fat,  while  practically  no 
difference  in  the  quality  of  the  meat  was 
noticeable  whether  the  grains  were  fed 
dry  or  wet.  At  the  Ontario  agricultural 
college  feed  fed  at  a  temperature  of  80° 
F.  gave  slightly  better  gains  than  at  40° 
F.  The  Montana  station  found  sugar 
beets  just  as  valuable  raw  as  cooked  for 
hogs.  Potatoes,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  generally  given  the  best .  results 
when  fed  cooked.  Generally  speaking,  it 
is  wholly  unnecessary  and  inadvisable  to 
cook  feeds  for  hogs,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  roots;  field  beans  also  are 
an  exception  and  should  always  be  fed 
cooked.     (See  Beans.) 

ANIMAL  BY-PRODUCTS  FOR  SWINE 

The  most  important  animal  by-pro- 
ducts in  swine  feeding  are  those  from 
the  dairy,  like  skim  milk,  butter  milk, 
whey,  etc,  and  those  from  the  slaughter 
house  such  as  tankage,  beef  scrap,  blood 
meal  and  the  like. 


SWINE 


545 


Skim  milk  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
adjuncts  of  the  farm  for  fattening  swine. 
Used  with  corn,  kafir  corn  or  any  of  the 
common  grain  by-products  an  almost 
ideal  ration  is  formed.  Hogs  like  it  and 
relish  rations  mixed  with  it.  As  a  re- 
sult of  five  years'  work  in  feeding  skim 
milk  at  the  New  York  station  at  Cornell, 
it  is  concluded  that  the  most  economical 
returns  are  secured  when  the  milk  is 
fed  with  corn  meal.  The  proportion  of 
corn  meal  to  skim  milk  may  be  varied 
without  apparently  affecting  the  result, 
but  in  no  case  should  the  amount  of 
skim  milk  fed  be  greater  than  the  pigs 
can  quickly  and  easily  consume. 

At  the  Kansas  station  skim  milk  when 
used  to  supplement  a  ration  of  kafir  corn 
increased  the  gains  made  over  109  per 
cent,  valuing  hogs  at  3  cents  per  pound 
live  weight,  the  skim  milk  at  a  value  of 
29  cents  per  100  pounds.  In  another 
experiment  the  increased  gain  from  the 
use  of  skim  milk  was  58  per  cent,  giving 
the  milk  a  value  of  15.7  cents  per  100 
pounds,  which  is  more  nearly  its  normal 
value  for  hog  feeding. 

The  Massachusetts  station  reports  the 
results  of  19  experiments  in  the  use  of 
skim  milk  for  pigs.  Based  on  this  work 
the  following  proportions  of  milk  to 
grain  are  recommended  for  the  produc- 
tion of  pork  at  minimum  cost : 

Pigs  weighing  20  to  80  pounds,  2 
ounces  corn  meal  to  each  quart  of  skim 
milk;  pigs  weighing  80  to  125  pounds, 
4  ounces  corn  meal  to  each  quart  of 
skim  milk;  pigs  weighing  125  to  190 
pounds,  6  ounces  corn  meal  to  each  quart 
of  skim  milk. 

That  station  holds  that  when  skim 
milk  can  be  sold  at  1  cent  or  more  per 
quart  it  is  more  profitable  to  sell  it  than 
to  use  it  in  the  production  of  pork. 

In  feeding  growing  pigs  skim  milk  at 
the  Wisconsin  station,  about  5  pounds 
of  skim  milk  has  proved  equal  in  feed- 
ing value  to  1  pound  of  corn  meal. 
Skim  milk  has  produced  the  strongest 
bones  in  hogs  of  any  food  given  them. 
The  most  economical  mixture  of  skim 
milk  and  grain  has  been  1  to  3  pounds 
of  skim  milk  to  one  pound  of  corn  meal. 

Many  experiments  have  been  reported 
by  the  Ottawa  station  with  general  con- 
clusions as  follows:  "Skim  milk  may 
form  the  largest  part  of  the  feed  for 
young  and  growing  pigs  with  advantage 
and  economy.  For  the  fattening  of 
swine  weighing  on  the  average  over  100 


pounds  each,  live  weight,  it  is  economi- 
cal to  give  an  allowance  of  skim  milk 
not  exceeding  5  pounds  per  head  per 
day."  It  is  most  effective  when  it  forms 
a  comparatively  small  part  of  the  total 
food  fed.  Milk-fed  hogs  in  every  in- 
stance, have  been  lustier,  more  vigorous 
and  healthier  in  appearance  than  swine 
fed  wholly  on  grain.  Generally  speak- 
ing, skim  milk  is  worth  from  one-sixth 
to  one-fifth  as  much  as  mixed  grain. 
At  the  Ontario  agricultural  college  the 
use  of  skim  milk  has  uniformly  re- 
sulted in  the  production  of  firm  bacon. 

As  to  whether  the  milk  should  be  fed 
sour  or  sweet  the  Michigan  station  re- 
ports that  in  one  test  hogs  weighing  on 
the  average  74  pounds  each  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  test  and  fed  sweet  skim 
milk  for  five  weeks  gained  63  pounds 
per  head,  while  hogs  averaging  73  pounds 
at_  the  beginning  and  fed  sour  skim 
milk  gained  during  the  same  time  54.6 
pounds  each.  These  figures  are  consid- 
erably in  favor  of  the  sweet  skim  milk. 
This  is  probably  a  larger  difference  than 
will  usually  be  obtained  unless  the  sour 
skim  milk  is  old  and  putrid,  in  which 
case  it  should  not  be  fed  to  hogs.  At 
both  the  Vermont  and  Ohio  stations 
sour  skim  milk  has  given  better  results 
than  sweet  skim  milk.  Generally  speak- 
ing it  is  equal  to  sweet  milk  in  feed- 
ing value. 

The  average  of  many  experiments 
show  that  pasture  with  skim  milk  is  not 
of  much  value  when  grain  is  fed,  the 
average  gain  on  skim  milk,  pasture  and 
grain  being  291  pounds  and  on  skim 
milk  and  grain  without  pasture  301 
pounds. 

Buttermilk  at  the  Wisconsin  station, 
in  one  test,  proved  about  80  per  cent  as 
valuable  as  sweet  skim  milk  in  produc- 
ing gain.  Generally  speaking,  butter- 
milk is  considered  about  three-fourths 
as  valuable  as  skim  milk  for  hogs.  Ex- 
periments at  the  Iowa  station  indicate 
that  there  is  nothing  saved  by  adding  the 
wash  water  from  churns  to  buttermilk, 
as  it  is  too  weak  to  be  of  any  value  as 
food.  The  hogs  lose  more  in  drinking 
the  excess  water  than  the  little  milk  it 
contains  is  worth. 

Whey — In  experiments  at  the  Wiscon- 
sin station  it  required  about  7.6  pounds 
of  whey  to  equal  in  feeding  value  1 
pound  of  corn  meal  and  shorts  as  a  par- 
tial ration.  That  station  was  not  suc- 
cessful   in    maintaining    pigs    on    whey 


546 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


alone.  Five  experiments  have  been  re- 
ported in  different  years  by  the  Ontario 
agricultural  college  on  the  relative  values 
of  sweet  and  sour  whey  for  hogs.  The 
average  of  these  experiments  shows  that 
100  pounds  of  sweet  whey  has  saved 
11.9  pounds  of  grain  and  that  100  pounds 
of  sour  whey  has  saved  10.9  pounds  of 
grain.  The  meat  produced  has  been 
equally  firm  in  both  cases.  In  four  of 
the  foregoing  tests  sour  whey  gave 
slightly  better  gains  than  sweet  whey. 
In  one  test,  however,  the  sweet  whey  lot 
gave  phenomenally  large  gains  and  this 
brought  up  the  average  sufficiently  to 
make  a  better  showing  than  for  the 
sour  whey. 

Analyses  of  the  sweet  and  sour  wheys 
indicated  that  fermentation  took  place 
entirely  at  the  expense  of  the  sugar  in 
the  whey.  In  general  the  tests  and  analy- 
ses indicated  that  sour  whey  is  about 
equally  as  valuable  for  pig  feeding  as 
sweet  whey.  Subsequent  experiments 
show  the  feeding  value  of  100  pounds  of 
whey  to  be  equivalent  to  14  pounds  of 
meal.  In  the  test  about  2  pounds  of 
whey  was  fed  to  each  pound  of  meal. 
It  is  usually  regarded  as  about  one-half 
as  valuable  as  skim  milk. 

Tankage — Some  of  our  most  valuable 
concentrated  nitrogenous  feeding  stuffs 
are  obtained  as  by-products  in  the 
slaughter  of  animals  at  the  large  pack- 
ing centers.  Among  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  are  tankage,  meat  meal, 
meat  scraps  and  dried  blood.  Tankage 
is  made  of  scraps  of  meat,  bone,  sinews, 
lungs,  intestines  and  other  like  wastes. 
These  materials  are  cooked  in  a  tank 
under  very  heavy  pressure  for  a  number 
of  hours  or  until  all  the  various  sub- 
stances are  entirely  broken  down  and 
the  fat  liberated.  Upon  standing,  the 
fats  rise  to  the  top  and  are  skimmed  off. 
The  more  solid  portions  sink  to  the  bot- 
tom, while  the  liquid  portion,  which  is 
also  very  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter,  is 
drawn  off.  The  solid  portion  at  the 
bottom,  after  it  has  been  thoroughly 
dried  and  ground,  is  known  as  "tankage," 
and  contains  from  55  to  60  per  cent  of 
protein,  15  to  18  per  cent  of  ash  and  12 
to  15  per  cent  of  fat. 

The  tank  water  which  is  drawn  off  is 
evaporated  down  and  thoroughly  dried 
and  is  known  as  "digester  tankage." 
This  contains  about  70  per  cent  of  pro- 
tein in  a  form  well  suited  for  quick  as- 
similation by  the  feeding  animal.     This 


material  is  largely  used  to  reinforce  or- 
dinary tankage  when  it  contains  less 
than  about  60  per  cent  of  protein. 

A  large  number  of  experiments  with 
tankage  as  a  feeding  stuff  for  swine  has 
been  reported  by  the  experiment  stations. 
At  the  Indiana  station  tankage  was  fed 
in  the  proportion  of  one  part  tankage 
to  five  and  10  parts  corn  meal  or  corn 
meal  and  shorts  mixed.  Better  and 
cheaper  gains  were  made  on  the  meal 
and  tankage  than  when  the  meal  was 
fed  alone.  The  animals  which  received 
the  tankage  had  silkier  coats  of  hair, 
fresher  appearing  skin  and  a  keener  ap- 
petite than  those  receiving  only  corn 
meal  and  the  use  of  tankage  by  farmers 
as  a  supplement  to  corn  in  swine  feeding 
is  urged. 

At  the  Iowa  station  the  addition  of 
tankage  to  a  ration  of  corn  increased  the 
net  profits  over  34  per  cent  in  one  in- 
stance and  7  per  cent  in  another.  At 
the  Nebraska  station  in  one  experiment 
the  cost  of  pork  production  was  lessened 
68  cents  per  hundred  pounds  by  adding 
to  the  ration  5  per  cent  of  tankage. 
Somewhat  better  results  were  obtained 
with  younger  hogs  when  10  per  cent  of 
tankage  was  used.  In  the  experiments  at 
that  station  hogs  fed  tankage  have  con- 
sumed more  feed,  made  larger  gains  and 
were  less  easily  put  off  feed  than  hogs  fed 
straight  corn  ration.  That  station  ad- 
vises the  adding  of  the  tankage  to  soaked 
corn  just  before  feeding  rather  than  mix- 
ing with  corn  before  soaking  and  allow- 
ing the  tankage  time  to  soak  and  possibly 
become  rancid  before  feeding.  The 
tankage  also  had  a  marked  effect  in  in- 
creasing the  strength  of  the  bones  of  the 
hogs  as  compared  with  those  of  hogs  fed 
on  a  corn  ration  or  on  shorts  and  alfalfa 
pasture. 

Experiments  at  the  Michigan  station 
indicate  that  digester  tankage  can  be 
used  successfully  as  a  substitute  for  skim 
milk  in  the  ration  for  growing  pigs  from 
the  weaning  time  on.  It  is  very  valu- 
able also  during  the  fattening  period. 
On  the  average  experiments  indicate 
that  the  most  economical  gains  will  be 
made  when  the  tankage  is  used  in  the 
proportion  of  about  one  part  tankage  to 
10  parts  grain.  A  little  more  rapid  gains 
may  be  made  when  the  proportion  is  one 
to  five  or  six,  but  the  greater  rapidity  is 
secured  at  an  increased  cost  for  the 
gain. 


SWINE 


547 


Meat  meal  is  very  similar  in  compo- 
sition to  tankage  and  is  made  from  like 
materials.  For  practical  purposes  the 
two  terms  are  nearly  synonymous.  It 
should  be  used  in  small  amounts  as  a 
highly  nitrogenous  supplement  to  more 
starchy  rations  like  corn  in  the  propor- 
tion of  about  one  part  meat  meal  to  10 
parts  other  grain.  Like  tankage,  the 
feeding  of  meat  meal  in  small  amounts 
seems  to  result  in  a  healthy,  vigorous 
growth  throughout  the  entire  life  of  the 
pig.  Beef  meal  when  fed  at  the  Wiscon- 
sin station  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts 
corn  and  one  of  beef  meal  caused  se- 
rious digestive  disturbances,  a  number 
of  the  pigs  in  the  experiment  dying 
from  this  cause,  when  three  to  seven 
months  old.  The  nutritive  ratio  in  this 
case  was  1 :  2.6.  This  ration  was  ex- 
pensive and  unsatisfactory.  To  be  of 
value  beef  meal  must  be  fed  in  much 
smaller  amounts,  as  noted  above. 

Dried  blood  or  blood  meal  is  the  most 
highly  concentrated  nitrogenous  feeding 
stuff  we  have.  It  contains  on  the  aver- 
age about  85  per  cent  of  protein  in  a 
very  valuable  form  for  animals.  It  should 
be  fed  in  even  smaller  amounts  than 
tankage,  primarily  as  a  tonic  and  appe- 
tizer and  to  produce  a  well  balanced  ra- 
tion. At  the  Ontario  agricultural  col- 
lege blood  meal  and  tankage  proved 
about  equally  valuable  and  fully  equal 
to  skim  milk  in  the  production  of  firm 
bacon.  Not  more  than  one  part  blood 
meal  to  15  or  20  parts  grain  should  be 
used. 

CONDIMENTAL  OR  PATENT  FEEDING  STUFFS 

— There  are  a  large  number  of  condi- 
mental  or  patent  stock  foods  on  the  mar- 
ket. These  are  widely  advertised  and 
wonderful  claims  made  for  them.  The 
more  important  of  these  have  been  tested 
experimentally  at  a  number  of  the  differ- 
ent stations.  Generally  speaking,  no 
better  results  are  secured  from  them  than 
by  the  use  of  well  compounded  rations 
which  the  farmer  himself  can  easily  pre- 
pare, while  the  cost  for  them  is  entirely 
out  of  proportion  to  their  value  either 
as  feeds  or  tonics.  The  chief  constit- 
uents of  the  larger  number  of  these  con- 
dimental  stock  feeds  are  common  salt, 
sulphur,  charcoal,  pepper  and  gentian, 
while  fenugreek  is  present  in  practi- 
cally all  of  them  and  is  the  most  im- 
portant constituent  they  contain.  It  is, 
however,  usually  present  in  such  small 
amounts  as  to  be  of  really  very  little 


value  from  a  medicinal  standpoint.  There 
is  no  especial  objection  to  these  stock 
foods  other  than  the  excessively  high 
prices  paid  for  them.  There  is  hardly  a 
doubt  but  that  in  many  cases  the  use 
of  oil  meal  or  of  tankage  or  skim  milk 
will  give  fully  as  good  results  as  these 
high  priced  condimentals.  American 
Stock  Food,  fed  in  small  amounts  with 
shorts  and  hominy  at  the  Indiana  sta- 
tion, did  not  result  in  as  heavy  gains  as 
when  it  was  omitted  as  shown  in  the 
following  table: 

American      No 
Stock       condi- 
Food         mental 
Total  gain  in  12  days.  .682  lbs.     689  lbs. 
Average  daily  gain  .  .1.42  lbs.    1.43  lbs. 
Cost  of  production  per 
lb    3  cts.      2.6  cts. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  American  Stock 
Food  increased  the  cost  of  gain  15.3  per 
cent.  In  another  experiment  at  the  same 
station  Eauh's  Stock  Food  fed  with  the 
grain  ration  at  the  rate  of  a  tablespoon- 
ful  per  feed  for  part  of  the  test  followed 
by  Standard  Stock  Food  for  the  remain- 
der gave  a  slightly  increased  total  gain 
over  no  stock  food,  the  profits  for  3V2 
months  being  48  cents  in  favor  of  the 
stock  food.  At  the  Iowa  station  the  use 
of  Standard  Stock  Food  for  Swine  in- 
creased the  feeding  value  of  each  bushel 
of  corn  fed  1.2  per  cent. 

HAY  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  FEEDS 
FOR  SWINE 

Alfalfa,  clover,  cowpea  and  soy  beans 
are  frequently  fed  to  pigs  in  winter  to 
add  bulk  and  variety  to  the  ration,  as 
well  as  nutriment,  with  very  good  re- 
sults. 

Alfalfa — When  shotes  were  fed  al- 
falfa hay  at  the  Kansas  station,  100 
pounds  of  the  hay  saved  64  pounds  of 
grain.  It  is  calculated  that  one  ton  of 
alfalfa  hay  would  make  235  pounds  of 
pork.  In  one  experiment  at  this  station 
it  is  shown  that  an  acre  of  alfalfa  hay 
would  produce  868  pounds  of  pork. 
Good  results  in  the  use  of  alfalfa  hay 
for  swine  are  also  reported  by  the  Mon- 
tana station.  At  that  station  the  al- 
falfa hay  was  cut  and  moistened  and 
mixed  with  the  meal.  It  is  believed, 
however,  that  hogs  will  do  better  when 
they  are  allowed  access  to  alfalfa  in 
racks  rather  than  to  force  it  into  the 
ration.     The  latter  method  may  do  for 


•548 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


store  hogs,  but  for  fattening  purposes 
it  makes  too  bulky  a  ration. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station  alfalfa  hay 
was  cut  into  half-inch  lengths,  being 
run  through  a  silage  cutter  and  com- 
pared with  the  results  obtained  when 
the  hay  was  ground  into  meal.  Both 
were  fed  with  grain.  When  the  grain 
and  alfalfa  were  fed  mixed  and  mois- 
tened, ground  alfalfa  gave  practically  the 
same  results  as  cut  alfalfa  hay.  The 
gain  on  three-fourths  corn  and  one- 
fourth  shorts  was  1.1  pounds  per  day, 
while  on  three-fourths  corn  and  one- 
fourth  cut  alfalfa  it  was  1.07  pounds  per 
day,  but  100  pounds  of  gain  was  made 
on  the  alfalfa  for  $2.02,  while  on  the 
shorts  and  corn  it  cost  $3.03,  both  being 
valued  at  $8  a  ton.  Better  gains  were 
made  when  one-fourth  the  ration  was 
cut  alfalfa  than  when  half  of  it  was 
made  up  of  alfalfa  or  where  the  whole 
ration  was  corn. 

At  one  station  brood  sows  weighing 
on  the  average  258  pounds  each  main- 
tained their  weights  on  2  pounds  of 
grain  and  6  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  daily 
throughout  the  winter,  keeping  in  fine 
condition  and  producing  large  litters 
of  healthy  pigs.  Young  sows  also  fed 
rations  of  one-fourth  corn  and  barley  and 
one-half  cut  alfalfa  hay  made  excellent 
gains  and  at  farrowing  time  produced 
strong,  healthy  pigs,  showing  that  such 
rations  are  nearly  ideal  for  breeding 
sows. 

At  the  Wyoming  station  sows  weigh- 
ing about  340  pounds  maintained  their 
weights  practically  on  a  ration  of  6 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  and  6.24  pounds  of 
roots  daily.  When  growing  hogs  weigh- 
ing about  65  pounds  each  were  fed  ra- 
tions consisting  of  two-thirds  alfalfa  and 
about  one-third  corn  or  barley  they  grew 
scrawny  and  lost  appetite ;  some  of  them 
died,  apparently  from  digestive  troubles. 
The  hay  was  fed  both  dry  and  chaffed 
in  swill. 

Likewise  at  the  Nevada  station  where 
alfalfa  hay  was  fed  to  four  pigs  weigh- 
ing from  130  to  150  pounds  each  as  the 
only  food  for  21  days,  the  hogs  lost  in 
weight  from  16  to  26  pounds  each.  When 
turnips  were  added  to  the  alfalfa  hay 
the  pigs  gained  7  to  8  pounds  each  dur- 
ing a  feeding  period  of  21  days.  When 
corn  and  peas  were  added  to  the  turnips 
and  hay  the  grain  was  from  41  to  47 
pounds  each  for  a  feeding  period  of  42 


Where  hogs  have  been  pastured  on  al- 
falfa they  readily  learn  to  eat  the  hay 
without  cutting.  Experiments  at  the 
Nebraska  station  show  that  alfalfa  chaff, 
consisting  mostly  of  leaves,  can  be  sub- 
stituted for  shorts  at  the  same  price 
per  pound,  for  fattening  pigs.  Generally 
speaking  the  third  or  fourth  cutting  of 
alfalfa  is  considered  best  as  hay  for# 
hogs,  since  it  is  finer  and  less  woody. 
Good  results  are  secured  when  the  hay 
is  fed  in  a  trough  or  a  rack  with  a 
floor  in  it,  although  the  more  common 
method  of  feeding  it  is  to  cut  it  in  half- 
inch  lengths  and  feed  it  moistened 
mixed  with  the  grain  ration. 

Clover  hay  in  winter  should  first  be 
run  through  a  feed  cutter  and  the 
chaffed  material  softened  by  pouring 
scalding  water  over  it.  The  meal  fed  to 
hogs  should  be  mixed  with  this  chopped 
material,  which  may  profitably  be  fed 
once  a  day.  Besides  furnishing  nutri- 
ment the  hay  serves  to  distend  the  stom- 
ach, as  at  pasture,  and  exercises  a  bene- 
ficial influence.  Boiled  clover  hay  proved 
about  20  per  cent  more  effective  than 
clover  silage  as  a  feed  for  hogs  getting 
grain  at  the  Oregon  station.  At  the 
Montana  station  hogs  made  better  gains 
when  skim  milk  was  used  as  a  supple- 
ment to  the  ration  fed  them  than  when 
clover  hay  was  fed,  but  much  better 
gains  were  made  when  clover  hay  was 
fed  than  when  grain  alone  was  fed.  In 
another  experiment  100  pounds  of  clo- 
ver hay  saved  33  pounds  of  grain  worth 
1  cent  per  pound,  which  gives  clover 
hay  a  value  of  $6.54  per  ton. 

Cowpea  hay  when  well  cured  and  used 
just  as  it  came  from  the  stack  was  fed  to 
hogs  at  the  Oklahoma  station  receiving 
grain,  in  comparison  with  hogs  receiving 
the  same  grain  ration  without  the  hay. 
With  hogs  weighing  about  155  pounds 
each,  from  8  to  10  pounds  of  hay  per 
day  was  fed.  The  hogs  relished  the  hay 
and  ate  from  one-third  to  one-half  the 
amount  fed  them.  In  one  experiment 
the  hogs  receiving  the  hay  made  150  per 
cent  better  daily  gains  than  those  fed 
grain  alone,  and  in  another  experiment 
91  per  cent  better  daily  gains.  The  sta- 
tion points  out  that  this  result  should 
not  be  taken  as  justifying  the  abandon- 
ment of  good  range  and  plenty  of  green 
feed,  when  these  are  available,  but  if 
hogs  four  months  old  must  be  shut  up 
and  fed,  a  little  good  cowpea  hay  will  be 
a  great  help. 


SWINE 


549 


At  the  Tennessee  station  chopped  cow- 
pea  hay  was  fed  to  hogs  that  received  a 
small  allowance  of  skim  milk.  In  this 
instance  the  hogs  ate  the  hay  reluc- 
tantly and  made  good  but  less  profitable 
gains  than  where  more  skim  milk  was 
fed. 

Soy  bean  hay — One  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful hog  growers  in  Illinois  winters 
all  his  pigs  over  on  a  light  grain  ration 
with  soy  bean  hay. 

Acorns — When  hogs  were  fed  acorns 
at  the  Tuskegee  agricultural  college  the 
meat  produced  was  soft  and  the  lard 
oily  and  did  not  harden  readily  except 
when  corn  was  fed.  The  flavor,  however, 
was  good.  The  acorns  had  a  tendency 
to  produce  constipation.  They  were  suc- 
cessfully stored  by  collecting  and  plac- 
ing in  cool,  well  ventilated  barrels. 
Many  hogs  are  fattened  in  some  por- 
tions of  the  South  on  beech  mast,  the 
pork  thus  produced  being  considered  of 
superior  flavor  and  quality. 

Molasses — In  feeding  cane  molasses 
it  is  recommended  that  only  a  small 
amount  be  fed  at  first,  say  1  ounce  daily 
for  a  pig  weighing  50  pounds,  and  grad- 
ually increasing  the  ration  up  to  4 
pounds  daily  at  a  weight  of  200  to  230 
pounds.  When  waste  molasses  from  a 
beet  sugar  factory  was  fed  to  pigs  at 
the  New  York  station  at  Cornell,  unsat- 
isfactory results  were  obtained.  Two 
out  of  five  hogs  fed  the  molasses  died, 
apparently  from  some  form  of  poison- 
ing. Recently  at  the  Utah  station  beet 
molasses  in  small  amounts  up  to  4 
pounds  for  hogs  weighing  130  pounds 
gave  good  gains,  having  a  feeding  value 
of  about  $1  per  100  pounds.  At  the  Wis- 
consin station  hogs  maintained  them- 
selves and  made  some  gain  on  sorghum 
sirup  skimmings  alone.  When  fed  with 
corn  meal  very  good  gains  were  made 
on  this  material. 

Cottonseed  oil—Crude  cottonseed  oil 
was  fed  by  Dinwiddie  at  the  Arkansas 
station  for  20  weeks  in  amounts  exceed- 
ing that  contained  in  fatal  rations  of  cot- 
tonseed meal  without  injurious  results. 

Lamb's  quarters  (Chenopodium  album) 
boiled  and  fed  to  hogs  as  one-fourth  of 
the  grain  ration  at  the  Canada  station 
had  very  little  value. 

Giant  lily_The  bulb  of  this  lily  (J)y- 
anthes  excelsa)  was  readily  eaten  by 
hogs  in  New  South  Wales  when  cooked 
and  a  little  ground  corn  added. 


Ashes,  salt,  copperas,  etc,  for  hogs 

At  the  Minnesota  station  fattening  hogs 
which  had  access  to  charcoal  during  the 
fattening  period  made  considerably  bet- 
ter gains  than  hogs  fed  without  char- 
coal. Hard  wood  ashes  or  charcoal 
should  be  available  to  hogs  being  fat- 
tened on  corn  at  all  times.  The  experi- 
ments of  Henry  have  shown  that  if 
ashes  or  bone  meal  are  fed  in  addition  to 
corn  alone  to  hogs  the  strength  of  the 
bones  is  doubled  and  about  25  per  cent 
less  food  is  required.  Hard  wood  ashes 
are  best.  Corn  cob  ashes  also  give  good 
results.  Sifted  coal  ashes  and  even  soft 
coal  are  effective,  especially  for  hogs 
on  an  exclusive  corn  diet. 

One  feeder  gives  the  following  mix- 
ture which  may  be  fed  with  advantage 
to  hogs  as  a  kind  of  tonic :  Two  parts 
linseed  meal,  four  parts  soft  coal,  four 
parts  wood  ashes  or  charcoal,  one  part 
air  slaked  lime,  one  part  salt;  feed  all 
they  will  eat  once  a  week.  Pigs  fed  salt 
with  their  rations  at  the  New  York 
state  station  have  made  better  gains  than 
those  not  receiving  salt.  The  Michigan 
station  recommends  small  amounts  of 
salt,  especially  when  cooked  beans  are 
fed  to  hogs.  Large  quantities  of  salt 
should  not  be  fed,  since  it  may  reduce 
the  gains. 

Bone  meal  was  fed  by  Forbes  at  the 
Missouri  station  to  hogs  being  fattened 
on  corn  alone,  with  very  beneficial  re- 
sults. About  two  pounds  of  bone  meal 
was  fed  to  each  hog  every  month,  or 
about  an  ounce  a  day.  If,  however, 
mixed  grain  rations  are  given  or  skim 
milk  or  pasture,  all  of  which  supply  ash 
material,  it  is  doubtful  whether  bone 
meal  would  be  of  value. 

Copperas  is  occasionally  added  to  the 
drinking  water  of  swine  as  a  kind  of 
tonic. 

Salt  and  ashes — A  good  mixture  to 
keep  in  a  box  to  which  hogs  may  have 
access  at  all  times  is  made  of  salt  and 
hard  wood  ashes  in  a  proportion  of  two 
pounds  salt  to  a  bushel  of  ashes.  Some- 
times a  few  ounces  of  copperas  is  added 
to  this  mixture,  which  acts  as  a  kind  of 
tonic. 

Pure,  clean  water  should  be  given  in 
abundance  to  fattening  hogs,  aside  from 
the  swill  they  receive.  At  the  Maine 
station  pigs  weighing  109  pounds  each 
drank  approximately  7  quarts  of  water 
daily  and  made  nearly  as  good  gains  as 
pigs  receiving  but  half  this  quantity  of 


550 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


water,  thus  showing  that  unusually  large 
quantities  of  water,  as  in  slops,  are  not 
a   serious   matter. 

Pigs  following  steers — Large  cattle 
feeders  usually  provide  a  large  number 
of  shotes  to  run  in  the  fattening  yards 
to  utilize  the  undigested  grain  in  the 
droppings  of  the  steers.  When  steers 
are  fed  shelled  whole  corn,  about  one 
shote  can  profitably  be  used  to  follow 
each  steer.  Shotes  following  steers  for 
about  seven  months  at  the  Iowa  station 
gained  from  122  to  125  pounds  each.  In 
another  test  the  gain  was  124  to  140 
pounds  over  a  feeding  test  of  223  days. 
At  the  Illinois  station  hogs  following 
steers  gained  from  0.6  to  3.8  pounds  for 
each  100  pounds  of  grain  fed  to  steers. 

In  one  experiment  at  the  Kansas  sta- 
tion hogs  following  steers  fed  soaked 
corn  for  150  days  gained  635  pounds, 
while  hogs  following  steers  fed  dry 
shelled  corn  during  the  same  period, 
gained  747  pounds.  Hogs  have  also  made 
good  gains  at  the  same  station  following 
steers  fed  kafir  corn.  From  11  to  14  per 
cent  of  kafir  corn  was  found  to  pass 
through  the  steers  undigested.  The  hogs 
readily  picked  out  the  undigested  grain 
and  made  good  use  of  it.  At  the  Okla- 
homa station  "five  pigs  having  access  to 
droppings  of  a  lot  of  steers  full  fed  on 
corn  and  kafir  corn  meal  gained  only  195 
pounds  in  56  days.  In  another  case  five 
pigs  gained  100  pounds  in  56  days.  In 
the  third  case  six  moderate  sized  sows 
gained  245  pounds  in  56  days.  While 
these  gains  are  small,  they  are  worth 
saving.  The  difference  between  profit 
and  loss  in  feeding  cattle  often  depends 
on  the  use  made  of  the  food  wasted  or 
undigested  by  them." 

When  hogs  are  bought  to  follow  steers 
being  fattened  on  corn,  there  is  always 
a  profit  even  in  figuring  the  grain  at 
cost  price.  The  younger  the  hogs,  or  the 
lighter,  provided  they  are  sturdy  and 
healthy,  the  more  rapid  will  the  gain9 
be  and  the  greater  the  profit.  Hogs 
must  not  follow  tuberculous  steers,  for 
they  will  thus  become  infected. 

Scrubs  vs.  pure  breeds— In  some  ex- 
periments reported  by  the  Kansas  sta- 
tion with  kafir  corn  it  required  from  23 
to  30  per  cent  more  feed  to  produce  100 
pounds  of  gain  with  hogs  of  mixed 
breeding  than  with  pure  bred  hogs. 

Barrows  vs.  sows  0f  like  age  were  fed 
at  the  New  Hampshire  station  similar 
rations  for  120  days,  during  which  time 
the  sows  or  gilts  gained  110  pounds  and 


the  barrows  120  pounds.  At  the  Utah 
station  about  as  good  gains  were  made 
by  sows  as  by  barrows.  In  Denmark 
no  constant  difference  has  been  found 
in  the  fattening  quality  of  sows  and  bar- 
rows. Unspayed  sows  at  the  Utah  sta- 
tion have  made  slightly  better  gains  than 
spayed  sows.  The  Indiana  station  reports 
that  the  periods  of  heat  in  the  sows  had 
no  apparent  effect  on  gains. 

Pigs  vs.  calves—Calves  at  the  Michi- 
gan station  ate  less  grain,  consumed 
considerably  more  milk  and  required  ap- 
preciably less  dry  matter  to  make  a 
pound  of  gain  than  pigs. 

Relation  between  age  and  gains  made 
by  hogs — Experiments  at  the  Wisconsin 
station  have  shown  that  the  cheapest  pork 
is  made  with  growing  pigs.  Pigs  weigh- 
ing between  50  and  100  pounds  do  not 
require  within  40  to  80  per  cent  as  much 
food  to  make  a  pound  of  gain  as 


Fig.       349 — CONSTRUCTION       OF       FEEDING 
TROUGH 

weighing  300  to  350  pounds.  This  fact 
is  now  so  well  understood  by  feeders 
that  only  a  few  definite  examples  need 
be  cited.  At  the  Utah  station  it  required 
62  per  cent  more  food  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain  with  hogs  weighing  be- 
tween 200  and  255  pounds  than  it  did 
when  they  weighed  from  38  to  100 
pounds.  At  the  Hatch  station  in  Massa- 
chusetts it  has  not  been  found  profitable 
to  feed  hogs  beyond  a  weight  of  180  to 
190  pounds.  The  daily  food  consumed 
after  these  weights  have  been  reached 
has  cost  more  than  the  value  of  the  gains 
made.  Kesults  of  experiments  at  the 
Central  experimental  farm  in  Ottawa 
indicate  that  the  most  economical  time 
to  slaughter  swine  is  when  between  175 
to  200  pounds.  The  following  table,  mod- 
ified to  include  recent  work,  is  adapted 
from  the  work  of  Henry  in  Feeds  and 
Feeding  and  brings  out  clearly  the  re- 
lation between  the  age  of  hogs  and  the 


SWINE 


551 


food   required  to   produce   a  pound   of         The  Wisconsin  station  reports  the  re- 
gain, suits   of    a   number   of   experiments   in 

RELATION  BETWEEN   WEIGHT  OF  HOGS,  GAINS    MADE    AND    FOOD   REQUniED 


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£1^ 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

lbs 

15-   50 

39 

10 

45 

190 

2.41 

5.82 

.78 

305. 

50-100 

79 

21 

112 

508 

3.62 

4.58 

.94 

402. 

100-150 

123 

19 

133 

635 

5.03 

3.96 

1.20 

439. 

150-200 

178 

13 

110 

509 

5.98 

3.44 

1.26 

479. 

200-250 

227 

13 

76 

316 

6.60 

2.96 

1.35 

493. 

250-300 

269 

10 

51 

247 

7.34 

2.71 

1.48 

509. 

300-350 

322 

21 

115 

7.54 

2.39 

1.47 

532. 

The  last  column  of  this  table  brings  out 
clearly  the  fact  that  it  requires  about 
two-thirds  more  food  to  produce  100 
pounds  of  gain  with  hogs  weighing  about 
300  pounds  than  with  hogs  weighing  40 
pounds,  and  that  there  is  a  uniform  in- 
crease in  the  amount  of  food  required 
to  produce  a  pound  of  gain  as  the  pigs 
increase  in  weight. 

Wide  vs.  narrow  rations — A  number 
of  experiments  have  been  reported  in 
feeding  carbonaceous  rations  in  compari- 
son with  more  nitrogenous  rations.  Nar- 
row rations  are  sometimes  fed  also  with 
the  belief  that  the  proportion  of  lean 
meat  can  be  increased.  At  the  Virginia 
station  a  lot  fed  on  corn  meal,  bran  and 
beef  scraps,  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
1 :5.8  made  18  per  cent  better  gains  than 
a  lot  fed  on  corn  meal  alone  having  a 
nutritive  ratio  of  1 :9.  Not  the  slightest 
difference  in  the  proportion  of  fat  and 
lean  could  be  detected  in  the  meat  of 
these  two  lots  of  hogs. 

At  the  New  York  station  at  Cornell 
hogs  fed  a  ration  having  a  nutritive 
ratio  of  1 :3  made  practically  the  same 
gains  as  another  lot  fed  a  ration  with 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:9;  and  so  far  as 
looks  and  chemical  analysis  could  de- 
termine, the  meat  produced  in  both  cases 
was  of  the  same  character.  The  only 
striking  difference  in  the  two  lots  was 
that  the  livers  of  those  fed  the  narrow  ra- 
tion were  nearly  twice  as  heavy  as  those 
on  the  wide  ration.  In  another  test 
where  corn  meal  was  fed  against  corn 
meal  and  meat  scraps,  67  per  cent  better 
gains  were  made  on  the  latter  ration, 
yet  there  was  no  marked  difference  in 
the  character  of  the  meat  produced.  The 
proportion  of  lean  meat,  however,  was 
somewhat  larger  on  the  narrow  ration. 


"feeding  for  fat  and  for  lean."  The 
results  indicate  that  if  fed  mixed  ra- 
tions the  muscles  of  the  hogs  reached 
their  fullest  development  and  thus  in- 
creased the  proportion  of  lean  to  fat 
meat  over  that  obtained  when  a  carbo- 
naceous ration  like  corn  alone  is  fed. 
They  did  not  indicate,  however,  that  the 
muscles  can  be  increased  beyond  their 
normal  size.  Generally  speaking,  the 
ration  for  growing  pigs  should  be  com- 
paratively narrow,  from  1 :5  or  6,  while 
for  fattening  hogs  the  ration  can  vary 
within  quite  wide  limits  without  marked 
results  either  way. 

Maintenance  rations— The  Wisconsin 
station  reports  experiments  on  the 
amount  of  food  required  to  maintain  the 
weights  of  pigs  at  different  stages  of 
growth.  With  such  common  foods  as  corn 
meal,  middlings  and  skim  milk  the 
amounts  shown  in  the  following  table 
were  required: 

AMOUNT      OF      FOOD      REQUIRED      DAILY      TO 
MAINTAIN  HOGS  OF  DIFFERENT  WEIGHTS 


Pigs    averaging    50 

lbs  in  weight.  . 
Hogs  averaging  10 

lbs  in  weight.  . 
Hogs  averaging  150 

lbs  in  weight.  . 
Hogs  averaging  200 

lbs    in   weight...   .67 


Corn- 
meal 
lbs 

Mid- 
dlings 
lbs 

Skim- 
milk 
lbs 

Wa- 
ter 
lbs 

.    .15 

.15 

1.2 

2.3 

0 

.    .40 

.40 

1.6 

2.0 

0 

.    .80 

.80 

1.6 

3.0 

6.5 


Pigs  fed  on  the  rations  given  in  the 
table  were  active  and  did  not  show  much 
greater  signs  of  hunger  than  when  on 
full  feed.  Other  experiments  at  the 
same  station  indicate  that  a  maintenance 
ration    for    hogs    amounts    to    about    1 


552 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


per  cent  of  the  live  weight  of  the  ani- 
mals when  middlings  are  fed.  Small 
pigs  require  relatively  smaller  amounts 
Of  feed  for  maintenance  than  large  hogs. 
Full  vs.  scant  rations — In  some  feed- 
ing experiments  reported  by  the  Central 
experimental  farm  to  determine  the  ad- 
visability of  feeding  a  full  ration,  all 
the  animals  will  eat  up  clean,  or  a  scant 
ration,  i.  e.,  a  considerable  amount  less 
than  they  will  eat  up  clean,  the  results 
were  7  per  cent  better  on  the  limited  ra- 
tion in  the  case  of  whole  grain  and  12 
per  cent  in  the  case  of  ground  grain; 
besides  the  pigs  fed  a  limited  ration 
were  livelier  and  thriftier  and  of  better 
appearance  than  the  hogs  fed  a  full  ra- 
tion and  did  not  get  off  feed  so  easily. 

Shelter  for  fattening  pigs — Two  like 
lots  of  pigs  were  fed  in  midwinter  at 
the  Michigan  station  on  corn  meal  and 
skim  milk  to  test  the  necessity  of  shelter 
in  fattening.  The  lot  fed  in  doors  re- 
quired 2.9  pounds  of  dry  matter  to  pro- 
duce a  pound  of  gain,  while  the  lot  fed 
out  doors  required  3.5  pounds  to  produce 
a  pound  of  gain.  Generally  speaking, 
hogs  require  comfortable  quarters  if  good 
gains  are  to  be  made  in  winter  feeding. 
The  pens  should  be  dry  and  protected 
from  cold  winds,  rain  and  snow.  They 
need  not  be  expensive.  At  the  Canada 
experimental  farm  young  pigs  wintered 
in  doors  made  slightly  larger  and  consid- 
erably cheaper  gains  than  when  wintered 
out-of-doors.  The  feeding  yard  for  pigs 
should  be  dry  at  all  times.  Dry  lot  feed- 
ing is  not  as  profitable  as  feeding  at 
pasture,  but  spring  and  fall  dry  lot  feed- 
ing are  more  profitable  than  feeding  in 
a  dry  lot  in  midsummer. 

Effect  of  rations  on  the  internal  or- 
gans— Professor  Henry  of  the  Wisconsin 
station  has  clearly  demonstrated  in  nu- 
merous experiments  that  the  kind  of  food 
fed  to  growing  pi^s  has  a  remarkable 
influence  on  the  development  of  the 
bones,  internal  organs  and  blood.  The 
work  of  Carlyle  and  McConnell  at  the 
same  station  has  fully  confirmed  Pro- 
fessor Henry's  earlier  observations. 
While  corn  is  the  great  American  hog 
food,  Professor  Henry  has  shown  that 
if  this  grain  is  made  the  sole  ration  for 
young  pigs  it  stunts  their  growth,  they 
have  less  blood  in  their  bodies,  smaller 
livers,  kidneys,  lighter  skeletons  and  hide 
and  a  smaller  proportion  of  lean  to  fat 
meat  than  hogs  fed  more  nitrogenous 
rations.     With  hogs  that  have  matured 


their  growth  there  is  no  better  or  cheaper 
grain  for  finishing  them  off  on  than 
corn.  Por  growing  hogs  and  the  pro- 
duction of  the  largest  percentage  of  lean 
meat  in  the  carcass,  strong  bones,  smooth 
healthy  skin,  full  sized  internal  organs, 
etc,  skim  milk,  peas,  barley,  tankage, 
dry  blood  or  some  similar  nitrogenous 
concentrate  should  be  fed  with  corn. 
This  is  especially  true  with  hogs  intended 
for  breeding  purposes  where  vigorous, 
active,  well  developed,  strong  boned  pigs 
are  desired.  All  these  points  have  been 
fully  confirmed  in  feeding  experiments 
at  the  various  stations  with  such  nitrog- 
enous concentrates  as  soy  beans,  cow- 
peas,  tankage,  skim  milk,  etc,  and  are 
discussed  under  each  of  the  different 
feeds. 

GENERAL      CONSIDERATIONS      ON 
FEEDING 

Young  hogg  or  stock  hogs  in  rather  thin 
condition  can  usually  be  bought  to  fat- 
ten and  then  sold  for  the  same  price  per 
pound  paid  for  them  and  a  profit  made, 
because  4  to  5  pounds  of  grain  alone 
will  produce  a  pound  of  gain  with  grow- 
ing hogs.  If  pasture  or  skim  milk  is 
supplied  a  pound  of  gain  can  often  be 
made  on  half  this  amount  of  grain. 
With  pasture  crops  and  intelligent 
grain  feeding  pork  can  be  produced 
either  Xorth  or  South  for  2  cents  to 
3  cents  per  pound. 

It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  keep  a 
pig  growing  continually  from  birth  until 
maturity  by  the  use  of  a  little  grain  with 
pasture  than  it  is  to  keep  it  all  summer 
on  pasture  without  grain  with  tbe  idea 
of  giving  it  all  the  grain  it  wants  for  a 
couple  of  months  in  the  fall  and  then 
turn  it  off.  On  the  other  hand,  hogs  fed 
nothing  but  grain  make  about  as  ex- 
pensive pork  as  it  is  possible  to  put  up. 
A  successful  Illinois  grower  has  found 
that  by  the  extensive  use  of  clover  pas- 
ture in  summer,  followed  by  a  light 
grain  ration,  with  soy  bean  hay  in  win- 
ter and  with  further  pasture  and  grain 
during  the  following  spring  and  early 
summer,  he  is  able  to  market  hogs  a 
little  more  than  a  year  old,  weighing 
300  to  350  pounds,  at  a  considerable 
profit.  By  this  method  of  feeding  he  is 
able  to  keep  about  six  hogs  per  acre  and 
produce  most  of  his  pork  on  cheap  clover 
pasture.  For  a  complete  account  of  this 
hog  farm,  see  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Farmers  Bui.  No.  272. 


SWINE 


553 


The  only  purpose  for  which  hogs  are 
used  is  meat.  The  faster  they  can  be 
made  to  grow  on  cheap  food  the  sooner 
can  they  be  marketed  and  the  more  prof- 
itable they  are.  The  more  they  eat  of 
the  right  kinds  of  food  the  faster  they 
grow.  If  skim  milk,  good  pasture  or 
mixed  clover  and  grasses  are  available, 
most  any  grain  can  be  fed  and  the  hogs 
will  balance  up  the  ration  properly  for 
rapid  gains.  A  good  feeder,  however, 
never  gives  one  kind  of  feed  until  the 
appetites  of  the  hogs  cloy  on  it,  but 
varies  the  ration  as  much  as  possible. 
The  greater  the  variety  of  feed  given 
the  more  the  hog  will  eat  and  the  faster 
will  the  gains  be. 

Grain  should  be  fed  on  a  feeding  floor 
rather  than  on  the  ground.  Ground  feed 
should  be  moistened  and  fed  in  troughs. 
When  hogs  of  different  sizes  are  fed  to- 
gether the  smaller  ones  suffer.     Separate 


During  the  whole  of  this  period  the  gain 
should  not  be  less  than  1  pound  per 
day.  During  early  feeding  it  should  be 
iVz  to  2  pounds  per  day.  Even  during 
the  fattening  period  it  will  always  be 
advisable  to  feed  a  small  amount  of 
such  material  as  oil  meal  or  tankage  with 
the  other  grain. 

FEEDING  FOR  QUALITY  OF  POBK 

Pork  of  the  best  quality  is  produced 
from  medium  sized  hogs;  that  is,  hogs 
weighing  105  to  250  pounds.  Pork  from 
young  hogs  is  likely  to  be  soft  and  watery 
and  does  not  keep  or  cure  up  well.  In 
hogs  over  250  pounds  there  is  likely  to 
be  too  large  a  proportion  of  fat  to  lean 
meat.  Hogs  should  be  gaining  in  flesh 
when  killed.  The  muscles  at  this  time 
are  firm,  plump  and  juicy.  If  killed 
when  the  hogs  are  losing  weight  the  mus- 
cles are  soft  and  dry  and  the  meat  is 


Fig.    350 — PIGGERY    AT    CENTRAL    EXPERIMENTAL    FARMS,   CANADA 


lots  should  be  provided.  So  long  as  hogs 
are  making  fair  gains  on  cheap  feeds 
it  will  be  profitable  to  keep  them,  but 
once  they  begin  to  draw  heavily  on  the 
grain  bin  they  should  be  fattened  and 
sold.  With  pasture  or  cheap  feeds  it  will 
usually  pay  to  feed  hogs  until  they  weigh 
between  180  to  300  pounds.  Most  of  the 
fat  hogs  should  be  marketed  by  about 
the  first  of  December,  since  winter  fat- 
tening is  much  more  expensive  than 
summer  feeding  when  pasturage  is  abun- 
dant. Pigs  farrowed  in  March  should 
weigh  200  to  250  pounds  at  this  time 
and  it  is  usually  better  to  sell  them  than 
to  winter  over  unless  the  market  is  un- 
commonly low.  The  brood  sows  and 
the  fall  pigs  should  usually  be  the  only 
stock  wintered  over.  When  hogs  have 
reached  a  weight  of  180  to  200  pounds 
they  can  be  finished  for  market  in  4  to 
8  weeks  on  heavy  feeding.  Corn  is  the 
best  single  grain  to  give  at  this  time. 


flabby  and  greatly  inferior.  The  man- 
ner of  feeding  and  the  character  of  the 
food  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  qual- 
ity of  the  meat.  In  the  United  States 
corn  is  counted  one  of  the  best  feeds  for 
making  a  firm  quality  of  pork.  Ca- 
nadian experiments,  however,  indicate 
that,  for  the  purpose  of  firm  bacon  pro- 
duction, corn  is  not  as  valuable  as  mixed 
grain,  though  much  superior  to  such 
foods  as  beans,  buckwheat,  cowpeas  or 
peanuts. 

Bacon — The  best  bacon  is  made  from 
the  bacon  type  of  hogs  when  killed  at  a 
weight  between  160  to  220  pounds.  At 
this  stage  of  growth  if  the  hogs  have 
been  properly  fed  the  flesh  is  firm,  qual- 
ity of  the  best  and  the  proportion  of  lean 
to  fat  meat  about  right.  A  great  deal 
of  bacon  is  made  from  the  lighter  hogs 
of  the  lard  type,  but  the  proportion  of 
lean  to  fat  meat  is  not  so  great  as  in  the 
bacon  type  and  the  market  price  not  so 


554 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


good.  In  shipping  different  types  of 
hogs  to  England  the  Iowa  experiment 
station  found  that  the  breeds  most  de- 
sirable for  the  production  of  English 
bacon  are  the  Tamworth  and  Berkshire. 

The  Canadian  experiment  stations 
have  made  extensive  investigations  to 
determine  what  the  characteristics  of 
firm  bacon  are  and  how  to  produce  it. 
The  bacon  trade  of  England  demands  a 
firm  product.  Soft  bacon  brings  only 
secondary  prices  and  cannot  be  exported 
from  this  country  at  a  profit.  Soft 
bacon  and  fat  bacon  are  not  synonymous 
terms.  In  fact,  softness  is  more  likely 
to  develop  in  lean,  underfed  pigs  than 
in  well  fed  fat  hogs.  According  to 
Shutt,  softness  is  easily  determined  by 
the  touch  alone  and  is  plainly  visible 
when  firm  and  soft  sides  are  hung  on  the 
hooks  together,  the  "drag"  of  the  soft 
sides  on  the  hooks  being  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  firm  sides.  When  also 
firm  and  soft  sides  are  lifted  from  a 
table  by  either  end,  the  firm  bacon  re- 
mains fairly  straight,  while  the  soft 
one  doubles  up  more  or  less.  Day  states 
that  the  softness  in  bacon  develops  while 
it  is  in  the  salt  and  that  when  the  bacon 
is  taken  out  of  the  salt  the  fat  is  soft  and 
spongy.  The  value  of  the  bacon  is  re- 
duced in  proportion  to  the  degree  of 
softness. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  investigations 
into  soft  bacon  at  the  Canadian  stations, 
two  sides  of  bacon,  one  of  which  was 
classed  by  the  trade  as  "firm"  and  of 
excellent  quality  and  the  other  "soft" 
and  of  poor  quality,  were  analyzed.  The 
olein  content  or  liquid  portion  of  the 
fat  from  the  firm  bacon  averaged  about 
64  per  cent  and  in  the  soft  bacon  about 
80  per  cent  of  the  fat.  The  melting 
point  of  the  fat  in  the  firm  bacon  aver- 
aged about  37.6°  C,  and  the  soft  bacon 
27.4°  C.  The  olein  content  of  the  fat 
and  the  melting  point  were  therefore 
taken  as  a  standard  by  which  to  judge 
firmness  or  softness  of  the  meats  made 
on  different  kinds  of  feed.  It  was  early 
discovered  that  breed  has  but  little  to  do 
with  firm  pork,  since  firm  bacon  from 
pigs  of  the  lard  type  and  soft  bacon 
from  pigs  of  the  bacon  type  were  fre- 
quently obtained.  It  was  also  discovered 
that  the  fat  of  young  or  immature  pigs 
(pigs  weighing  less  than  100  pounds) 
contained  a  relatively  high  percentage 
of  olein  and  was  considerably  softer  than 
the  fat  of  more  mature  pigs  killed  at  a 
weight  of  180  to  200  pounds. 


The  results  of  the  investigations  show 
clearly  that  the  controlling  factor  in  the 
quality  of  the  pork  lies  primarily  in  the 
character  of  the  food  employed.  The 
firmest  pork  in  the  stations'  experiments 
were  produced  on  a  mixture  of  peas,  oats 
and  barley  in  equal  parts.  Corn  and 
beans  both  tended  to  produce  a  soft 
pork.  Beans  produced  the  softest  pork 
of  all.  Skim  milk  when  used  with  the 
different  rations  produced  a  much  firmer 
fat  in  every  instance  than  when  the  same 
grain  ration  was  fed  without  it.  Ex- 
clusive corn  feeding,  for  a  somewhat  ex- 
tended period,  produced  bacon  of  an  ex- 
tremely soft  and  undesirable  character. 
No  evil  effects  were  noted  from  its  use 
when  fed  to  fattening  hogs  that  had 
had  plenty  of  exercise  until  they  had 
reached  about  100  pounds  live  weight  or 
had  been  fed  skim  milk  with  a  mixed 
grain  ration  until  they  had  reached  100 
pounds  live  weight.  The  softening  ef- 
fects of  corn,  which  were  quite  pro- 
nounced in  nearly  every  experiment, 
were  in  a  large  measure  counteracted 
by  the  use  of  skim  milk. 

"When  oats,  barley  and  peas  (equal 
parts)  were  fed  until  the  pigs  weighed 
100  pounds  and  then  corn  used  to  finish 
the  fattening  period  a  much  poorer  qual- 
ity of  pork  was  produced  than  when  the 
reverse  method  of  feeding  was  observed. 
Cooking  the  feed  seemed  to  slightly  in- 
crease the  softness  of  the  fat.  The  qual- 
ity of  the  meat  w?s  not  affected  by  giv- 
ing the  feed  wet  rather  than  dry.  Fin- 
ished pigs  from  the  western  part  of 
Ontario  were  not  found  to  yield  softer 
pork  when  fed  the  same  foods  than  hogs 
of  eastern  origin.  Such  succulent  feeds 
as  rape,  pumpkins,  artichokes,  sugar 
beets,  turnips  and  mangels  were  success- 
fury  fed  in  the  different  rations  without 
injuring  the  quality  of  the  pork  pro- 
duced. 

Hogs  confined  in  pens  and  fed  wheat 
middlings  during  the  early  stages  of 
growth  and  finished  off  on  peas,  barley 
and  shorts,  had  a  marked  tendency  to- 
wards softness.  When  these  same  foods 
were  given,  but  the  hogs  allowed  to  have 
plenty  of  exercise,  much  firmer  bacon 
was  produced.  The  evil  effect  of  lack  of 
exercise  was  largely  overcome  by  the  use 
of  skim  milk  and  whey.  From  2  to  21/2 
pounds  of  whey  is  recommended  for 
each  pound  of  grain  fed. 

Barley  alone  has  given  good  gains  and 
produced  remarkably  firm  bacon.    When 


SWINE 


555 


pea  meal  has  been  fed  alone  it  has  re- 
sulted in  unthrifty  animals  and  poor 
gains,  but  when  mixed  with  middlings 
in  the  proportion  of  three  parts  pea  meal 
and  one  part  middlings,  good  gains  and 
an  excellent  quality  of  bacon  has  been 
obtained.  It  is  recommended  that,  for 
firm  bacon,  peas  always  be  fed  in  combi- 
nation with  other  grains  to  hogs. 

Experiments  at  the  Canadian  agri- 
cultural  college  have  also  shown  that  un- 
thrifty hogs  are  more  likely  to  produce 
soft  bacon  than  vigorous,  well  fed  hogs. 
When  roots  equal  in  weight  to  the  grain 
ration  have  been  fed  an  excellent  qual- 
ity of  pork  and  firm  bacon  have  been 
produced.  In  general,  feeds  which  keep 
the  animals  in  a  thrifty,  vigorous  con- 
dition are  likely  to  result  in  the  pro- 
duction of  firm  bacon.  Plenty  of  ex- 
ercise, the  use  of  succulent  feeds,  skim 
milk  and  other  dairy  products  also  favor 
the  production  of  firm  bacon.  In  Can- 
ada the  Tamworth  and  Yorkshire  are  the 
breeds  most  commonly  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  bacon  for  the  English  and 
Canadian  markets. 

Dressed  weight  of  hogs — The  dressed 
weight  of  well  fattened  hogs   in  many 


experiments  has  averaged  76.44  per  cent 
(fasted  live  weight).  When  hogs  have 
been  fed  on  concentrated  feeds  like  corn, 
the  dressed  weight  may  equal  80  per  cent 
of  the  live  weight.  On  the  average,  the 
blood  constitutes  about  2.5  to  3  per 
cent  of  the  live  weight  of  hogs;  the 
liver  1.3  to  1.5  per  cent;  heart  0.2  per 
cent;  stomach  and  contents  4.5  to  5  per 
cent;  intestines  6.5  to  8  per  cent;  kid- 
neys 0.3  per  cent;  spleen  0.1  per  cent; 
intestinal  fat  1  to  2  per  cent;  kidney  fat 
4  to  4.5  per  cent. 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF 

SWINE 

The  regular  shipper  and  the  larger 
farmers  who  accompany  their  stock  to 
market,  come  to  understand  the  expres- 
sions used  in  the  stock  yards  with  refer- 
ence to  the  different  classes  and  grades 
of  stock.  Without  a  visit  to  the  stock 
yards  it  is  difficult  to  interpret  the  stock 
market  quotations. 

In  a  recent  bulletin  from  the  Illinois 
station,  Dietrich  has  reported  compre- 
hensively on  this  subject.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  classification  reported  by 
Dietrich  as  used  in  the  principal  stock 
markets : 


Classes. 
Prime  heavy  hogs, 
350  to  500  pounds. 

Butcher  hogs, 

180  to  350  pounds. 

Packing  hogs, 

200  to  500  pounds. 


Ught  hogs, 

125  to  220  pounds. 


MARKET    CLASSIFICATION    OF    SWINE 

Subclasses. 

Heavy  butchers,  280  to  350  pounds 

Medium  butchers,  220  to  280  pounds  ) 
Light  butchers,  180  to  220  pounds      ) 


Heavy  packing,  300  to  500  pounds  ) 

Medium  packing,  250  to  :tfK)  pounds  > 

Mixed  packing,  200  to  280  pounds  » 

English,  160  to  220  pounds 


Bacon 


United  States,  155  to  195  pounds 


Light  mixed,  150  to  220  pounds 


Light  light,  125  to  150  pounds 


Pigs,  60  to  125  pounds    . 

Roughs. 
Stags. 
Boars. 
Miscellaneous: 

Roasting  pigs,  15  to  30  pounds. 

Feeders. 

Governments. 

Pen  holders. 

Dead  hogs. 


Grades. 

Prime. 
(  Prime. 
(Good. 

(  Prime. 
\  Good. 
(  Common. 
(Good 
'  Common 
( Inferior 
( Choice. 
\  Light. 
(Fat. 

( Choice 
{Good 
(  Common 

( Good. 
<  Common. 
( Inferior. 

( Good. 
•'  Common. 
( Inferior. 
( Choice. 
\  Good. 
I  Common. 


556 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


In  looking  over  this  classification,  we 
see  that  there  are  13  general  classes  of 
hogs,  beginning  with  prime  heavy  and 
ending  with  dead  hogs.  Butcher  hogs, 
packing  hogs,  and  light  hogs,  have  sub- 
classes and  these  sub-classes  are  again 
divided  into  prime,  good  and  common. 

Prime  heavy  hogs — Taking  up  the 
main  classes,  a  "prime  heavy  hog"  is  a 
hog  weighing  from  350  to  500  pounds 
and  represents  the  extreme  of  the  fat  or 
lard  hog  type.  The  number  of  hogs  of 
this  class  found  on  the  market  are  not 
as  numerous  to-day  as  formerly,  owing 
to  the  tendency  of  the  market  toward 
the  lighter  hogs.  There  are  still  enough, 
however,  to  form  a  class. 


show  marked  evidence  of  ripeness  and 
maturity.  The  two  must  go  hand  in 
hand.  A  hog  may  be  mature  without 
having  been  fed  so  as  to  show  that 
bloom  of  condition  that  is  necessary  for 
a  prime  hog,  or  he  may  have  been  as 
well  fed  as  possible,  and  not  be  suf- 
ficiently mature,  consequently  he  would 
not  grade  as  prime.  The  high  state  of 
finish  required  for  a  hog  of  this  grade 
is  brought  about  by  liberal  grain  feed- 
ing to  maturity.  Maturity  in  general 
means  that  condition  in  which  develop- 
ment is  complete."  More  specifically  it 
means  "that  stage  in  the  process  of  feed- 
ing where  growth  ceases  under  a  given 
system  of  feeding  and  the  animal  takes 


Fig.    351 — CHOICE   BACON   CLASS    (UNITED   STATES) 
(Courtesy  of  Illinois  Exper.  Station) 


Butcher  hogs  weigh  from  180  to  350 
pounds  and  as  a  class  are  mostly  bar- 
rows. Barrows  usually  sell  more  readily 
and  bring  better  prices  than  sows.  This 
class  of  hogs  is  principally  used  for  the 
fresh  meat  trade.  They  range  in  age 
from  six  months  in  the  case  of  the  light 
butchers  to  a  year  old  for  the  heavy 
butchers.  Heavy  butchers  weigh  from 
280  to  350  pounds,  medium  butchers  220 
to  280  pounds  and  light  butchers  180 
to  220  pounds. 

Prime  hogs — In  order  for  a  hog  to 
grade  "prime"  in  either  the  heavy,  me- 
dium or  light  butcher  classes,  it  must 
be  perfect  in  quality  and  show  evidence 
of  ripeness   in  condition  and  maturity. 

A  "prime"  hog  means  the  best  of  its 
class.    "To  grade  as  'prime,'  a  hog  must 


on  the  form  and  appearance,  as  well 
as  the  high  state  of  finish,  of  an  ordi- 
narily well-fed,  mature  animal.  This 
may  be  at  different  ages  and  weights, 
thus  giving  the  prime  heavy  hogs,  and 
prime,  heavy,  medium  and  light  butch- 
ers ranging  in  weight  from  500  down  to 
200  pounds." 

A  "prime"  butcher  hog  should  have 
the  ideal  form  of  a  fat  or  lard  hog,  with 
a  broad  back,  wide,  well-filled  hams  and 
shoulders,  short,  heavy  neck,  heavy 
jowls,  and  short  legs.  The  degree  of 
fatness  of  the  hog  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance in  determining  the  grade  to  which 
it  belongs.  "Prime  butcher  hogs  must 
be  well  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  fat 
on  the  outside  of  the  carcass,  be  well 
rounded  out  at  the  rump,  thus  making 


SWINE 


557 


a  socket  in  which  the  tail  is  set,  be  well 
filled  on  the  neck  up  to  the  face,  have 
a  broad,  fat  back  with  much  fat  on  sides 
and  on  belly,  and  be  well  filled  in  flanks 
and  in  twist.  Besides  this,  they  must  be 
free  from  flabbiness  and  show  a  firm, 
even     and     symmetrical     development." 

Good  butcher  hogs,  as  compared  with 
prime  butchers,  may  be  slightly  deficient 
in  form  or  a  little  lacking  in  quality, 
maturity  or  condition. 

Common  butcher  hogs  are  found  only 
in  the  medium  and  light  butcher  classes. 
They  are  among  the  better  grades  of 
hogs  and  show  evidence  of  having  been 
well  fed  and  are  compact,  smooth  and 
firm.  These  animals  may  not  be  mature 
and  may  be  considerably  more  deficient 
in  form,  quality  and  condition  than 
prime  butcher  hogs.  Other  names  some- 
times applied  to  this  class  of  hogs  are 
"heavy  shipping,"  "selected,"  "mediums 
and  butchers,"  "mediums  and  heavys." 
The  term  "shipping  hogs"  usually  refers 
to  hogs  that  are  bought  in  the  larger 
markets  and  shipped  elsewhere  for  butch- 
ering. 

Packing  hogs  as  a  class  are  of  poorer 
grade  than  butcher  hogs.  It  may  in- 
clude old  brood  sows,  and  all  other  hogs 
except  the  roughs,  boars,  and  coarse 
stags  that  are  heavy  enough  for  this 
class,  and  not  good  enough  for  the 
butcher  hogs  class. 

Dietrich  states  that  about  40  per  cent 
of  the  hogs  coming  to  the  Chicago  mar- 
ket are  of  this  class.  From  this  class 
of  hogs  the  packers  make  mess  pork, 
dry  salt  sides,  while  the  hams  and 
shoulders  are  cured.  These  hogs  are 
usually  above  nine  months  in  age.  This 
class  of  hogs  is  subdivided  into  the 
heavy  packing  class,  consisting  of  hogs 
weighing  300  to  500  pounds,  medium 
packing,  weighing  250  to  300  pounds, 
and  mixed  packing,  weighing  200  to  280 
pounds. 

Droves  of  hogs  are  sometimes  sent  to 
market  in  which  there  are  heavy  pack- 
ing, medium  packing,  some  light  hogs 
and  even  a  few  butcher  hogs,  and  may 
be  sold  as  "mixed  packing"  or  "mixed 
hogs."  These  mixed  droves  are  fre- 
quently bought  in  carload  lots  by  spec- 
ulators, re-sorted  into  their  proper 
grades  and  sold. 

In  each  of  these  sub-classes  of  heavy, 
medium  and  mixed  packing  hogs,  there 
are  three  grades,  good,  common  and  in- 
ferior. 


Good  packing  hogs  of  either  the  heavy, 
medium  or  mixed  class,  must  be  fitted 
in  good  condition  and  show  that  they 
belong  to  the  fat  hog  type  in  form  and 
breeding,  but  may  be  too  much  off  in 
form,  quality  or  condition  to  go  into 
the  butcher  hog  class.  Highly  finished 
old  sows  that  bear  evidence  of  once  hav- 
ing had  pigs  may  be  in  this  class,  or 
barrows,  not  sufficiently  up  in  form  and 
condition,  or  mixed  lots  of  sows  and  bar- 
rows, varying  in  quality  and  condition, 
but  still  showing  evidence  of  good  breed- 
ing, form  and  quality. 

Common  packing  hogs  are  not  quite 
as  good  a  grade  of  hogs  as  the  good 
packing  hogs,  while  the  inferior  pack- 
ing hogs  include  hogs  poor  in  form, 
coarse  in  quality  and  much  lacking  in 
condition,  but  still  good  enough  to  be 
fit  for  the  block. 

Light  hogs  include  all  those  within 
the  weight  limits,  125  to  220  pounds, 
except  roughs,  stags  and  boars.  This 
class  makes  up  about  15  per  cent  of  the 
hogs  coming  into  the  market.  In  it  are 
found  the  bacon  hogs,  weighing  for  the 
English  trade  160  to  220  pounds,  and 
for  the  American  trade  155  to  195 
pounds,  light  mixed  hogs,  weighing  150 
to  220  pounds,  and  light  light  hogs, 
weighing  125  to  150  pounds. 

For  the  English  bacon  trade,  much 
of  the  bacon  is  cut  into  what  is  called 
the  Wiltshire  sides,  which  is  the  whole 
side  of  the  hog  with  simply  the  head  and 
feet  cut  off.  Bacon  hogs  are  sub-divided 
into  choice  bacon,  light  bacon,  and  fat 
bacon.  In  the  choice  bacon  class  are  in- 
cluded all  those  hogs  which  conform  to 
the  bacon  hog  type  and  have  quality  and 
condition  in  the  highest  degree  for  the 
class. 

"Choice  bacon  hogs — The  bacon  hog  is 
not  a  fat  hog,  consequently  when  a  ba- 
con hog  is  in  good  condition  for  market 
he  is  an  entirely  different  looking  hog 
froin  a  fat  or  lard  hog  when  in  such 
condition.  To  be  in  good  condition,  a 
bacon  hog  must  have  a  good  develop- 
ment of  lean  meat  or  muscle,  with  the 
proper  amount  of  fat.  He  must  be 
smooth,  well  developed  and  have  a  large 
proportion  of  edible  meat,  while  the 
proportion  of  fat  and  other  offal  must 
be  small.  Hams,  shoulders,  jowls  and 
neck  must  also  be  small  in  proportion 
to  length  and  depth  of  sides.  If  a  hog 
has  all  these  characteristics  of  form, 
quality    and    condition,    developed   to    a 


>58 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


marked  degree,  it  would  be  considered  a 
choice  bacon  hog." 

When  hogs  have  been  well  bred  and 
cared  for,  and  weigh  between  160  to  220 
pounds,  they  furnish  the  best  quality  of 
bacon.  Hogs  weighing  less  than  this 
are  likely  to  be  younger  and  the  meat 
more  watery,  while  hogs  weighing  more 
are  likely  to  be  too  fat. 

The  light  bacon  hog  resembles  the 
choice  bacon,  but  is  lighter  in  weight 
and  usually  poorer  in  condition,  and 
may  be  coarser  in  quality,  while  a  fat 
bacon  hog  resembles  a  choice  bacon  hog 
but  is  too  fat. 

The  United  States  bacon  hog  is  a  hog 
ranging  in  weight  from  155  to  195 
pounds  and  in  age  from  6  to  8  months. 
They  conform  in  a  general  way  to  the 
bacon  hog  type  but  are  simply  selected 
from  light  hogs  in  general.  About  20 
per  cent  of  the  light  hogs  that  come 
into  the  Chicago  markets  are  of  this 
type.    The  best  of  this  class  of  hogs  are 


Fig.    352 — ROASTING    PIGS 
(Courtesy  of  Illinois  Esper.  Station) 

handled  as  choice  United  States  bacon, 
and  are  made  up  mostly  from  shipments 
outside  of  the  corn  belt.  These  hogs 
have  more  fat  on  the  outside  and  less 
lean  meat  on  the  inside  than  typical 
bacon  hogs  of  the  English  type.  "Good 
bacon  hogs  of  this  class  may  be  of  poorer 
quality,  may  be  lower  in  conditions,  may 
be  too  fat  or  too  much  of  the  fat  hog  type. 
.  .  .  If  there  is  still  more  marked  de- 
ficiency in  these  characteristics  the  hogs 
will  grade  as  a  common  bacon  hog." 

Pigs  as  a  market  class  range  in 
weight  from  60  to  125  pounds  and  in 
age  from  3^2  to  6  months.  All  hogs 
of  this  weight  are  included  in  the  pig 
class.  The  greatest  demand  for  these 
pigs  is  in  winter,  since  they  are  hard  to 


preserve  fresh  in  summer  and  are  too 
young  to  cure.  They  constitute  about  10 
per  cent  of  the  hogs  coming  to  the  Chi- 
cago market,  and  grade  as  choice,  good 
and  common.  They  are  choice  when 
they  approach  the  ideal  fat  hog  in  form 
and  condition,  and  good  or  common  as 
these  qualities  are  less  marked. 

Roughs  include  hogs  of  all  sizes  that 
are  coarse,  rough  and  lacking  in  condi- 
tion. If  too  inferior  to  be  classed  as 
packing  hogs  or  as  light  mixed  hogs, 
they  go  into  the  class  of  roughs.  "The 
pork  from  these  hogs  is  used  for  the 
cheaper  class  of  trade  for  both  packing 
and  fresh  meat  purchasers.  In  market 
reports,  pigs  and  roughs  are  frequently 
classed  together,  not  because  they  be- 
long in  the  same  class,  but  because  they 
sell  approximately  at  the  same  price." 

Stags  are  castrated  old  boars  and  sell 
with  a  dockage  of  80  pounds.  If  of 
good  quality  and  condition,  they  may 
go  in  with  some  of  the  various  grades 
of  packing  hogs,  but  when  coarse  and 
staggy  in  appearance,  they  are  sold  in 
the  same  class  with  boars. 

"Boars  are  always  sold  in  a  class  by 
themselves  and  bring  from  $2  to  $3  per 
hundred  weight  less  than  the  best  hogs 
on  the  market  at  the  same  time.  They 
always  sell  straight  with  no  dockage. 
There  is  no  distinction  as  to  grade, 
they  simply  sell  as  boars."  These  ani- 
mals are  used  to  supply  pork  to  the 
cheaper  class  of  trade  and  for  sausage 
making. 

Roasting  pigs  include  pigs  from  three 
to  six  weeks  old  weighing  from  15  to  30 
pounds  each.  They  come  to  market  in 
relatively  small  numbers,  chiefly  during 
the  holiday  season.  They  are  usually  of 
a  nearly  uniform  grade  and  are  taken 
directly  from  their  dams,  dressed  with 
head  and  feet  on  and  served  like  chicken 
or  turkey.  Prices  for  roasting  pigs 
range  from  regular  live  hog  prices  to 
that  paid  for  poultry. 

Feeders  are  hogs  bought  in  the  mar- 
kets to  be  taken  back  to  the  country  for 
further  feeding.  Only  a  comparatively 
small  number  are  re-shipped  for  this 
purpose,  owing  to  the  small  chances  of 
profit  and  the  possibility  of  contracting 
disease  in  passing  through  the  large 
markets. 

Governments  are  hogs  inspected  by 
the  government  officials  and  rejected  as 
not  being  sound  in  every  respect.  Such 
hogs  are  tagged  by  the  inspector  and  re- 


SWINE 


559 


tained  for  further  inspection,  and  are 
known  as  "Governments." 

Penholders  are  hogs  of  poor  form,  and 
coarse  quality  that  are  kept  at  the  stock 
yards  by  commission  men  and  specula- 
tors simply  for  holding  pens.  They 
have  no  influence  on  the  market. 

Dead  hogs  refer  to  hogs  that  have 
been  killed  on  the  cars  in  transit  and  like- 
wise have  no  influence  on  the  market. 


Summarizing  for  the  Chicago  market 
— It  will  be  seen  that  butcher  hogs  con- 
stitute about  25  per  cent  of  all  the  hogs 
sent  to  that  market;  packing  hogs,  40 
per  cent;  light  hogs,  15  per  cent;  pigs, 
10  per  cent,  and  other  classes,  10  per 
cent. 

For  details  as  to  marketing  hogs,  quo- 
tations for  the  different  classes,  etc,  see 
Chapter  IV  on  Marketing  Live   Stock. 


PART   X 


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FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


SHEEP 


The  earliest  glimpses  of  history  show 
man  herding  and  tending  flocks  of  sheep. 
It  appears  that  sheep  were  first  raised 
chiefly  for  their  milk,  later  for  their 
skins,  which  were  used  for  clothing,  then 
wool  became  a  primary  consideration, 
and  finally  Great  Britain,  chiefly  through 
the  work  of  Robert  Bakewell,  produced 
the  mutton  type  of  sheep.  Up  to  about 
20  years  ago,  sheep  were  grown  in  the 
United  States  chiefly  for  wool.  The  low 
price  of  wool  for  a  period  of  years  has 
led  to  the  more  rapid  development  of 
mutton  flocks,  especially  in  the  East. 
At  the  present  time  the  mutton  flocks 
are  rapidly  increasing,  largely  through 
the  crossing  of  rams  of  the  mutton  type 
on  ewes  of  the  Merino  or  wool  breeds.    ' 

Feeding  qualities  of  sheep — Sheep 
stand  next  to  hogs  in  their  ability  to 
produce  meat  from  a  given  quantity  of 
food.  They  are  superior  to  hogs  in 
their  ability  to  utilize  coarse  fodders 
and  bulky  food,  even  excelling  cattle  in 
this  respect.  It  requires  9  to  11  pounds 
of  dry  matter  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain 
with  steers,  while  sheep  on  the  same  feed 
will  make  a  pound  of  gain  on  7  to  9 
pounds  of  dry  matter.  The  Iowa  sta- 
tion found  that  1,000  pounds  of  cattle 
on  full  feed  ate  19.6  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter a  day,  and  gained  2.14  pounds ;  while 
1,000  pounds  of  sheep  ate  29.7  pounds 
of  dry  matter  a  day  and  gained  3.73 
pounds  in  weight.  In  other  words,  the 
sheep  ate  48  per  cent  more  feed  per  1,000 
pounds  weight  and  made  75  per  cent  bet- 
ter gains.  Not  only  this,  but  while 
sheep  are  making  these  gains  they  will 
grow  a  fleece  in  addition,  worth  from 
75  cents  to  $1.50  a  head. 

General  usefulness  on  farm — The  fact 
is  that  properly  managed,  a  medium 
sized  flock  of  sheep  will  bring  in  more 
profits  to  its  owner  under  a  system  of 
mixed  farming  than  any  other  animal  on 
the    farm,    certainly    more    than    cattle. 


They  normally  eat  a  great  variety  of 
herbs  and  are  of  great  value  in  keeping 
the  farm  clean  from  weeds.  For  de- 
stroying brush,  they  are  nearly  equal 
to  goats.  They  will  thrive  better  on 
poor  pasture  than  either  hogs  or  cattle, 
and  when  given  richer  feed  will  gain 
correspondingly. 

Systems  of  sheep  farming — There  are 
several  systems  of  sheep  farming.  Sheep 
may  be  raised  for  wool  alone,  in  which 
case,  the  gross  annual  returns  under  west- 
ern range  conditions  are  about  $2  a  head. 
Of  this,  the  fleece  brings  about  $1.50  and 
the  mutton,  when  finally  sold,  50  cents. 

Profits  in  ranching — The  expenses 
under  the  better  systems  of  ranching  for 
wool  alone  are  as  follows:  Interest  on 
capital  invested,  84  cents  a  head;  taxes, 
7.5  cents  a  head;  shearing,  10  cents;  la- 
bor and  winter  feed,  41.5  cents;  total, 
$1.43,  leaving  57  cents  profit  a  head. 
These  are  actual  figures,  taken  from  the 
Bower  Ranch  in  Montana,  where  about 
40,000  sheep  are  kept  for  wool  alone. 
In  this  case  the  profits  are  reduced  15 
cents  more  a  head,  because  of  the  neces- 
sity of  renting  additional  summer  range. 

Returns  in  general  sheep  farming — 
When  general  purpose  sheep  are  raised 
for  both  mutton  and  wool,  the  gross  re- 
turns are,  a  fleece  at  about  $1,  and  lamb, 
which,  after  eight  or  nine  months  feed- 
ing, will  bring  $4.50  to  $6.50.  Where  a 
flock  of  ewes  is  kept  and  winter  lambs 
raised,  the  gross  receipts  are  a  fleece 
worth  about  $1,  and  a  lamb  or  two, 
which  after  two  or  three  months  feeding 
will  bring  $6  to  $12  a  carcass.  If  pure 
bred  sheep  are  raised,  the  profit  a  sheep, 
besides  the  wool,  may  amount  to  $15  to 
$20  a  head,  and  frequently  much  more 
than  this.  (See  also  Systems  of  Sheep 
Farming  in  Chapter  IV.) 

Statistics— The  largest  number  of 
sheep  ever  reported  in  the  United  States 
was  in  1903,  when  there  were  63,964.* 


568 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


and  the  Dickinson.  All  the  Delaine 
Merinos  have  horns,  and  more  or  less 
wrinkles  or  folds  about  the  neck  and 
breast.  The  Black  Top  Merinos,  like- 
wise, have  horns  in  the  rams,  but  do  not 
have  wrinkles  and  the  fleece  is  more  of 
a  black.  The  Dickinson  or  polled  Me- 
rinos have  neither  horns  nor  wrinkles. 
They  are  a  little  larger  in  size  and  the 
fleece  is  longer  than  the  Delaines. 

Ewes  of  the  Delaine  type,  when  ma- 
ture, will  weigh  from  100  to  150  pounds, 
the  rams  from  140  to  190  pounds.  They 
are  practically  equal  to  the  American 
Merinos  in  hardiness  and  grazing  powers, 
but  are  superior  to  them  in  early  ma- 


Merino  Sheep  Breeders'  association  with 
a  registration  of  217,850. 

Mexican  Merinos — The  Mexican  Me- 
rino is  a  descendant  of  Spanish  flocks 
and  has  been  bred  in  Mexico  for  al- 
most 200  years  without  any  outcross  or 
improvement.  These  sheep  have  long 
legs,  long,  slim  bodies,  small,  rather 
long  necks  and  a  long,  thin  head,  carried 
high.  The  wool  is  fine  and  thin,  and 
to  the  eye  they  appear  almost  worthless 
as  mutton  sheep  and  of  still  less  value 
for  wool.  They  are  remarkably  hardy, 
however,  are  excellent  travelers,  keep  in 
good  condition  on  the  poorest  and  dryest 
of   ranges,    are   fairly   prolific    and    can 


Fig.  355 — POLLED  DICKINSON  DELAINE  MERINO   RAMS 


turing  qualities,  in  the  quality  of  the 
mutton  produced,  and  in  feeding  quali- 
ties. The  Delaines  are  used  extensively 
for  crossing  on  western  range  sheep, 
where  the  fleece  has  become  light  and 
open.  The  fleece  in  ewes  will  weigh 
from  9  to  15,  and  in  the  bucks,  12  to 
18  pounds.  The  minimum  length  of  the 
fleece  is  3  inches. 

Twelve  or  fifteen  associations  have 
been  organized  in  the  United  States  to 
look  after  the  interests  of  the  American 
and  Delaine  Merinos.  Some  of  the  or- 
ganizations in  the  case  of  the  American 
Merinos  are  in  a  decadent  condition.  On 
the  whole  more  than  300,000  sheep  of 
these  breeds  have  been  registered.  One 
of  the  largest  of  these  is  the  Vermont 


be  herded  in  bunches  of  almost  any 
size.  They  fatten  easily,  though  never 
look  plump,  and  bring  top  prices  in 
the  Chicago  market,  since  they  shrink 
very  little  in  dressing,  while  the  meat 
is  of  excellent  flavor.  Yearling  ewes 
and  wethers  when  in  good  condition  will 
weigh  about  90  pounds. 

New  Mexico  Merinos — The  old  Mexi- 
can Merinos  as  above  described  have  been 
graded  up  with  American  Merino  rams 
in  New  Mexico  and  Southern  Colorado, 
and  greatly  improved  in  appearance. 
From  these  improved  Merinos,  excellent 
feeding  lambs  are  obtained,  which  are 
extensively  fattened  in  Colorado  and 
some  of  the  states  farther  east  for  the 
Chicago   market,   where   they  bring  top 


SHEEP 


569 


prices  for  the  same  reasons  as  the  Mexi- 
can sheep. 

Kambouillets — In  1786  the  French 
government  imported  from  Spain  383 
selected  Spanish  Merinos.  These  sheep 
were  kept  chiefly  at  Rambouillet,  where 
they  have  been  carefully  bred  by  rigid 
selection  and  liberal  feeding  and  greatly 
improved  in  mutton  form,  quality  of 
meat  and  weight,  without  the  introduc- 
tion of  any  outside  blood;  both  the 
weight  of  the  carcass  and  the  weight  of 
the  fleece  have  been  increased  from  100 


so   good    a   mutton   form,   though   very 
similar  in  other  respects. 

The  Rambouillets  have  the  same  hardi- 
ness and  feeding  qualities  as  the  Ameri- 
can Merinos,  and,  while  the  quality  of 
the  meat  is  excellent,  it  is  not  quite 
equal  to  that  of  the  mutton  breeds. 
These  sheep  are  specially  valuable  for 
crossing  upon  range  stock  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  a  larger  carcass  and 
heavy  fleece  of  wool.  They  are  at  pres- 
ent largely  used  alternately  with  Cots- 
wold  rams  on  western  range  flocks. 


Fig.     356 — RAMBOUILLET     YEARLING     BUCK 


to  150  per  cent  over  the  old  Spanish 
Merino.  These  sheep  were  introduced 
into  the  United  States  in  1840,  but  did 
not  become  specially  prominent  until 
during  the  last  20  years.  Full  grown 
rams  of  this  breed  will  weigh  up  to  225 
pounds  and  the  ewes  up  to  175  pounds. 

These  sheep  are  much  taller,  stronger 
limbed  and  more  rangy  than  the  Ameri- 
can sheep,  have  a  better  mutton  form, 
are  less  wrinkled,  and  the  wool  is  longer 
though  not  quite  so  dense  or  fine,  and 
freer  from  yolk  than  the  American 
Merino.  They  are  also  taller  and  heav- 
ier than  the  Delaines,  but  have  not  quite 


The  American  Rambouillet  Sheep 
Breeders'  association  was  organized  in 
Pontiac,  Michigan,  in  1889,  and  the 
number  registered  in  1906  was  34,075. 

The  sheep  occasionally  referred  to  as 
German  Rambouillet,  are  descendants  of 
the  French  Rambouillet,  which  were 
bred  in  Germany  by  Baron  von  Home- 
yer.  Sheep  from  this  flock  were  brought 
to  the  United  States  in  the  eighties 
and  nineties,  and  have  become  quite 
widely  distributed.  The  International 
von  Homeyer  Rambouillet  club  look  af- 
ter the  interests  of  these  sheep,  of  which 
about  300  have  been  registered. 


570 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Southdowns — The  Southdown  origi- 
nated in  England,  and  was  imported  in- 
to this  country  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  is  a  smooth, 
round  bodied,  symmetrical  sheep  with  a 
brown,  gray  or  mouse  colored  face  and 
feet.  The  fleece  is  rather  dry,  coarse  and 
light.  They  are  hornless  and,  while  the 
smallest  of  the  medium  breeds,  a  me- 
dium fat,  two-year-old  wether  will  weigh 
from  130  to  140  pounds.  They  are  es- 
pecially well  adapted  to  hilly  lands  with 
a  dry  soil  and  dry,  short  herbage.  They 
stand  in  the  first  rank  among  early  ma- 
turing breeds,  and  the  meat  is  of  the 


than  the  Southdown.  The  ewes  will 
weigh  up  to  175  pounds,  and  the  rams 
up  to  225  pounds.  It  is  of  English 
origin  and  was  evolved  out  of  the  South- 
down, Cotswold  and  Leicester  breeds. 
It  was  first  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  1855.  They  are  especially 
adapted  to  general  farm  conditions, 
where  the  land  is  well  drained  and  where 
pasturage  is  good.  The  ewes  are  very 
prolific,  producing  on  the  average  about 
40  per  cent  of  twin  lambs. 

The  unwashed  fleece  will  average  9 
to  10  pounds  in  weight  in  ewes,  and 
12  to  15  pounds  in  the  rams.     The  face 


,  <  ,  ;..     •■■■  ■ 

". 

Eig.    357 — RAMBOUILLET    EWE 


best  quality.  They  are  vigorous  and  es- 
pecially desirable  for  crossing  where 
mutton  is  chiefly  sought.  They  have 
been  used  to  a  greater  extent  in  the 
production  of  various  other  pure,  dark 
faced  breeds,  than  any  other  of  the 
Down  breeds.  They  are  inferior  in  wool 
production,  giving  an  unwashed  fleece 
that  will  average  from  5  to  7  pounds  in 
weight.  The  American  Southdown 
Breeders'  association  has  registered  19,- 
933  sheep. 

Shropshires_The  Shropshire  is  the 
most  popular  mutton  breed  produced  in 
the  United  States.  It  is  well  propor- 
tioned, symmetrical,  and  a  little  heavier 


is  grayish  black  and  the  legs  still  darker ; 
in  recent  years  there  is  a  tendency  to- 
wards somewhat  lighter  faces. 

As  compared  with  the  Southdowns,  the 
Shropshires  have  a  longer  and  heavier 
body  and  a  heavier  fleece.  The  head  is 
more  completely  covered  with  wool,  and 
the  wool  is  longer,  though  not  so  fine; 
it  is  what  is  known  on  the  market  as 
medium  Delaine  or  half  combing  wool. 

It  is  one  of  the  best  general  purpose 
sheep  for  farm  flocks,  since  it  produces 
a  high  quality  of  mutton,  a  good  grade 
of  wool  which  brings  nearly  top  prices, 
and  a  large  percentage  of  lambs.  The 
American    Shropshire   Eegistry   associa- 


SHEEP 


571 


tion   had   recorded   234,000    animals    in 
1906. 

Hampshires — The  Hampshire  is  a 
hornless,  black  faced,  black  legged  sheep. 
Like  the  Southdown  and  Shropshire,  it 
originated  in  England  and  is  the  out- 
come of  a  cross  of  the  Improved  South- 
down upon  the  Wiltshire  and  Berkshire 
Knot  sheep.  It  is  much  larger  than 
the  Southdown,  more  prolific,  produces 
a  heavier  fleece,  and  has  better  grazing 
qualities.     It  is  larger  than  the  Shrop- 


The  Hampshire  Down  Breeders  asso- 
ciation of  America  was  organized  in 
1889.  About  18,500  sheep  have  been 
registered.     ' 

Suffolks — This  is  a  medium  wool, 
hornless,  mutton  breed,  with  a  long, 
black  face,  and  a  general  absence  of 
wool  on  the  head  and  between  the  ears, 
which  constitutes  the  principal  difference 
in  appearance  between  the  Suffolk  and 
Hampshire  breeds.  The  body  is  rather 
long,  the  legs  jet  black.     The  Suffolks 


"-"MM, 


Fig.     358 — 2-YEAR-OLD     RAMBOUILLET    EWE 


shire  and  the  lambs  grow  more  rapidly 
to  maturity.  They  are  especially  adapted 
to  an  intense  system  of  farming,  and 
for  crossing  where  early,  quick  maturing 
large  sized  lambs  are  desired.  The  un- 
washed fleece  will  weigh  from  7  to  10 
pounds  in  the  ewes  and  a  little  heavier 
in  the  bucks.  The  wool  corresponds  to 
that  of  the  Shrortshire,  but  is  perhaps  a 
little  coarser.  They  are  a  stylish,  hand- 
some sheep  of  the  mutton  form,  and  are 
quite  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Canada. 


occupy  an  intermediate  place  between 
the  Shropshire  and  the  Hampshire. 
They  have  not  been  extensively  bred  in 
the  United  States.  The  American  Suf- 
folk Begistry  association  has  recorded 
1,013   sheep. 

Oxfords—The  Oxford  Downs  origi- 
nated in  England  as  a  result  of  crossing 
Cotswold  rams  upon  Hampshire  Down 
ewes  and  the  selection  and  mating  of 
the  progeny.  These  sheep  since  1857  have 
been   known   as   Oxfordshire   Downs   or 


572 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Oxford  sheep.  They  are  widely  dis- 
tributed over  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  They  are  the  largest  and 
heaviest  of  the  Down  breeds.  When  in 
good  flesh,  the  rams  should  weigh 
250  to  275  pounds,  and  the  ewes  from 
200  to  225  pounds.  The  wool  is  rather 
coarser  than  any  other  of  the  medium 
wools  and  the  fleece  is  heavier,  weighing 
from  10  to  12  pounds  unwashed.  The 
Oxfords  resemble  the  Hampshires  in 
general  form,  but  are  a  larger  breed  and 
the  face  is  not  so  dark.  It  is  usually  ai 
even  dark  gray  or  brown,  with  or  with- 


for  mature  ewes,  165  pounds.  The  wool 
is  short  and  will  average  6  to  8  pounds 
unwashed  to  the  fleece.  The  Dorset  is  a 
solidly  built  sheep,  and  especially  es- 
teemed for  its  prolificacy.  When  prop- 
erly managed,  two  lambing  seasons  a 
year  are  possible  with  this  breed.  This 
makes  the  Dorset  especially  popular  for 
the  production  of  winter  lambs.  When 
bred  in  May,  they  produce  lambs  for  the 
Christmas  market,  and  will  breed  again 
soon  after  dropping  their  lamb.  They 
frequently  produce  twins  and  often  trip- 
lets.    The  ewes   are   frequently  bred  to 


£59 — PEN   OF    SOUTHDOWN   LAMBS 


out  a  gray  spot  on  the  tip  of  the  nose. 
They  are  best  adapted  for  lands  fur- 
nishing good  pasture  and  do  not  suc- 
ceed as  well  under  range  conditions  or 
on  rugged,  broken  pastures  as  either  the 
Shropshires  or  Southdowns.  The  Ameri- 
can Oxford  Down  Sheep  Record  associa- 
tion was  organized  in  1884.  In  1906, 
36.210  had  been  registered. 

Dorsets— The  Dorsets  are  one  of  the 
oldest  English  breeds  of  sheep.  Both 
sexes  are  horned.  The  face  is  white 
with  a  tendency  toward  a  slight  Roman 
nose.  They  are  considerably  larger  than 
Southdowns.  The  average  weight  for 
a  mature  ram  is  about  215  pounds,  and 


Southdown  or  Hampshire  rams  to  give 
the  market  lamb  a  black  face,  which 
is  generally  preferred  by  tke  butchers. 
The  Dorset  is  generally  regarded  as  the 
most  prolific  of  the  sheep  breeds. 

The  Wisconsin  station  found  that  by 
crossing  common  grade  ewes  with  a 
pure  bred  Dorset  ram  for  two  or  three 
generations,  and  preserving  their  earlier 
dropped  lambs  for  breeding  purposes,  a 
flock  could  be  built  up  which  would  drop 
their  lambs  in  the  fall  and  early  winter 
instead  of  spring.  The  ewes  are  excep- 
tionally Tood  milkers.  They  are  a  hardy 
sheep ;  good  rustlers ;  have  early  matur- 
ing   qualities,    and   the   mutton    is    su- 


SHEEP 


573 


perior.  They  stand  unrivaled  among 
the  sheep  breeds  for  the  production  of 
winter  lambs,  i.  e.,  unweaned  lambs 
which  can  be  marketed  during  the  holi- 
days and  winter  months. 

The  Dorset  Horn  Sheep  association 
was  established  in  1891,  and  has  regis- 
tered about  10,750  sheep.  The  Conti- 
nental Dorset  club  has  registered  5,098. 

Cheviot — The  Cheviot  is  a  mountain 
breed  of  sheep,  hardy  and  does  well  on 
scant  pasture.  They  are  native  to  the 
Cheviot  Hills  of  England.  These  sheep 
are  distributed  in  nearly  all  the  states 
east  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  in  Can- 


Tunis_The  Tunis  or  Broad  Tail  sheep 
is  a  native  of  Tunis  in  Northern  Af- 
rica. They  are  a  mountain  or  semi- 
mountainous  breed  and  were  first  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  in  1799, 
and  no  importations  have  been  made 
since  then.  _  They  are  about  equal  to 
the  Dorset  in  size,  the  rams  in  good 
form  weighing  about  180  pounds,  and 
the  ewes  135  pounds.  They  stand  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold  well  and  seem 
likely  to  spread  southward  rather  than 
northward.  The  wool  may  be  compared 
with  that  of  the  Dorset  in  quality,  the 
unwashed    fleece    weighing    about    7*4 


Fiff.  360 — SHROPSHIRE  RAM 


ada.  They  are  a  medium  sized  sheep, 
the  rams  weighing  175  to  200  pounds, 
and  the  ewes  from  135  to  150  pounds. 
The  wool  is  rather  coarse,  the  fleece 
weighs  8  to  10  pounds.  They  are  es- 
pecially sought  where  hardihood  is  im- 
portant. The  breed  is  pure  white,  in- 
cluding a  white  face  and  white  legs. 
Occasionally  there  are  small  black  spots 
on  the  head  and  ears.  The  end  of  the 
nose  is  dark.  They  do  not  bear  close 
confinement  as  well  as  some  of  the  other 
breeds.  The  mutton,  though  of  good 
quality,  is  not  equal  to  that  of  the  South- 
down. 

The  American  Cheviot  Sheep  society 
has  registered  10,700  animals. 


pounds.  They  have  a  small  head,  horn- 
less or  nearly  so,  a  clean  face  and  nose, 
brown  and  white  in  color,  and  the  same 
colored  legs.  The  ears  are  broad  and 
drooping  and  brown  or  light  fawn  in 
color.  They  mature  early,  have  good 
grazing  and  feeding  quality  and  the 
quality  of  the  meat  is  of  the  very  best. 
They  are  very  prepotent  when  crossed 
on  other  breeds.  They  are  probably  bet- 
ter than  any  of  the  Down  breeds  for 
southern  conditions.  By  many  they  are 
considered  second  in  importance  only  to 
the  Dorset  in  early  breeding  habit  and 
for   the   production    of  winter  lambs. 

Leicesters — The  Leicester  is  one  of  the 
long  wool  native  English  breeds  which, 


574 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


though  popular  in  England,  has  never 
made  much  headway  in  America.  There 
are  two  types  of  Leicesters,  the  Bakewell 
and  the  Border  Leicester.  They  both 
have  the  same  general  style,  but  the 
Border  Leicester  is  a  little  the  larger 
and  not  quite  so  compact  as  the  Bake- 
well.  They  are  a  white  faced,  square 
bodied,  hornless  breed.  The  mature 
bucks  weigh  from  225  to  250  pounds,  and 
ewes  200  to  225  pounds.  The  unwashed 
fleece  will  weigh  from  9  to  11  pounds. 
The  wool  is  of  good  length  and  fibre,  and 
hangs  in  spirals  at  the  outer  surface, 
covering   the   whole   carcass   except   the 


United  States  in  1836.  They  are  the 
heaviest  of  all  the  breeds  of  sheep  raised 
in  this  country,  the  mature  rams  in  good 
flesh  weighing  275  to  300  pounds,  and 
the  ewes  from  225  to  250  pounds.  The 
unwashed  fleece  should  weigh  from  12 
to  14  pounds  on  the  average.  And  the 
staple  should  not  be  less  than  8  inches 
in  length.  It  hangs  in  large  and  wavy 
spirals.  This  breed  has  a  white  face 
and  a  conspicuous  tuft  on  the  forehead. 
Both  sexes  are  hornless. 

In  experiments  at  the  Iowa  station, 
Lincoln  sheep  produced  the  heaviest 
fleece  of  10  breeds  under  domestication 


Fig.    361 — YEARLING    HAMPSHIRE    RAM 


head  and  legs.  They  are  especially 
suited  to  thickly  settled  conditions  where 
there  is  an  abundance  of  succulent  vege- 
tation. They  are  easy  keepers,  mature 
early  and  make  excellent  use  of  the  food 
given  them.  They  are  only  fairly  well 
adapted  for  rough  grazing  purposes.  In 
prolificacy  they  are  not  equal  to  some  of 
the  other  breeds.  The  American  Leices- 
ter Breeders'  association,  formed  in  1888, 
has  registered  about  8,975  animals. 

Lincoln — This  is  probably  the  most 
popular  of  the  long  wool  breed  of  sheep. 
It  originated  in  Lincolnshire,  England, 
and  has  been  distributed  all  over  the 
world.    They  were  first  imported  into  the 


and  the  fleece  sold  for  the  most  money. 
They  are  especially  well  adapted  to  an 
intensive  system  of  agriculture,  are  good 
grazers,  dress  out  well  on  the  block  and 
the  quality  of  the  meat  is  good,  though 
not  equal  in  flavor  to  that  of  the  middle 
wool  breeds.  The  Lincoln  has  been  ex- 
tensively used  by  ranchmen  in  America 
and  Australia  for  crossing  upon  Merinos 
to  improve  their  size  and  mutton  qual- 
ities. 

The  National  American  Lincoln 
Sheep  Breeders'  association  was  organ- 
ized in  1891  and  has  registered  about 
14,000  animals. 


SHEEP 


575 


Cotswolds— The  Cotswold  is  the  most 
popular  of  the  long  wool  breeds  in 
America.  It  is  one  of  the  old  English 
breeds,  first  brought  to  the  United  States 
in  1832.  They  are  distributed  in  every 
state  in  the  Union,  as  well  as  Canada. 
They  stand  next  to  the  Lincolns  in  size. 
The  bucks  weigh  from  250  to  275  pounds 
when  in  good  flesh,  and  the  ewes  200  to 
225  pounds,  the  fleece  is  8  to  10  inches 
long  and  should  weigh  on  the  average 
10  to  14  pounds  unwashed.  The  breed 
has  a  well  poised  head  with  a  character- 


try  association  was  organized  in   1878, 
and  has  registered  36,670  animals. 

Romney  Marsh—The  home  of  this 
breed  is  the  low,  marshy  lands  of  south- 
eastern England.  It  is  a  hardy  breed 
and  survives  under  conditions  of  neglect 
where  many  of  the  other  breeds  would 
fail.  It  is  perhaps  the  best  of  the  breeds 
for  marshy  conditions.  The  character- 
istics of  the  Romney  Marsh,  according 
to  Stewart  are:  "A  thick,  broad  head 
and  neck,  long  carcass,  flat  sides,  broad 
loins,  full  and  broad  thigh,  neither  heavy 
nor  full  fore-quarter,  thick,  strong  legs 


.'  Mf^^k. 

Hywfcv  t 

mm 

KSmS^^—m 

■<:■-.  • 

: 

\ 

• 

£9 

Fig.  362 

istic  foretop  coming  well  down  over  the 
eyes,  a  straight,  broad  back,  well  round- 
ed body  with  full  brisket.  It  has  a 
hardy  constitution,  good  grazing  and 
feeding  qualities  and  is  specially  well 
adapted  for  crossing  on  smaller  Down 
and  Merino  breeds  for  increasing  the 
weight  of  the  lamb,  lengthening  the 
fleece  and  improving  the  quality  of  the 
mutton.  They  are  popular  on  the  range 
for  crossing  on  Merino  ewes.  The  face 
and  legs  are  white,  or  slightly  mixed 
with  gray.  The  fleece  covers  the  whole 
body.     The  American  Cotswold  Eegis- 


CIIAMPIOX  OXFORD  EWE 


and  broad  feet;  wool  long,  somewhat 
coarse,  and  coarsest  on  the  thighs,  much 
inside  fat,  and  favorite  animal  with  the 
butcher.  There  is  a  tuft  of  wool  on  the 
forehead.  The  fleece  weighs  from  7  to 
10  pounds,  is  of  long  staple,  sound  qual- 
ity, bright  and  glossy."  Three-year-old 
wethers  should  dress  100  to  120  pounds, 
the  ewes  from  70  to  90  pounds. 

Black-faced  Scotch  or  Highland  sheep 
— This  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of 
Scotland.  They  are  a  black-faced  breed 
with  large  spiral  horns,  a  square,  com- 
pact body,  very  muscular  and  active  and 


576 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


remarkably  hardy.  It  is  said  that  they 
are  sometimes  buried  under  snowdrifts 
in  the  mountains  for  one  or  two  weeks 
at  a  time,  and  under  such  conditions 
herd  together  and  form  a  cave,  in  which 
they  feed  upon  the  scanty  herbage  until 
rescued  by  the  shepherd.  They  may  be 
kept  in  large  flocks  of  several  thousands 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Merino.  The 
mutton  furnished  by  this  sheep  is  of' 
exceptionally  fine  quality.  The  sheep 
will  weigh  100  to  125  pounds  and  the 
fleece  averages  about  33  poimds  of  un- 
washed wool.     The   breed   is   fitted   for 


have  white  or  rusty  brown  faces  and 
weigh  50  to  70  pounds.  They  have  a 
small  head,  rather  long  neck  with  a  nar- 
row chest  and  flat  sides.  The  bucks  have 
horns,  but  the  ewes  rarely.  They  pro- 
duce 2  to  3  pounds  of  wool.  The  mut- 
ton is  claimed  to  be  unexcelled  by  any 
breed  in  England.  They  are  a  very 
active  sheep,  delight  in  lofty  situations. 
A  flock  of  57  ewes  and  2  bucks  were  im- 
ported by  a  Connecticut  firm  in  1902. 
It  is  believed  to  be  the  first  importation 
of  tins  sheep  to  America. 

The  Welsh  Mountain  sheep  cross  with 


Fig.    363 — PRIZE    OXFORD    YEARLING   RAM 


rugged  mountain  conditions  under  which 
most  other  flocks  would  be  a  failure. 

Welsh  Mountain_Tbis  is  another  of 
the  native  breeds  of  Great  Britain, 
grown  extensively  only  in  the  mountain- 
ous regions  of  Wales.  There  appears  to 
be  three  varieties  of  this  sheep,  the 
Higher  Mountain,  the  Soft  Wool  and  the 
Radnor.  The  Higher  Mountain  sheep 
are  a  small  breed  weighing  40  to  50 
pounds  and  of  black,  gray  or  brown 
color;  both  sexes  have  horns.  The  Soft 
Wool  breed  is  the  sheep  usually  referred 
to  as  the  Welsh  Mountain.    These  sheep 


the  larger  breeds  and  seem  to  carry  to 
the  offspring  some  of  the  delicate  flavor 
of  the  meat.  The  Radnor  sheep  have 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Soft 
Wool  sheep,  but  more  closely  resemble 
the  Higher  Mountain,  except  that  they 
are  larger,  weighing  60  to  70  pounds. 
Suffolk  rams  crossed  on  mountain  ewes 
in  England  produced  better  results  than 
when  Wiltshire,  Shropshire,  Southdown, 
Leicester  or  Oxford  rams  were  used. 

Barbadoes  sheep — This  is  a  medium 
sized,  fawn  colored,  woolless  sheep  with- 
out horns.     Its  habits  are  much  like  the 


SHEEP 


577 


goat.  This  sheep  is  raised  extensively 
in  Barbadoes  and  other  parts  of  the 
West  Indies  for  mutton.  They  are 
thought  to  be  of  African  origin,  though 
this  is  not  known.  Four  ewes  and  a 
ram  were  imported  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  1904,  and 
are  being  tested  to  determine  their 
adaptability  to  extreme  southern  con- 
ditions, where  heavy  fleeced  sheep  might 
suffer  from  the  heat.  These  sheep 
weighed  75  to  80  pounds  each,  were  de- 
cidedly leggy,  with  fairly  deep  bodies 
and   well   sprung   ribs.     Ears   are   large 


Perfect 
scale 

Eyes,   large,   clear,   placid 1 

Face,     wrinkly;     covered     with     soft, 

velvety  coat   1 

Forehead,    broad,    full 1 

Ears,    soft,   thick,   velvety 1 

Neck,     short,    muscular,    well    set    on 
shoulders     1 

Forequarters: 

Shoulders,     strong,     being     deep     and 

broad    4 

Brisket,     projecting     forward,     breast 

wide    1 

Legs,     straight,     short,     wide     apart; 

shank  smooth  and  flne 2 

Body: 

Chest,    deep,    full,     indicating    consti- 
tution         10 

Back,    level,    long,    round   ribbed 4 


Fig.     364 DORSET    RAM     LAMB 


and  drooping  and  there  is  a  tendency 
toward  the  Roman  nose.  The  ram  has 
a  decided  beard. 


JUDGING  WOOL 

Professor  Craig  gives  the  following 
scale  of  points  which  may  be  used  in 
scoring  the  wool  breeds  of  sheep : 

SCALE   OF   POINTS    FOR  FINE   WOOLED   SHEEP. 

Perfect 
scale 
General  appearance: 

Form,      level,      deep,      stylish,      round 

rather   than    square 8 

Quality,    clean,    fine    bone,    silky    hair; 

fine   skin    6 

Head    and    neck: 

Muzzle,     fine;     broad,     wrinkly     nose; 
pure  white    1 


Loin,  wide,  level 4 

Flank,  low,  making  underline 
straight   2 

Hind  quarters: 

Hips,  far  apart,  level,  smooth 2 

Rump,  long,  level,  wide 4 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  shank 
smooth,  fine    2 

Wool: 

Kind — Domestic,     clean     and     bright. 

Territory,    dirty   or   discolored — 

Carpet.    1  Hairy      or      having      dead 
Blanket  |      fibers — 

Class — Clothing,  fiber  under  two 
inches    in    length    or    unsound — 

Delaine,  fiber  two  or  three  inches 
in  length    — 

Combing,  fiber  over  three  inches  in 
length    and    sound    — 

Grade — Fine,  medium  or  coarse — 

Quantity — Long,  dense,  even  cover- 
ing, especially  over  crown,  cheek, 
armpit,    hind    legs    and    belly 15 


578 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Perfect 
scale 
Quality — Fine      fiber,       crimp      close, 
regular,       even      quality      including 

tops  of  folds    15 

Condition — Bright,  lustrous,  sound, 
pure,  soft,  even  distribution  of 
yolk,    with    even    surface    to    fleece.    15 


Total 


100 


JUDGING   MUTTON   BREEDS 

For  judging  mutton  sheep,  the  follow- 
ing scale  of  points  given  by  Professor 
Craig  may  be  used: 

SCALE     OF     POINTS     FOR     MUTTON     SHEEP — 
FOR    WETHER. 

Perfect 
scale 
General    appearance: 

Weight,    score,    according    to    age 8 


Perfect 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  com- 
pact on  top,  smooth    l 

Brisket,  projecting  forward,  breast 
wide      i 

Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart, 
strong;  fore  arm  full;  shank 
smooth   and    fine    1 

Body: 

Chest,     wide,     deep,     full,     indicating     . 

constitution    8 

Back,      broad,      straight,    long,       wide, 

thickly    fleshed,    ribs    arched    10 

Loin,    thick,    broad,    long 10 

Hind    quarters: 

Hips,    far    apart,    level,    smooth 2 

Rump,      long,      level,      wide      to      tail 

head    3 

Thighs,  full,  deep,  wide 3 

Twist,   plump,   deep 3 

Legs,    straight,    short,    strong;    shank 

smooth,   fine    1 


Fig.    365 — DORSET    EWE 


Form,  long,  level,  deep,  broad,  low 
set,    stylish     10 

Quality,  clean  bone,  silky  hair,  fine 
skin,  light  in  offal,  yielding  large 
percentage    of    meat    10 

Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of 
firm  flesh,  especially  in  region  of 
valuable  cuts.  Points  indicating 
condition  or  ripeness  are  thick 
dock,  back  thickly  covered  with 
flesh,  thick  neck,  full  purse,  full 
low    flank,    plump    breast 10 

Head    and   neck: 

Muzzle,    fine:    mouth    large,    lips    thin; 

nostrils    large    1 

Eyes,    large,   clear,    placid 1 

Face,     short,     clean    cut    features.  ...      1 

Forehead,    broad,   full 1 

Ears,   fine,   erect    1 

Neck,  thick,  short,  throat  free  from 
folds     1 

Fore  quarters: 

Shoulder  vein,  full    1 


Wool: 
Kind,    domestic,    territory,    carpet    or 

blanket     — 

Class,    clothing,    delaine    or    combing.   — 

Grade,    fine,    medium    or    coarse — 

Quantity,   long,   dense,   even 4 

Quality,      fine,      pure;       crimp      close, 

regular,    even    4 

Condition,    bright,    round,    clean,    soft, 

light    4 

Total     100 


SHEEP     ON     WEEDY     AND     BRUSH 
LANDS 

Sheep  are  the  weed  scavengers  of  the 
farm.  No  animal  consumes  so  wide  a 
range  of  forage,  including  all  weeds,  and 
even    thistles,    when    young,    as    sheep. 


SHEEP 


579 


This  gives  them  a  special  value  for  turn- 
ing upon  stubble  fields,  and  pastures 
badly  infested  with  weeds  which  they 
will  clean  out  in  a  season  or  two. 

They  are  also  of  considerable  value  in 
clearing  out  brush  on  new  lands.  Sheep 
can  be  made  to  live  entirely  on  brush, 
but  will  not  do  their  best  under  such 
conditions.  If  confined  entirely  to  brush, 
they  are  apt  to  get  poor  and  the  lambs 
will  not  make  the  best  growth.  An  all 
brush  pasture  seems  to  shorten  the  milk- 
supply  of  the  ewes. 

If  confined  upon  brush  in  sufficient 
quantities,  the  sheep  will  quickly  destroy 
it,  but  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  sheep 


be  bought  at  this  time  for  $3.50  to  $4.50 
a  head. 

Start  with  good  sheep — The  beginner 
should  start  with  grade  sheep,  preferably 
fine  wooled  ewes,  having  a  large  per- 
centage of  mutton  type  blood.  It  will 
not  usually  pay  to  start  with  full  blooded 
ewes,  since  there  are  many  things  in 
sheep  farming  that  must  be  learned  by 
experience,  and  these  lessons  can  be 
learned  more  economically  with  cheaper 
sheep.  By  starting  with  grade  ewes  and 
using  pure  blooded  bucks,  a  flock  can 
be  built  up  within  four  or  five  years 
which  will  be  practically  pure  bred. 
Pure  bred  ewes  cost  about  $15  a  head. 


Fig.    366 CHEVIOT    RAM 


will  get  fat  on  this  material.  Better  re- 
sults will  be  obtained  if  the  sheep  are 
browsed  on  brush  up  until  the  middle  of 
July  or  while  it  is  succulent  or  tender. 
After  this  the  brush  becomes  dry  and  un- 
palatable, and  the  sheep  should  be  turned 
upon  other  pastures. 

BEGINNING  SHEEP  FARMING 

The  late  summer,  when  pastures  are 
short  and  it  looks  as  though  some  fodder 
must  be  fed  to  the  flock  to  keep  them 
growing,  is  a  good  time  to  go  into  the 
sheep  sections  to  buy  up  a  flock  of  ewes. 
Ewes  are  usually  cheaper  then  than  at 
any  other  time  of  year.  Good  grade 
ewes,  two  to  three  years  old,  can  usually 


In  selecting  the  ewes,  see  that  they 
have  good  udders  and  give  promise  of 
being  good  milkers.  Ewes  that  have 
plenty  of  milk  for  their  lambs  and  have 
a  dense  fleece  for  their  own  protection 
are  the  most  profitable  for  lamb  raising. 

If  it  is  intended  to  grow  sheep  for 
both  wool  and  mutton,  select  grades  of 
good  size  that  have  a  dense,  compact 
fleece.  A  compact  fleece  insures  better 
protection  against  storm  and  indicates  a 
hardy  animal,  capable  of  withstanding 
exposure.  The  body  should  be  well  cov- 
ered all  over  with  a  close,  even  fleece. 
Look  well  to  the  denseness  of  the  fleece 
on  the  belly,  head  and  inside  of  the  legs 
where   it   is   likely  to  be   thinnest.     A 


580 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


barefaced  and  barelegged  sbeep  is  a  light 
shearer,  and  even  if  the  primary  purpose 
is  mutton,  there  is  no  reason  why  a  good 
fleece  should  not  be  obtained  at  the 
same  time.  Three  or  4  extra  pounds 
of  wool  a  head  makes  a  difference  in  the 
profits  worth  striving  for,  when  wool  is 
bringing  25  to  30  cents  a  pound,  as  it 
now  is. 

In  selecting  the  ewes,  soundness  and 
vitality  should  be  carefully  considered. 
If  sheep  are  thin  and  ragged  looking, 
unless  the  cause  of  their  condition  be 
known  beyond  question,  they  should  be 
passed  by. 

When  the  sheep  reach  the  home  farm, 
it  is  a  wise  precaution  to  dip  them  im- 
mediately to  kill   all  ticks  which  they 


fences,  the  bottom  wires  should  be  spaced 
from  2Y2  to  3  inches  apart  and  the  top 
ones  not  more  than  6  inches  apart. 
Barbed  wire,  spaced  5  to  6  inches  apart 
all  the  way  up,  makes  a  useless  fence 
against  sheep.  They  walk  through  it  as 
easily  as  if  the  gates  were  open.  No 
man  should  ever  buy  a  flock  of  sheep 
until  he  has  first  put  up  suitable  fences, 
else  he  will  be  continually  in  hot  water 
from  the  day  the  sheep  are  brought  to 
the  farm  until  the  fences  are  fixed. 

Fall  care  of  the  ewes — The  care  of 
the  farm  flock  of  ewes  during  late  sum- 
mer and  fall  is  simple.  If  they  are 
given  good  pasture,  pure  water  and  ac- 
cess to  salt,  they  will  need  little,  if  any 
further   attention,    except   a   daily   visit 


Fig.   367 — CHEVIOT   EWE   LAMBS 


are  likely  to  have  on  them,  and  again 
about  10  days  later  to  effectually  free 
them  from  this  pest  which  would  other- 
wise annoy  them  and  keep  them  poor. 
Directions  for  dipping  sheep  are  given 
in  Part  III.  With  the  mutton  type  of 
sheep,  no  more  than  200  should  be  main- 
tained in  a  single  flock.  The  Merinos, 
Rambouillets  and  Black-faced  Scotch 
sheep  may  be  herded  in  bands  of  1,000 
or  more.  A  flock  of  50  to  100  is  enough 
for  the  beginner,  and  is  about  the  right 
number  to  carry  with  other  stock  on  an 
eighty-acre  farm. 

Fences — Under  eastern  conditions 
farm  fences  are  necessary  for  sheep 
raising.  These  need  not  be  more  than 
Sy2  to  4  feet  high,  but  they  must  be 
made  tight  enough  to  prevent  a  lamb 
from     creeping     through.       With     wire 


to  the  pasture  to  see  that  all  is  going 
well.  Frequently  a  sheep  gets  down  on 
its  back  and  cannot  get  up.  Without 
assistance  at  this  time,  the  sheep  will 
die.  This  is  quite  a  common  occurrence 
with  the  heavier  mutton  breeds,  espe- 
cially when  they  are  fat. 

There  is  also  danger  from  dogs,  which 
sometimes  chase  the  flock,  lacerate  and 
kill  many  of  them.  In  a  number  of 
states,  sheep  raising  is  of  minor  impor- 
tance simply  because  of  the  number  of 
dogs  kept  in  the  state.  In  some  states, 
a  dog  tax  is  levied  to  reimburse  sheep 
owners  for  sheep  which  have  been  killed 
by  dogs,  where  the  responsibility  for  the 
killing  cannot  be  placed.  A  piece  of 
fresh  meat  drawn  across  the  fields  and 
left  with  some  strychnine  in  it,  makes  a 
warm  trail,  which  the  dog  will  generally 


SHEEP 


581 


follow  and  usually  has  the  desired  effect 
of  eliminating  some  of  the  dogs. 

Sheep  are  not  injured  by  a  summer 
shower,  but  if  cold  drizzling  rains  set 
in,  they  should  be  brought  up  and  herded 
in  yards  with  access  to  open  sheds,  and 
fed  hay  until  fair  weather  returns.  Ewes 
in  fair  condition  will  require  no  grain  at 
pasture  at  this  time.  If  the  grass  be- 
comes short,  owing  to  drought  or  over- 
stocking, other  crops  should  be  used  to 
supplement  the  pasture.     Green  corn  is 


to  get  in  the  crops  at  this  season.  On 
this  account,  it  may  be  advisable,  in 
many  cases,  to  have  the  lambs  come  in 
March  or  April,  when  farm  work  is  less 
pressing.  In  such  cases,  the  ewes  should 
be  bred  during  October  or  November. 
Farther  south,  the  ram  is  usually  turned 
in  with  the  ewes  in  August  or  September. 
Flushing  ewes_Sheepmen  like  to  have 
their  ewes  in  good  condition  at  breed- 
ing time  and  gaining  a  little  in  flesh. 
It  is  believed  that  more  ewes  will  breed 


M4kt» 


&;#*>:*-^*,-~ 


Fig.    368 — BROADTAILED    RAM 
(Courtesy  of  J.  H.  Barber) 


relished  by  sheep  as  well  as  pea  and  oat 
mixtures,  rape,  etc. 

Breeding  the  ewes — Under  ordinary 
farm  conditions  in  the  northern  states, 
the  ewes  should  not  be  bred  before  De- 
cember. This  would  bring  the  lambing 
period  in  May,  when  the  weather  is 
warm  and  the  grass  is  beginning  to 
start.  It  is  easier  to  care  for  the  lambs 
at  this  time;  there  are  less  losses  from 
chilling  and  the  bite  of  green  grass, 
available  at  this  time,  will  insure  the 
ewes  a  full  supply  of  milk.  May  is, 
however,  the  month  in  which  spring 
work  usually  begins,  and  there  is  a  rush 


and  that  a  larger  number  of  lambs  will 
be  produced. 

The  English  have  a  method  of  feeding 
ewes  at  breeding  time,  which  they  call 
flushing.  It  is  practiced  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  twin  lambs.  For  two  or  three 
weeks  before  breeding,  the  ewes  are  given 
an  extra  supply  of  nutritious,  palatable 
food,  so  that  they  may  be  gaining  in 
weight  when  breeding  takes  place.  A 
little  extra  good  pasture  at  this  time  and 
the  addition  to  the  ration  of  half  a  pound 
of  some  grain,  like  oats,  mixed  with  a 
little  oil  meal — perhaps  a  tablespoonful 


582 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


each  daily — will  put  them  in  good  gain- 
ing condition.  Where  sheep  are  being 
grown  for  mutton,  twin  lambs  are  very- 
desirable,  as  it  has  been  shown  that  ewes 
can  raise  twin  lambs  without  losing  any 
more  flesh  than  in  nursing  a  single  lamb. 
At  the  Wisconsin  station,  twin  lambs 
nursing  one  mother  gained  as  rapidly  as 
when  only  one  lamb  was  nursing.  Un- 
der average  western  conditions,  however, 
where  sheep  are  raised  in  flocks  of  2,000 
or  more,  and  less  attention  can  be  given 
to  each  ewe  and  her  lambs,  one  lamb 
per  ewe  has  been  found  more  satisfac- 
tory than  twins,  as  the  ewe  will  often 
be  satisfied  if  she  has  but  one  lamb  with 


pure  bred  buck,  one  year  old,  will  cost 
from  $20  to  $30,  and  a  show  buck  consid- 
erably more.  The  general  farmer,  how- 
ever, does  not  want  a  show  buck,  but 
rather  a  strong,  vigorous  animal,  strong- 
ly bearing  the  stamp  of  the  breed  to 
which  he  belongs.  The  breed  markings 
are  indications  of  good  blood,  and  they 
should  be  unmistakably  present.  The 
buck  is  fully  half  the  flock.  The  shep- 
herd depends  upon  him  to  build  up  and 
improve  the  flock.  The  money  spent  in 
a  good  buck  soon  repays  itself. 

Selecting  a  buck— On  the  subject  of 
selecting  a  buck,  Professor  Curtis  of 
Iowa,  states   as  follows:     "In  selecting 


Fig.  369 CHAMPION  LEICESTER  RAM  AND  EWE 


her,  leaving  the  other  to  go  hungry  or 
die  for  want  of  attention. 

The  buck  and  his  management — The 
buck  should  be  bought  at  least  a  month 
or  two  before  he  is  needed  for  breeding, 
in  order  that  he  may  become  acquainted 
with  his  surroundings,  and  be  in  good 
condition  for  breeding.  It  is  advisable 
to  get  him  early  in  the  season  when  the 
number  to  pick  from  is  large.  He 
should  be  a  full  blooded  buck.  A  grade 
buck  should  never  be  used  if  a  full 
blooded  buck  can  be  obtained,  as  the 
improvement  in  the  flock  with  grade 
bucks  will  be  less  pronounced  or  even 
altogether  wanting,  since  grade  sheep 
usually  lack  the  power  of  getting  off- 
spring  similar   to    themselves.      A   good 


a  sire  look  urst  at  the  head.  If  deficient 
there,  look  no  further,  but  reject  at  once. 
Insist  upon  a  head  that  faces  you  boldly 
with  a  wide  face,  clear  prominent  eyes, 
and  a  robust  character  throughout.  The 
head  should  be  joined  to  a  well  filled 
round,  muscular  neck,  wide  at  the  poll 
and  back  of  the  ears,  and  gradually  en- 
larging in  all  lines  with  strong,  full 
junction  at  the  shoulders,  as  seen  from 
top,  sides,  or  bottom.  This  should  be 
accompanied  by  a  wide  chest,  a  promi- 
nent, well  filled  brisket,  and  a  full  heart 
girth,  giving  straight,  even  lines  from 
the  shoulders  back.  A  depression  either 
in  front  of,  or  behind  the  shoulders, 
whether  at  the  top,  side,  or  bottom  line, 
is  an  indication  of  weakness.     The  back 


SHEEP 


583 


should  be  strong,  wide  and  well  meated 
from  shoulder  point  to  tail,  the  hind- 
quarters should  be  full  and  well  let 
down  in  the  leg  and  flank  in  order  to 
yield  well  of  high-priced  meat.  The  legs 
should  be  placed  wide  apart  and  stand 
straight;  sickle-shaped  hocks  and  weak, 
sloping  pasterns  afford  sufficient  reason 
for  condemning  an  otherwise  good 
sheep." 

He  should  have  a  good,  compact  fleece 
and  be  well  wooled  all  over.  One  buck 
is  required  for  every  30  to  50  ewes.    The 


flock  only  at  night  when  they  are  herded 
in  the  sheep  fold. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station,  ewes  bred 
early  in  the  mating  season  to  a  single 
ram,  dropped  a  larger  percentage  of 
lambs  than  when  bred  near  the  end  of 
the  season.  When  a  yearling  lamb  was 
used  at  that  station,  the  average  increase 
in  six  years  was  150  per  cent.  When 
two-year  and  three-year-old  rams  were 
used  the  average  increase  of  lambs  was 
180  per  cent.  It  is  commonly  held  by 
sheepmen   that   a  well   grown,   vigorous 


Pig.  370— YEARLING  LINCOLN  RAM 
(Courtesy  of  J.  T.  Gibson) 


amount  of  service  required  of  the  ram 
in  breeding  was  found  by  the  Wisconsin 
station  to  have  a  marked  influence  on 
the  percentage  increase  in  offspring, 
thus,  the  first  10  ewes  bred  gave  an 
average  increase  in  lambs  of  171  per 
cent,  while  the  fourth  10  bred  gave  an 
average  increase  of  only  140  per  cent, 
or  a  decrease  of  more  than  30  per  cent. 
As  to  the  management  of  the  buck,  he 
is  sometimes  turned  in  with  the  flock 
at  the  breeding  season  and  allowed  to 
run  with  them  day  and  night.  The 
more  careful  breeders,  however,  keep  the 
buck  penned  up  and  let  him  run  with  the 


yearling  lamb  is  at  its  best  as  a  sire. 
These  data  do  not  bear  out  that  opin- 
ion, and  they  further  show  that  in  vigor 
the  sire  has  an  apparent  influence  on 
the  percentage  increase. 

During  the  breeding  season  the  buck 
should  have  a  pasture  by  himself  and  be 
fed  in  addition  a  grain  ration  of  peas, 
oats,  bran,  etc.  If  he  is  kept  up  without 
pasture,  he  should  have  chaffed  alfalfa 
or  clover  hay,  and  be  given  roots  or  si- 
lage and  plenty  of  daily  exercise.  The 
latter  is  especially  important  and  is  best 
obtained  by  the  pasturing  method.  It 
is  not  desired  that  either  buck  or  ewe 


584 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


should  be  fat,  but  they  should  be  kept  in 
a  good  healthy  condition. 

Late  fall  and  winter  shelter  for  ewes 
• — Sheep  require  no  shelter  from  the 
standpoint  of  warmth.  In  clear  weather 
they  can  sleep  out  of  doors  the  coldest 
night  without  suffering  from  cold.  They 
do  need  shelter  to  protect  them  from  the 
drizzling  rains  of  late  fall,  from  snow 
and  from  bleak  winds.  A  well  covered 
shed,  closely  boarded  up  with  matched 
lumber    so    that    winds    do    not    blow 


and  colds,  snuffles,  and  other  disorders 
follow.  In  case  sheep  are  bred  so  that 
the  lambs  come  in  the  winter,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  have  comfortable  quart- 
ers so  that  the  lambs  do  not  become 
chilled  before  they  are  able  to  get  up  and 
suck  the  ewe.  But  with  May  lambing, 
no  special  provision  for  warm  shelter 
need  be  made. 

Attached  to  the  sheep  shed,  or  adja- 
cent to  it,  should  be  a  large,  dry  yard  in 
which    the    sheep    may    take    daily    ex- 


Fig.    371 — CHAMPION   LINCOLN   EWE 


through  the  cracks  causing  drafts  on  the 
sheep,  will  suffice.  This  shed  may  be 
entirely  open  on  the  south,  but  it  is 
better  to  have  it  arranged  so  that  it  can 
be  closed  up  in  case  of  a  storm.  The 
sheep  door  should  be  8  to  12  feet  wide 
to  prevent  crowding  in  going  in  and  out, 
and  should  be  made  in  two  parts,  so  that 
the  bottom  half  can  be  closed  if  desired 
to  keep  the  sheep  in. 

If  the  flock  is  left  out  in  chilling 
rains  and  heavy  snowstorms,  the  fleece 
becomes  wet  through,  the  sheep  chilled 


ercise.  It  should  have  a  sunny  exposure 
and  be  protected  from  bleak,  cold  winds 
and  driving  storms.  In  clear  weather, 
the  sheep  should  be  fed  in  the  open 
yard.  A  common  mistake,  according  to 
Professor  Hays,  of  the  Minnesota  sta- 
tion, and  one  always  attended  with  fatal 
consequences  to  the  lamb,  is  to  keep  the 
ewes  too  warm  in  winter.  Any  crowd- 
ing of  the  ewes  in  the  sheds  sweats  them 
so  that  they  take  cold  when  turned  out. 
In  one  instance  when  sheep  were  thus 
confined,  out  of  50  lambs  born  in  the 


SHEEP 


585 


spring,  only  six  were  strong  enough  to 
live  in  spite  of  the  utmost  care  during 
lambing.  The  same  ewes  in  the  suc- 
ceeding seasons,  when  allowed  more  shed 
space  and  exposure  to  dry  cold,  made 
strong,  healthy  lambs. 

The  keeping  of  breeding  ewes  in  un- 
ventilated,  basement  barns,  or  in  stables 
warm  enough  for  dairy  cows,  is  a  mis- 
take always  attended  by  losses  in  the 
lamb  crop. 

About  10  square  feet  of  floor  space 
should  be  allowed  to  each  sheep  weigh- 
ing 100  pounds  or  15  square  feet  to  each 
sheep  weighing  150  pounds. 

Racks  for  feeding_In  feeding  the 
ewes  from  racks,  a  rack  space  of  18  to 
24  inches  should  be  allowed  for  each 
sheep,   either  for  feeding  grain  or  hay. 


sometimes  create  a  panic.  Some  sheep- 
men make  a  habit  of  whistling  or  talk- 
ing to  the  sheep  as  they  approach  them 
unexpectedly.  Whenever  sheep  are  han- 
dled, gentleness  and  quietness  should  be 
insisted  upon.  This  may  prove  of  the 
utmost  value  at  lambing  time,  when  it 
may  be  necessary  to  give  assistance  to 
the  ewes.  A  shepherd's  crook  should 
always  be  used  in  catching  sheep  at 
lambing  or  shearing  time. 

Winter  feeding  breeding  ewes — The 
ideal  winter  rations  for  breeding  ewes 
ccnsist  of  well  cured  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay,  with  a  small  grain  ration  and  some 
roots  or  silage  in  addition.  Good  mixed 
hays  stand  next  in  value,  followed  by 
well  cured  pea  and  oat  hay  mixtures. 
Well  put  up   corn  fodder,  especially  if 


Fig.    372 — cotswold   ram   and   ewe 


Racks  in  which  grain  are  fed,  should  be 
broad,  shallow  and  flat,  and  4  to  5  inches 
deep. 

The  hay  rack  should  be  so  arranged 
that  chaff  and  dirt  cannot  fall  down 
upon  the  backs  of  the  sheep  while  feeding 
as  the  dirt  works  its  way  into  the  wool 
and  decreases  its  selling  price,  4  to  10 
cents  a  pound. 

Handling  ewes— In  the  handling  of 
ewes,  and  in  fact,  all  sheep,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  they  are  naturally 
timid  and  of  a  nervous  disposition.  And 
the  highest  success  in  sheep  raising  can- 
not be  expected  unless  the  breeder  by  his 
quiet  manners  and  gentleness  inspires 
confidence  in  them.  A  sudden  distur- 
bance of  any  kind,  like  the  bark  of  a 
dog,    will    startle    the    whole    flock    and 


fed  with  some  of  the  more  nitrogenous 
grains,  makes  an  excellent  roughage  for 
sheep,  and  one  which  they  relish.  It 
proved  superior  in  feeding  value  and 
cheaper  at  the  Wisconsin  station  when 
fed  with  oats  and  bran  than  either  oat 
straw  or  blue  grass  hay.  The  cost  of  the 
ration  on  corn  fodder  was  1  cent  daily 
for  each  ewe.  Following  corn  fodder  in 
value  came  good  prairie  hay,  cut  oat 
straw,  pea  straw,  barley  straw,  sorghum, 
etc. 

Grain  rations — In  addition  to  these 
coarse  fodders,  each  ewe  should  be  given 
a  fourth  to  a  half  a  pound  of  grain 
daily.  If  alfalfa,  clover,  or  pea  hay  is 
used,  less  grain  will  be  required.  In 
fact,  many  feeders  give  no  grain  what- 
ever with  these  hays.     It  is   advisable, 


586 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


however,  to  feed  a  little  bran  or  oil  meal 
even  with  these  hays,  while  with  the 
more  carbonaceous  fodders,  like  corn- 
stalks, sorghum  and  prairie  hay,  nitrog- 
enous grains  should  always  be  fed.  The 
ewes  require  rations  that  will  supply 
nourishment  to  the  developing  foetus 
and  the  production  of  wool,  rather  than 
a  fattening  ration.  It  should,  therefore, 
contain  a  liberal  percentage  of  protein, 
and  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  about  1  :4 
or  1 :5.  The  grain  ration  should  be  made 
up  preferably  of  wbole  peas,  oats,  or  bran 
or  a  mixture  of  these. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station,  a  ration  of 
one  part  corn,  one  part  bran,  and  one 
part  oats,  with  corn  silage  and  hay  as  a 
roughage,  proved  entirely  satisfactory 
for  breeding  ewes,  giving  as  good  results 
as  whole  oats,  wheat  bran  or  dried  brew- 


cise.  The  aim  of  the  successful  herds- 
man is  to  secure  vigorous,  firm  fleshed 
ewes,  which  are  the  result  of  liberal 
feeding  and  abundant  exercise.  Rela- 
tive to  succulent  foods,  not  more  than 
about  3  pounds  of  either  roots  or  silage 
should  be  fed  daily  before  the  lambing 
period.  If  fed  in  too  liberal  quantities, 
weak  lambs  are  likely  to  result.  After 
lambing,  however,  these  succulent  foods 
may  be  fed  in  unlimited  quantities  to 
stimulate  the  milk  flow. 

The  cost  of  wintering  breeding  ewes 
— The  Iowa  station  carried  on  extensive 
experiments  to  determine  the  cost  of 
wintering  ewes  of  different  breeds.  They 
were  wintered  in  a  comfortable  barn, 
where  foo;l  and  water  were  handy.  The 
cost  per  day  a  head  was  as  follows: 
Merino,  1.3  cents;  Cotswold,  1.35  cents; 


Fig.   373 — WELSH   MOUNTAIN   SHEEP 


ers'  grains.  The  dried  brewers'  grains, 
however,  were  more  effective  for  milk 
production,  and  also  one  of  the  cheap- 
est rations  fed. 

The  ewe  should  have  some  succulent 
food  like  silage  or  roots;  corn  silage 
proved  as  efficient  and  considerably 
cheaper  for  breeding  ewes  at  the  Wis- 
consin station  than  clover  silage  or 
sugar  beets.  Superior  results  were  ob- 
tained when  the  ewes  were  fed  */2  pound 
of  grain  each  daily  with  2*4  pounds  of 
corn  silage  and  2  pounds  of  mixed  hay. 

In  a  general  way,  the  shepherd  should 
regulate  the  quantity  of  food,  accord- 
ing to  the  condition  of  the  ewes.  If  they 
are  poor  and  thin  when  going  into  win- 
ter quarters,  they  should  be  fed  more 
heavily  than  otherwise. 

As  the  lambing  time  approaches,  the 
grain  ration  should  be  increased,  provid- 
ing the  ewes  have  plenty  of  daily  exer- 


Dorset,  1.21  cents;  Oxford,  1.32  cents; 
Hampshire,  1.36  cents;  Shropshire,  0.97 
cent ;  and  Southdown,  0.6  cent.  These 
data  show  the  Southdowns,  Shropshires 
and  Merinos  to  be  most  easily  kept.  The 
ewes  were  given  sufficient  hay  and  grain 
to  maintain  them  in  good  breeding  con- 
dition. 

At  the  Mississippi  station  it  cost  99 
cents  a  head  to  winter  sheep  on  cotton- 
seed meal  and  hulls  for  about  four 
months. 

Period  of  pregnancy — The  records  of 
524  ewes  bred  at  the  Wisconsin  station, 
shows  a  period  of  pregnancy  varying 
from  140  to  156  days.  Seventy-seven  per 
cent  of  the  ewes  dropped  their  lambs 
between  the  144th  and  150th  days.  The 
usual  time  is  given  as  21  weeks.  The 
record  shows  that  male  and  female  lambs 
are  carried  about  equal  lengths  of  time. 
The  proportion   of  males  was  49.9  per 


SHEEP 


587 


cent  and  the  females,  50.1  per  cent. 
Large  lambs  are  carried  a  little  longer 
by  ewes  than  medium  or  small  sized 
lambs.  Single  lambs  at  birth  are  much 
larger  than  twins  and  twins  larger  than 
triplets. 

In  records  secured  at  the  Missouri  sta- 
tion, the  size  of  the  lamb  at  birth  ap- 
pears to  be  influenced  entirely  by  the 
size  of  the  mother,  large  lambs  being 
produced  by  heavy  ewes  and  vice  versa.' 
The  size  of  the  rams  or  breed  appear 
to  have  no  influence  on  the  size  of  the 
lamb  at  birth.  Male  lambs  at  birth  are 
usually  a  little  larger  than  ewe  lambs. 
The  heavy  lambs  make  more  rapid  gains 
for  the  first  few  weeks  than  lighter 
lambs. 

Vitality  of  lambs  of  different  breeds 
— This  varies  considerably.  At  the  Wis- 
consin station,  Southdowns  dropped  78 
per  cent  of  strong  lambs;  Shropshires, 
59  per  cent;  Shropshire-Merinos,  73.4 
per  cent;  Dorsets,  60  per  cent.  With 
the  Shropshires,  however,  19  per  cent 
were  triplets,  which  probably  accounts 
in  a  measure  for  the  number  of  weak 
lambs.  The  Shropshire  Merino  ewes 
gave  15  per  cent  of  triplets. 

Milk  yield  of  ewes — At  the  Wisconsin 
station,  Oxfords  yielded  3.1  pounds  of 
milk  a  day;  Southdowns,  1.9  pounds; 
Dorsets,  4.5  pounds;  Grade  Dorsets,  4 
pounds,  Shropshire  and  Grades,  3.5 
pounds;  Merinos,  1.9  pounds;  Shrop- 
shire-Merinos, 2.5  pounds;  the  average 
of  14  ewes  of  all  breeds  was  2.8  pounds 
daily.  The  milk  contained  on  the  aver- 
age, 7  per  cent  of  fat  and  18.1  per  cent 
of  solids. 

Age  and  productiveness  of  ewes — 
The  age  of  the  ewe  appears  to  have  an 
influence  on  the  number  of  lambs  pro- 
duced. Thus  two-year-old  ewes  at  the 
Wisconsin  station  gave  an  average  in- 
crease of  158  per  cent;  three-year-old 
ewes  an  increase  of  174  per  cent;  four, 
five  and  six-year-old  ewes,  178  per  cent, 
while  with  seven-year-old  ewes,  the  per- 
centage increase  dropped  again  to  150 
per  cent.  The  older  ewes  at  the  station 
drop  the  larger  proportion  of  ram  lambs. 
Generally  speaking,  when  ewes  have 
reached  an  age  of  seven  or  eight  years, 
they  have  passed  their  period  of  great- 
est usefulness  and  should  be  fattened  for 
market. 

The  increase  secured  with  the  differ- 
ent breeds  was  as  follows :  Shropshires, 
169   per   cent;   cross-bred   Dorset-Shrop- 


shires,  162  per  cent;  cross-bred  Shrop- 
shire-Merinos, 153  per  cent;  Southdowns, 
151  per  cent.  The  average  increase 
from  all  ewes  in  station  flock  for  12 
years  was  163  per  cent. 

The  increase  secured  in  the  flock 
noted  above  is  for  the  mutton  type  of 
sheep  under  well  managed  conditions. 
The  ordinary  farm  flock  will  not  aver- 
age over  100  per  cent  increase,  while 
under  western  range  conditions  an  in- 
crease of  about  80  per  cent  is  considered 
a  fair  average.  There  is  no  reason, 
however,  why  every  farmer  should  not 
secure  an  increase  of  at  least  125  to  160 
per  cent  in  his  flock  annually.  Expe- 
rience shows  that  in  ordinary  flocks 
about  4  per  cent  of  the  ewes  are  barren 
and  about  3  per  cent  to  4  per  cent  more 
abort.  Such  ewes  should  be  culled  out 
of  the  flock  immediately  and  be  fat- 
tened for  mutton.  By  careful  attention 
to  this  matter,  and  the  selection  of  stock 
for  breeding,  born  from  mothers  which 
produced  twin  lambs,  the  annual  in- 
crease in  the  flock  can  be  greatly  aug- 
mented. 

Feed  of  ewes  after  lambing — When 
ewes  lamb  before  they  en  be  turned 
out  to  pasture,  they  should  be  liberally 
fed  on  grain,  hay  and  some  succulent 
foods  like  roots  or  silage.  Roots  are 
preferable,  but  silage  is  the  cheaper. 
About  2  pounds  of  good  clover  or  al- 
falfa hay  a  day  will  be  required  for 
each  ewe  and  1  to  2  pounds  of  grain. 
The  grain  should  be  made  up  largely  of 
oats,  barley  or  bran  with  a  little  oil 
meal  added.  The  oil  meal  is  especially 
desirable  if  succulent  foods  are  not 
available.  For  succulent  foods  4  to  5 
pounds  of  silage  or  5  to  8  pounds  of 
sliced  roots  may  be  given;  such  a  ration 
will  produce  a  heavy  flow  of  milk.  Ewes 
with  twin  lambs  should  receive  heavier 
grain  rations  than  ewes  with  a  single 
lamb. 

The  ewe  should  be  turned  out  to  pas- 
ture as  soon  as  the  grass  gets  a  start 
and  the  grain  rations  gradually  reduced, 
and  finally  omitted  entirely,  as  the  pas- 
ture becomes  more  abundant.  Careful 
experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  station  for 
a  number  of  years  in  feeding  lambs  at 
pasture  has  shown  that  it  is  not  profit- 
able to  feed  grain  to  the  ewes  at  this 
time,  as  the  lambs  do  not  make  any 
greater  gain  where  the  ewes  are  fed 
grain  than  where  they  are  not.  The 
ewes  do  not  get  quite  so  thin  if  grain 


588 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


is  given  them,  but  this  is  not  a  matter 
of  importance  and  the  ewes  quickly  re- 
cover after  weaning  the  lambs.  English 
breeders  rather  prefer  to  have  the  ewes 
in  a  thin  condition,  so  that  when  they 
commence  the  feeding  preparatory  to 
breeding,  the  ewes  quickly  respond  and 
are  gaining  in  weight  when  mating 
takes  place. 

Shearing  ewes_It  is  desirable  that 
shearing  be  done  after  the  ewes  have 
dropped  their  lambs  rather  than  before, 
since  any  rough  handling  or  crowding 
of  pregnant  ewes  may  result  in  serious 
loss  of  lambs. 

CARE       AND       MANAGEMENT       OF 

LAMBS 

Lambing — The  lambing  period  is  the 
most  critical  time  in  the  life  of  the 
flock.  At  this  time  the  shepherd  should 
be  in  constant  attendance  day  and  night. 


is  first  sprinkled  over  the  lamb.  An- 
other practice  which  is  more  common 
among  sheepmen  is  to  remove  the  skin 
of  the  dead  lamb  and  tie  it  onto  the 
lamb  which  is  to  be  adopted. 

Cow's  milk  for  lambs—Sometimes  the 
ewe  dies  in  giving  birth  to  her  lamb, 
in  which  case  it  may  be  necessary  to 
give  the  lamb  to  another  ewe  or  to  bring 
it  up  on  cow's  mill?.  The  milk  should 
be  fed  whole  and  warm  and  preferably 
with  a  little  sugar  added.  At  first  it 
should  be  fed  12  to  15  times  daily,  at 
the  end .  of  the  week,  five  to  six  times 
daily  and  within  two  or  three  weeks, 
three  times  daily  will  suffice.  The  milk 
may  be  fed  from  a  bottle,  using  a  rub- 
ber nipple. 

Reviving  chilled  lambs — Should  a 
lamb  become  chilled  it  can  often  be 
resuscitated  by  putting  it  into  a  pail  of 
water  as  hot  as  it  can  stand.     It  should 


Fig.    374 LAMBS    IN    MAY 


If  the  lambing  season  occurs  in  cold 
winter,  the  lambs  may  become  chilled 
before  they  are  able  to  suck.  If  twins 
are  produced,  the  ewe  may  give  atten- 
tion to  only  the  stronger  one.  The  shep- 
herd should  see  that  the  weaker  one 
gets  its  full  supply  of  nourishment.  If 
the  young  lamb  is  unable  to  suckle  with- 
in a  few  minutes  after  birth  it  should 
have  help,  and  it  is  often  necessary  to 
hold  the  ewe  for  this  purpose.  Some- 
times the  ewe  refuses  to  own  her  lamb. 
She  can  usually  be  made  to  do  so  by 
shutting  her  up  in  an  individual  pen, 
with  only  the  lamb  for  company  and 
out  of  sight  of  the  other  sheep.  It  may 
be  necessary  to  hold  her  for  a  few  days 
for  the  lamb  to  suck.  Should  a  ewe  lose 
her  lamb,  one  may  be  taken  from  an- 
other ewe  which  has  produced  twins  or 
triplets  and  given  to  her.  The  ewe  is 
sometimes  more  easily  induced  to  own 
the  strange  lamb  if  some  of  her  milk 


be  covered  entirely  with  water,  leaving 
only  the  nose  exposed.  When  the  water 
becomes  cool,  more  warm  water  should 
be  added.  It  may  be  necessary  to  warm 
the  water  two  or  three  times  if  the  lamb 
is  chilled,  after  which  the  lamb  should 
be  rubbed  dry  with  a  towel  and  fed 
with  warm  milk  heated  to  100°  F.  In 
severe  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  give 
a  couple  of  drops  of  whiskey  or  brandy, 
diluted  with  a  teaspoonful  of  water,  be- 
fore the  lamb  is  given  milk. 

It  can  usually  be  put  in  the  flock 
within  an  hour  or  two  and  requires  no 
furthpt   attention. 

Docking,  castrating  and  dipping 
lambs — Lambs  should  be  docked  and  the 
males  castrated  when  they  are  two  to 
six  weeks  old.  The  tail  may  be  cut  off 
with  a  good,  sharp  jack-knife,  leaving 
a  stub  of  about  2  inches.  With  show 
sheep  a  neater  job  can  be  done  by  pull- 
ing up  the  skin  of  the  tail  toward  the 


SHEEP 


589 


body  and  then  cutting  off  with  a  chisel 
on  a  block.  The  loose  skin  falls  back 
over  the  cut  stub  and  heals  over  neatly. 
The  tail  of  the  sheep  is  a  useless  ap- 
pendage, difficult  to  shear  and  likely  to 
get  besmeared  and  unsightly  in  time  of 
diarrhea.  All  males  should  be  castrat- 
ed except  those  kept  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. Details  for  castrating  lambs  are 
given  in  Part  III. 

With  farm  flocks,  docking  and  cas- 
trating the  lambs  are  done  when  the 
ewes  are  sheared.  Under  northwestern 
range  conditions  this  is  a  separate  oper- 
ation, usually  done  before  shearing  the 
ewes.  About  10  days  after  shearing, 
the  whole  flock,  including  the  lambs, 
should  be  dipped  to  free  them  from 
ticks.  Most  of  the  ticks  will  have  left 
the  shorn  ewes  by  this  time  and  be  on 
the  lambs.  If  not  dipped,  the  ticks  will 
annoy  the  lambs  all  summer  and  hin- 
der their  growth.  Details  for  dipping 
are  given  in  Part  III,  under  sheep  dis- 
eases. 

Feeding  young  lambs — To  secure  a 
rapid,  strong  vigorous  growth  in  lambs, 
they  should  be  fed  a  small  amount  of 
grain  in  addition  to  the  milk  of  the  ewe. 
They  learn  to  eat  when  two  or  three 
weeks  old,  and  should  have  a  pen  or 
lamb  creep  by  themselves.  A  pen  can 
easily  be  arranged  with  openings  into 
it  wide  enough  for  the  lambs,  but  too 
narrow  for  the  ewes.  The  pens  should 
be  arranged  with  racks  and  troughs  into 
which  grain,  minced  roots,  and  a  fine 
quality  of  hay  may  be  put.  The  best 
grains  for  feeding  at  this  time  are 
ground  corn,  whole  oats,  linseed  meal 
and  bran.  A  little  salt  sprinkled  on  the 
grain  in  the  trough  will  aid  in  teaching 
them  to  eat.  They  will  learn  to  eat 
hay  almost  as  soon  as  they  do  grain. 
If  only  a  little  grain  is  fed  each  time 
and  the  remainder  taken  away  after 
feeding,  they  will  soon  look  forward 
eagerly  to  feeding  time.  When  lambs 
are  about  eight  weeks  old,  100  will  eat 
about  17  pounds  of  grain  daily;  at  10 
weeks  of  age  25  pounds,  and  at  12  weeks 
50  pounds  or  %  pound  each  daily. 
Many  sheepmen  feed  no  grain  whatever, 
but  it  is  desirable  in  the  case  of  breed- 
ing stock  or  show  animals,  or  if  the 
lambs  are  to  be  sold  on  an  early  fall 
market. 

Weaning  lambs — Lambs  are  usually 
allowed  to  run  with  the  ewes  from  three 
to   four   months.     At   the   end   of  four 


months  at  least  they  should  be  weaned 
both  for  their  own  sake  and  that  of  the 
ewe.  At  weaning  time,  the  lambs  should 
be  separated  entirely  from  the  ewes,  and 
the  two  kept  so  far  apart  that  the  ewes 
cannot  hear  the  bleating  of  the  lambs. 
If  the  lambs  have  been  taught  to  eat 
grain  and  can  be  placed  on  a  good,  fresh 
pasture  of  clover,  they  will  suffer  prac- 
tically no  loss  of  gain  at  weaning  time. 
The  ewes  at  this  time  should  be  kept  on 
short  pasture  to  dry  up  the  milk.  Each 
day  they  should  be  carefully  observed, 
and  if  the  tidders  become  too  full,  should 
be  milked  out  by  hand.  This,  however, 
will  seldom  be  necessary. 

Feeding  lambs  at  pasture — In  order 
to  avoid  stomach  worms,  lambs  should 
be  given  fresh  pasture  rather  than 
turned  into  old  sheep  pastures.  This 
matter  is  discussed  more  in  detail  under 
the  Diseases  of  Sheep  in  Part  III. 

While  the  feeding  of  grain  to  ewes  at 
pasture  has  not  been  found  profitable, 
the  result  of  five  years'  tests  at  the  Wis- 
consin station  in  feeding  lambs  grain  at 
pasture,  shows  that  grain  at  this  time 
is  very  desirable  and  more  profitable  re- 
sults are  secured  with  than  without 
grains.  The  station  experiments  show 
further  that  it  is  not  profitable  to  feed 
lambs  at  pasture  more  than  about  V2 
pound  of  grain  daily  per  head.  On 
good  clover,  alfalfa  or  rape  pasture, 
even  this  amount  of  grain  may  be  les- 
sened. The  profit  in  feeding  grains 
comes  from  the  higher  price  that  the 
mutton  from  the  grain  fed  lambs  brings 
in  the  market,  and  the  fact  that  the 
lambs  are  always  ready  for  market.  Ad- 
vantage can  therefore  be  taken  imme- 
diately of  any  rise  in  price  to  market 
the  lambs.  If  such  lambs  are  wanted 
for  winter  fattening,  Wisconsin  station 
experiments  have  shown  that  the  grain 
fed  lambs  fatten  just  as  rapidly  as  lambs 
that  have  never  received  grain  and  weigh 
as  much  four  to  seven  weeks  from  the 
end  of  the  fattening  period  as  grass 
lambs  do  at  the  end. 

Grains  for  lambs  before  and  after 
weaning — A  very  careful  study  has  been 
made  at  the  Wisconsin  station  to  deter- 
mine the  kind  of  grain  that  is  best  suit- 
ed for  lambs,  both  before  and  after 
weaning.  For  this  purpose  the  station 
has  fed  corn,  whole  oats,  bran,  cracked 
peas,  corn  and  oats,  and  corn  and  peas. 
Estimating  corn  at  30  cents  a  bushel, 
oats  at  20,  peas  at  45  and  bran  at  $13 


590 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


a  ton,  the  cheapest  gains  in  every  test, 
either  before  weaning  or  after  weaning 
have  been  made  on  ground  corn._  This 
is  especially  true  of  all  the  experiments 
before  weaning. 

Just  as  good  or  even  better  gains  have 
been  made  before  weaning  on  coarsely 
cracked  peas,  and  the  lambs  appeared 
to  relish  peas  more,  especially  as  they 
grew  older.  But  the  cheapest  gains  have 
been  made  on  corn.  Next  in  cheap- 
ness to  corn  is  bran,  but  this  feed  has 
never  given  very  good  results  when  fed 
to  very  young  animals.  It  seems  to  be 
too  bulky  and  not  easy  of  digestion. 
With  older  lambs  it  is  entirely  satisfac- 
tory. In  feeding  a  ration  consisting 
wholly  of  ground  corn,  greater  watch- 
fulness has  been  found  necessary,  as 
there  is  more  likelihood  of  sickness 
among  the  lambs  than  when  a  mixed 
ration  was  fed.  The  addition  to  the 
corn  of  oats  or  peas  has  made  a  ration 
which  the  lambs  seem  to  relish,  but  aside 
from  this  the  mixture  had  no  appre- 
ciable benefit,  while  it  regularly  in- 
creased the  cost.  Oats  and  peas  were 
about  equally  valuable  and  the  gains  on 
these  feeds  were  about  equal  to  those 
made  on  corn,  either  before  or  after 
weaning,  but  they  were  more  expensive 
rations.  Coarsely  ground  feeds  seem  to 
be  much  more  relished  by  the  lambs 
than  finely  ground. 

Winter  care  of  the  breeding  lambs — 
Ewe  lambs  that  are  to  constitute  the 
breeding  flock  should  be  fed  liberally 
during  the  winter  months.  The  aim  is 
to  get  as  much  growth  as  possible  dur- 
ing the  first  nine  or  10  months  of  the 
life  of  the  lamb.  Craig  states  that 
"the  growth  and  development  of  the 
lamb  the  first  year  of  its  life  determines 
very  largely  the  size,  weight  of  the  fleece 
and  the  vigor  and  power  it  will  attain. 
In  every  case  the  better  the  lambs  are 
cared  for  the  first  year,  the  more  satis- 
factory they  will  prove  as  breeders 
in  the  flock." 

Fully  as  good  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  buck  lambs.  By  the  system 
of  farming  here  described,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  ewe  lambs  born  in  May  or  June 
are  wintered  over  and  not  used  for 
breeding  purposes  until  the  following 
fall,  when  they  are  about  a  year  and  a 
half  old.  Some  breeds  of  sheep,  more 
especially  the  Hampshires,  may  be  safely 
bred  when  a  year  old  without  injury, 
but  as   a   general  thing,   a  better  flock 


can  be  built  up  and  maintained  if  the 
ewe  lambs  are  not  bred  until  16  to  18 
months  old. 

Water  and  salt — Sheep  require  a  sup- 
ply of  pure,  fresh  water.  Owing  to  the 
danger  from  stomach  worms  they  should 
never  be  required  to  drink  stagnant  wa- 
ter. In  very  wet  weather  or  when  there 
are  heavy  dews,  or  when  succulent  feeds 
are  given,  water  may  not  be  necessary, 
but  it  is  wise  to  plan  liberally  for  a 
daily  supply  of  pure  water,  allowing 
from  1  to  6  quarts  a  head  for  each  sheep. 

At  the  Montana  station  in  some  winter 
fattening  experiments,  lambs  allowed 
access  to  fresh  water  gained  over  2 
pounds  each  a  month  more  and  made 
gains  a  cent  a  pound  cheaper  than  lambs 
fed  the  same  food,  but  allowed  water 
only  once  a  day. 

On  the  arid  ranges  of  the  Southwest 
sheep,  when  grazing  on  certain  succulent 
plants,  like  singed  cacti,  sometimes  go 
60  days  or  more  without  water.  In  the 
northwestern  states  sheep  are  watered 
once,  twice  or  three  times  a  day,  or 
more  rarely  every  other  day.  In  a  test 
at  the  Colorado  station,  cold  water 
proved  as  satisfactory  in  fattening  ex- 
periments" as  warm  water. 

Salt  is  essential  for  sheep  and  should 
be  fed  at  regular  intervals.  Rock  salt, 
in  lump  form  left  where  the  sheep  can 
get  at  it  at  will,  is  a  very  satisfactory 
method  of  feeding  it.  With  sheep  at 
pasture,  many  shepherds  make  a  prac- 
tice of  salting  once  a  week  with  coarse 
barrel  salt.  When  it  is  desired  to  clean 
out  a  batch  of  Canada  thistles  the  salt 
may  be  thrown  on  the  wet  plants  and 
the  sheep  will  usually  keep  them  well 
grazed  down. 

In  some  French  experiments  recently 
reported,  three  lots  of  sheep  were  fed 
like  rations  except  that  one  lot  was  given 
no  salt,  another  lot  a/2  ounce  daily  each, 
and  the  third  lot  %  ounce  daily.  The 
lot  fed  \'-2.  ounce  gained  4Vo  pounds  more 
than  the  lot  fed  no  salt,  and  1.2  pounds 
more  than  the  lot  fed  3/4  of  an  ounce. 
The  sheep  fed  the  salt  also  produced 
l1/!  pounds  more  wool  than  those  not 
fed  the  salt. 

On  the  western  ranges  some  sheep 
raisers  never  salt  their  sheep,  but  allow 
them  to  eat  alkali.  The  belief  is  gain- 
ing ground,  however,  that  salt  is  better 
than  alkali  and  that  salted  sheep  are  less 
likely  to  become  locoed.  When  the 
alkali  contains  as  much  as  80  per  cent 
of  salt  it  is  then  quite  safe  for  sheep. 


SHEEP 


591 


FATTENING  SHEEP  AND  LAMBS 
ON  FALL  PASTURE 

Lambs  that  come  in  May  and  June 
may,  with  liberal  feeding,  both  before 
and  after  weaning,  be  made  to  weigh  90 
to  100  pounds  by  the  last  of  November, 
if  given  good  pasture,  with  grain.  At 
the  Iowa  station,  on  good  blue  grass  pas- 
ture, lambs  without  grain  made  an  aver- 
age daily  gain  of  0.4  pound  a  head  at  a 
cost  of  but  2.12  cents  a  pound  of  gain. 
When  corn  was  fed  in  addition  to  the 
blue  grass  pasture,  the  daily  gain  was 
0.46  pound  a  head;  on  oats  and  pasture 
the  gains  were  0.42  pound  daily;  on  bar- 
ley and  pasture,  0.39  pound  daily  a  head. 
From  these  data  it  is  seen  that  sheep 
may  make  practically  as  large  gains  on 
grass  alone  as  on  grain  and  grass.  The 
lambs  in  this  experiment,  however,  were 
a  year  old. 

At  the  Minnesota  station,  wethers  fed 
a  small  grain  ration,  while  on  good  pas- 
ture made  60  per  cent  better  gains  for 
112  days  than  wethers  without  grain. 

On  the  partially  dried  up  grass  pas- 
tures that  had  not  been  cut  or  pastured 
during  the  summer,  sheep  at  the  South 
Dakota  station  of  mixed  ages  made  only 
one-third  to  one-fourth  as  heavy  gains 
as  when  grain  was  fed  in  addition.  In 
this  test,  there  was  considerable  rain, 
which  probably  decreased  the  gain  on 
grass  alone. 

Rye  seeded  in  August  makes  a  fairly 
good  pasture  for  lambs  in  the  fall,  and  if 
not  cropped  too  closely  will  furnish  ex- 
cellent early  pasture  the  following  spring. 

Blue  grass  pasture  is  available  for 
fattening  lambs  after  the  rains  start  it 
into  growth  in  the  fall  and  is  excellent 
for  this  purpose. 

Clover  in  many  states  makes  one  of 
the  best  fall  pastures  for  lambs.  Where 
it  is  cut  in  late  June  or  early  July  the 
second  crop  or  aftermath  will  be  avail- 
able in  September.  If  the  lambs  are 
turned  upon  the  field  late  in  the  after- 
•noon  when  the  clover  is  dry,  being  first 
well  filled  upon  blue  grass  or  other  for- 
age, there  will  be  no  danger  from  bloat. 
The  lambs  may  be  pastured  on  the  clover 
continuously.  They  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  pasture  too  closely,  however, 
or  the  roots  may  be  exposed  and  the 
plants  winterkill. 

In  an  experiment  carried  ori  at  Wo- 
burn,  England,  sheep  on  clover  pasture 
alone  gave  an  increase  of  264  pounds  an 
acre.  When  680  pounds  of  undecorticated 


cottonseed  cake  was  fed  in  addition  to 
the  pasturage,  the  average  increase  per 
acre  was  376.5  pounds ;  when  728  pounds 
of  corn  meal  was  fed,  the  average  in- 
crease was  377  pounds  to  the  acre.  These 
data  show  that  the  rate  of  gain  was  in- 
creased about  42  per  cent  by  the  use  of 
grain  with  pasture. 

Clover  is  especially  valuable  for  lambs 
because  it  is  rich  in  protein,  is  greatly 
relished  by  them  and  puts  them  in  good 
condition   for  fattening   on   grain. 

Alfalfa  for  pasture—Alfalfa  is  used 
extensively  as  a  pasture  for  lambs  and 
sheep,  but  is  not  quite  so  safe  as  clover, 
as  there  is  greater  danger  from  bloat. 
A  few  sheep  are  practically  certain  to 
be  lost  on  alfalfa  pasture,  but  the  dan- 
ger can  be  gradually  overcome  and  the 
loss  reduced  to  at  least  5  per  cent  by 
the  careful  observation  of  certain  pre- 
cautions. These  are  stated  by  the  Colo- 
rado station  as  follows:  "The  field 
should  be  large  enough  to  supply  them 
with  an  abundance  of  food  with  but  lit- 
tle effort,  they  should  be  left  in  the  field 
night  and  day  and  not  removed  when 
the  field  is  irrigated.  Keep  water  and 
salt  within  their  reach  all  the  time  and 
provide  shelter  from  the  sun.  The  sheep 
should  be  well  filled  up  with  some  other 
food  and  not  thirsty  when  turned  upon 
the  alfalfa.  Old  sheep  are  much  more 
liable  to   bloat   on   alfalfa  than   lambs." 

Alfalfa,  like  clover,  is  rich  in  protein, 
and  the  plant  is  greatly  relished  by 
lambs  and  they  make  good  gains  on  it. 
Corn  or  other  grain  should  be  fed  with 
the  alfalfa  to  secure  the  largest  gain 
in  the  proportion  of  *<£  to  iy2  pounds  a 
day. 

Whether  grain  should  be  fed  or  not, 
depends  upon  the  price  of  grain  and 
whether  the  lambs  are  to  be  fed  in  the 
fall,  or  fattened  during  the  winter.  If 
fattened  during  the  winter,  the  grain  ra- 
tion at  pasture  may  be  very  light  or 
omitted  altogether.  Ordinarily  the 
lambs  should  be  made  to  make  most 
of  their  gain  on  the  cheap  alfalfa  pas- 
ture, rather  than  the  more  expensive 
grains. 

Rape  for  pasture—Within  recent 
years,  Dwarf  Essex  rape  has  grown  in 
favor  and  importance  as  a  full  pasture 
crop  for  fattening  sheep,  particularly  in 
the  northern  states  and  Canada.  The 
crop  has  been  very  successfully  grown 
as  far  south  as  Louisiana,  Texas  and 
Alabama.     Good  results  have  also  been 


592 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


reported  in  its  use  as   a   summer   soil- 
ing crop  for  breeding  ewes. 

When  the  crop  is  seeded  in  May  it  is 
ready  for  the  first  cutting  in  about  two 
months,  and  two  more  cuttings  can  be 
obtained  by  snowfall,  yielding  in  all 
about  30  tons  of  green  forage  to  the 
acre.  It  is  exceptionally  good  as  a  fall 
pasture  crop  for  fattening  lambs.  It  is 
best  if  fed  in  the  early  fall.  Lambs  are 
very  fond  of  it,  and  the  crop  withstands 
early  frosts  better  than  most  succulent 
fodders. 

In  some  English  experiments,  sheep 
pastured  on  rape  six  weeks  made  an 
average  gain  of  2  pounds  a  head  weekly. 
In  extensive  trials  with  this  crop  at  the 
Ontario  Experimental  farm  in  Canada, 
an  acre  of  rape  sustained  12  lambs  for 
two  months,  and  had  a  feeding  value 
of  $16.80.  In  another  trial,  60  lambs 
were  pastured  on  2.2  acres  of  rape  for 
25  days  without  other  food,  during 
which  time  they  increased  in  weight 
390  pounds,  making  a  weekly  average 
increase  a  head  of  1.8  pounds.  Again, 
six  lambs  were  pastured  42  days  on  one- 
sixth  of  an  acre,  from  which  it  is  cal- 
culated that  one  acre  would  pasture  36 
lambs  two  months,  and  make  762  pounds 
of  gain.  As  a  fall  pasture  crop  for  fat- 
tening lambs  at  the  Wisconsin  station, 
the  average  results  show  a  weekly  gain 
of  2V2  pounds  a  head.  In  this  case 
about  1  pound  of  grain  was  fed  in  ad- 
dition to  each  sheep. 

In  a  comparison  at  that  station  be- 
tween blue  grass  pasture  and  rape  pas- 
ture, two  lots  of  48  lambs  each  were 
fed  the  same  amount  of  grain  and  one 
lot  pastured  on  blue  grass  and  the  other 
on  rape.  In  four  weeks  the  rape  fed 
lot  had  gained  501  pounds  and  the  lot 
pastured  on  blue  grass  but  325  pounds. 
The  lambs  were  then  put  up  for  the 
winter  and  fed  like  grain  and  hay  ra- 
tions. In  12  weeks  the  rape  pastured 
lambs  had  gained  952  pounds,  and  the 
lot  pastured  on  blue  grass  858  pounds, 
thus  giving  evidence  of  the  value  of 
rape  in  preparing  lambs  for  winter  feed- 
ing. 

Extensive  experiments  have  also  been 
reported  from  the  Michigan  station  on 
the  use  of  rape  for  fall  pasturing  lambs. 
In  one  experiment,  125  grade  Shrop- 
shires  were  fall  pastured  for  five  weeks 
on  15  acres  of  rape  and  made  an  average 
weekly  gain  of  3  pounds  a  head.  Rape 
fed   lambs    at   this   station   have    inva- 


riably been  in  better  condition  in  No- 
vember than  grass  fed  lambs,  and  in 
comparison  have  made  practically  as 
good  gains  in  winter  grain  feeding. 

That  station  states  that  as  a  rule 
lambs  may  be  pastured  on  rape  in  that 
latitude  from  September  15  to  November 
15  in  the  proportion  of  15  to  20  lambs 
to  the  acre  and  gain  20  pounds  each.  It 
is  advised  that  lambs  never  be  put  on 
rape  without  first  pasturing  them  a  few 
hours  on  grass  or  giving  them  a  feed  of 
hay  and  grain.  The  flock  should  be  ac- 
customed to  the  rape  gradually  and  in 
the  beginning  should  not  be  left  on  more 
than  two  hours  at  a  time,  otherwise  they 
are  liable  to  bloat  and  some  of  them  be 
lost.  After  five  or  six  days  they  may 
be  left  on  all  the  time,  but  must  be  care- 
fully watched  and  if  signs  of  bloat  ap- 
pear should  be  promptly  driven  from  the 
field. 

It  is  much  safer  if  some  other  pasture 
is  fed  in  connection  with  the  rape.  Be- 
fore turning  the  lambs  on  the  rape  they 
should  be  docked  and  trimmed,  as  the 
rape  has  a  loosening  effect.  Ideal  con- 
ditions are  supplied  when  the  blue  grass 
pasture  is  adjacent  to  the  rape. 

Bloat  on  rape — Should  bloat  occur,  a 
tablespoonful  of  spirits  of  ammonia 
given  in  a  half  pint  of  warm  water  will 
usually  relieve  the  first  stages;  if  the 
lamb  is  down  and  the  stomach  greatly 
extended  it  should  be  punctured  at  the 
point  of  greatest  swelling  on  the  left 
side  with  a  trocar  and  canula  or  with  a 
knife. 

The  advantage  of  feeding  pasture  with 
rape  is  well  brought  out  in  experiments 
in  the  Ontario  station,  in  which  15 
lambs  pastured  on  an  acre  of  rape  alone 
for  58  days,  gained  23  pounds  a  head, 
while  15  other  lambs  during  the  same  pe- 
riod on  both  rape  and  grass  pasture 
gained  28  pounds  a  head,  a  gain  of 
more  than  20  per  cent  for  the  grass  and 
rape  pasture.  When  oats  were  fed  with 
rape,  at  the  same  station,  at  the  rate  of 
i/2  pound  a  head  daily,  the  gain  of  15 
wethers  pastured  58  days  on  an  acre  of 
rape  was  about  24  pounds  a  head,  or  a 
weekly  increase  of  2.8  pounds  each. 

The  experimental  result  noted  above 
with  rape  shows  quite  conclusively  that 
this  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all 
the  pasture  crops  we  have,  being  on  the 
whole  superior  to  either  alfalfa  or  clo- 
ver, from  the  standpoint  of  palatability 
and  gains  made.     On  the  other  hand,  it 


SHEEP 


593 


is  an  annual,  while  alfalfa  does  not  re- 
quire reseeding  for  a  number  of  years. 

Peas  for  pasture — Field  peas  are  be- 
ing extensively  grown  in  many  of  the 
northern  and  western  mountain  states 
as  a  fall  pasture  for  sheep.  The  use  of 
this  crop  has  grown  into  a  great  industry 
in  the  San  Luis  valley  in  Colorado.  It 
is  estimated  that  in  1904,  fully  200,000 
sheep  were  made  ready  for  market  in 
this  valley  by  pasturing  on  peas.  The 
peas  are  sown  at  the  rate  of  40  to  50 
pounds  to  the  acre  along  with  a  small 
quantity  of  barley  or  oats,  which  are 
used  chiefly  to  furnish  a  support  for  the 
pea  crop. 

Sheep  and  lambs  are  turned  in  to 
graze  upon  the  crop  as  soon  as  it  is  ripe. 
They  thus  get  both  grain  and  forage. 
It  requires  from  70  to  90  days  to  put  the 
lambs  in  fine  condition  for  market  and 
a  little  longer  period  for  ewes  or  older 
sheep.  Lambs  make  an  increase  of  about 
8  pounds  a  head  monthly  while  grazing 
off  the  peas  and  an  acre  will  fatten  10 
to  15  lambs.  On  this  basis,  estimating 
the  increase  in  gain  at  4a/2  cents  a  pound, 
an  acre  of  peas  has  a  value  of  about 
$13  for  mutton  production,  and  the  sheep 
do  their  own  harvesting.  Better  results 
are  secured  where  the  lambs  are  hurdled 
on  small  areas  at  a  time,  rather  than  al- 
lowed to  roam  over  the  entire  area.  This 
calls  for  movable  fences.  There  is  no 
danger  from  bloat  on  this  crop.  The 
peas  being  rich  in  protein  are  well  suited 
to  produce  growth  in  lambs.  The  crop 
at  the  same  time  greatly  improves  the 
fertility  of  the  land. 

One  hundred  lambs  pastured  on  field 
peas  seven  weeks  at  the  Colorado  station, 
when  fit  for  harvesting,  gained  on  the 
average  17  pounds  each. 

In  Colorado,  ideal  conditions  are  fur- 
nished for  this  sort  of  fall  grazing  be- 
cause of  the  long,  dry,  sunshiny  season 
at  this  time. 

Throughout  the  northern  states  it 
will  probably  be  advisable  to  put  on  a 
larger  number  of  sheep  to  pasture  off 
the  peas  more  rapidly  so  that  they  will 
be  all  harvested  before  fall  rains  set 
in ;  otherwise,  the  trampling  of  the  sheep 
on  heavy,  clay  soil  would  be  likely  to 
work  considerable  damage.  There  is  no 
reason,  however,  why  this  practice  of 
fattening  lambs  for  market  on  peas 
should  not  be  widely  extended  through- 
out the  North.  It  has  proved  a  great 
boon    for    farmers   throughout    the    San 


Luis  valley,  where  many  have  become 
independently  rich  by  fitting  lambs  for 
market  on  field  peas. 

Tagging  sheep  and  trimming  hoofs 
— Sheep  at  pasture  are  likely  to  have 
loose  bowels  and  get  besmeared  behind; 
the  feces  adhering  to  the  wool.  Tags 
thus  formed  should  be  kept  trimmed  off. 
Likewise,  when  sheep  run  on  soft  ground, 
the  toes  may  grow  long  or  turn  up,  caus- 
ing lameness.  They  require  paring 
down  from  time  to  time  with  a  sharp 
knife.  On  gravelly  ground  the  hoofs  are 
kept  worn  down  without  paring. 

FATTENING  SHEEP  IN  WINTER 

About  half  the  lambs  in  the  home 
flock  each  year  are  males  and  will  ordi- 
narily be  marketed  as  mutton.  The  ewe 
lambs  will  be  reserved  for  the  most  part 
to  replace  the  older  sheep  in  the  flock 
for  breeding  purposes.  Sheep  never 
make  such  rapid  gains  as  when  they  are 
growing  as  lambs.  And  the  common 
method  throughout  the  eastern  and 
northern  states  is  to  graze  the  lambs 
on  pasture  till  fall  and  then  put  them  up 
for  winter  and  feed  them  for  two  or 
three  months  on  grain,  hay,  silage  or 
roots,  marketing  them  when  they  are 
from  nine  to  12  months  old. 

It  is  desirable  to  ship  to  market  in 
carload  lots,  since  it  is  much  less  expen- 
sive proportionately  for  freight  to  ship 
in  this  manner  than  to  send  only  a  few 
sheep.  Therefore  if  the  home  flock  does 
not  supply  enough  lambs  for  winter 
feeding,  it  may  be  advisable  to  buy  lambs 
to  put  with  them.  These  can  usually 
be  obtained  in  the  fall  at  a  weight  of 
50  to  60  pounds  for  $2.50  to  $2.75  a 
head.  Western  lambs  can  also  be  pur- 
chased in  any  of  the  large  stock  mar- 
kets through  commission  men.  What- 
ever the  source  of  lambs,  whether  home 
grown  or  purchased,  they  should  be 
dipped  twice  about  10  days  apart  to  rid 
them  of  ticks  before  putting  them  on 
fattening  rations. 

Shearing  before  fattening — There  has 
been  considerable  discussion  as  to  the 
desirability  of  shearing  sheep  before  or 
during  the  fattening  period  with  the 
purpose  in  view  of  securing  more  rapid 
gains.  This  matter  was  tested  experi- 
mentally at  the  Wisconsin  station,  and 
it  was  found  that  where  the  lambs  were 
shorn  early  in  the  season,  about  October, 
they  made  more  rapid  gains  for  the  next 
six  or  seven  weeks  or  until  the  wool  had 


594 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


reached  the  length  of  1  or  2  inches,  and 
at  a  slightly  cheaper  rate  than  unshorn 
lambs.  When,  however,  the  fattening 
period  extended  over  a  period  of  three 
or  four  months,  there  appeared  to  be  no 
practical  advantage  whatever  in  fall 
shearing.  The  unshorn  lambs  made  as 
good  gains  in  the  long  run  as  the  shorn 
lambs  and  the  increased  length  of  the 
wool  fiber  counterbalanced  in  value  the 
slightly  greater  weight  of  wool  from  the 
lambs  sheared  both  in  the  fall  and  in 
the  spring. 

In  experiments  at  the  South  Dakota 
station,  lambs  that  had  been  fed  16 
weeks  and  were  ripe  for  market  were 
shorn  and  fed  heavily  four  weeks  longer. 
Practically  no  return  whatever  was  ob- 
tained for  the  grain  fed  and  conse- 
quently all  the  food,  labor  and  risk  in- 
volved in  keeping  the  sheep  during  this 
extra  period  was  a  total  loss.  There 
seems  to  be  nothing  gained  from  taking 
off  the  fleece  after  the  sheep  have 
reached  ripeness  and  are  ready  for  mar- 
ket, from  the  standpoint  of  securing 
further  gains.  When  the  sheep  were 
sheared  earlier  in  the  season,  greater 
gains  were  made  during  two  years'  ex- 
periments than  were  made  by  unshorn 
lambs. 

The  Michigan  station  also  reports  an 
experiment  in  which  lambs  were  fed  for 
13  weeks,  then  sheared  and  kept  in  a 
warm  barn  for  three  weeks  longer.  In 
this  case  they  made  slightly  increased 
gains.  In  another  test,  however,  when 
they  were  sheared  in  December  and  fed 
until  the  latter  part  of  February,  they 
suffered  considerably  from  cold,  required 
more  feed  to  make  a  pound  of  gain  and 
made  less  total  gains  than  unshorn 
lambs. 

The  conclusions  from  these  experi- 
ments seem  to  be  that,  under  ordinary 
conditions,  it  is  not  advisable  to  shear 
lambs  with  the  expectation  of  securing 
an  increased  profit  on  the  greater  gains 
they  will  make.  If  lambs  are  shorn,  they 
should  be  shorn  as  early  in  the  season  as 
October,  rather  than  later  when  they 
suffer  from  the  cold  of  winter. 

Sheltsr  for  fattening  sheep — Sheep 
can  be  successfully  fattened  out  of  doors 
without  shelter,  but  more  economical 
and  rapid  gains  are  made  when  shelter 
from  rain  and  snow  is  provided.  Under 
western  conditions,  where  sheep  are  fed 
in  large  feeding  lots  by  the  thousands, 
for  only  a  limited  period,  they  are  fed 


out  of  doors,  the  cost  of  putting  up  the 
sheds  being  more  expensive  than  any 
slight  increase  in  gain  the  sheep  might 
make. 

Another  question  which  is  frequently 
asked  is  whether  it  is  advisable  to  keep 
fattening  sheep  closely  confined  in  pens 
or  to  allow  them  to  run  in  yards  part  of 
the  time  for  exercise.  The  reports  on 
this  phase  of  the  question  are  conflict- 
ing. In  two  tests  at  the  Wisconsin  sta- 
tion, exercise  gave  the  best  results  in  one 
instance  and  confinement  in  the  other. 
In  fattening  hothouse  lambs  for  market, 
one  of  the  largest  feeders  in  the  West 
states  that  the  lambs  are  kept  confined 
entirely  after  they  go  into  winter 
quarters. 

Satisfactory  conditions  will  be  found 
in  the  use  of  open  sheds  with  compara- 
tively small  yards  for  exercise.  The 
pens  or  sheds  may  be  cheap  structures 
with  earth  floors,  and  a  little  litter 
sprinkled  over  each  day  to  keep  the  pens 
clean.  Where  succulent  foods  like  sugar 
beet  pulp  are  fed,  good  drainage  about 
the  yard  should  be  had  so  they  can  be 
kept  dry,  clean  and  comfortable. 

Self-feed  for  fattening  sheep — By 
self-feed  is  meant  an  arrangement  by 
which  sheep  can  supply  themselves  with 
grain  at  any  time.  It  is  a  convenient 
way  to  feed  grain  to  sheep,  since  all  that 
is  required  is  to  see  that  the  feed  is  sup- 
plied with  grain  at  all  times. 

At  the  Michigan  station,  lambs  fat- 
tened with  a  self-feed  made  an  average 
weekly  gain  of  1.87  pounds  a  head,  and 
required  9.57  pounds  of  dry  feed  to  pro- 
duce a  pound  of  gain.  Other  lambs  fed 
the  same  rations  under  like  conditions, 
but  at  regular  intervals,  according  to  the 
usual  practice,  gained  2.28  pounds  a 
head  a  week  and  required  but  6.97 
pounds  of  dry  feed  for  I  pound  of  gain. 
The  Minnesota  station  reports  like  re- 
sults. 

The  difficulty  with  the  self-feed  seems 
to  be  that  the  feed  is  nosed  over  and  be- 
comes stale  and  as  such  is  not  relished 
to  as  great  an  extent  as  fresh  feed.  The 
results  show  that  while  lambs  can  be 
successfully  fattened  with  a  self-feed,  it 
is  more  expensive  and  smaller  gains  are 
made  than  when  they  are  fed  at  regu- 
lar intervals.  By  the  latter  method, 
also,  closer  attention  can  be  given  to  the 
variations  of  the  appetites  of  the  lambs 
than  the  self-feed  permits. 


SHEEP 


595 


Feeding  qualities  of  lambs — There  is 
a  marked  difference  in  the  feeding  qual- 
ities of  lambs.  All  the  larger  mutton 
breeds  and  crosses  eat  more,  mature 
faster,  and  are  ready  for  market  earlier 
than  the  fine  wool  Merino  type.  In 
buying  lambs  for  feeding,  preference 
should  be  given  to  grades  which  show 
signs  of  mutton  blood.  Many  of  the 
mutton  breeds  have  a  black  nose,  a  mark 
generally  transmitted  to  the  crosses. 
"Well  bred  lambs  of  any  breed  when  well 
fed  and  cared  for  grow  more  rapidly 
and  make  cheaper  gains  than  scrub  stock 
given  indifferent  care. 

This  is  well  shown  in  experiments  re- 
ported by  the  Wisconsin  station,  in 
which  the  influence  of  breeding  on  the 
feeding  qualities  of  the  lamb  was  in- 
vestigated. Shropshire  grade  lambs, 
which  had  been  grown  under  indifferent 
management,  were  fed  in  comparison 
with  the  average  wether  lambs  of  the 
station  flocks  which  had  been  carefully 
reared  and  well  sired.  Both  lots  were 
given  all  the  corn  fodder  they  would 
eat  and  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  corn 
and  peas.  The  scrub  lambs  made  an 
average  weekly  gain  of  2.3  pounds  a 
head,  while  the  well  bred  lambs  gained 
3.6  pounds  a  head.  The  cost  of  gain 
with  the  scrub  lambs  was  at  the  rate  of 
$4.58  a  hundred  pounds,  and  the 
net  profits  65  cents  a  head.  With  the 
well  bred  lambs  the  cost  of  gain  was 
$4.08  a  hundred  pounds  and  the  profit 
$1.13  a  head.  The  sire  was  in  a  large 
measure  responsible  for  this  greater  gain 
and  profit  on  the  well  bred  lambs. 

There  is  a  marked  difference  also  in 
the  feeding  qualities  of  different  types 
of  sheep,  thus  at  the  Iowa  station,  sev- 
eral of  the  pure  mutton  breed  required 
8.5  pounds  of  dry  matter,  costing  2.96 
cents  on  the  average  to  produce  a  pound 
of  mutton.  The  gain  with  these  pure 
bred  sheep  on  the  average  was  0.53  pound 
a  head  a  day.  With  443  range  lambs, 
mostly  of  the  Merino  type,  fed  108  days, 
it  required  on  the  average  10.45  pounds 
of  dry  matter  to  produce  1  pound  of 
gain,  and  the  gain  a  day  was  but  0.24 
pound  a  head,  or  only  about  half  as 
rapid  a  gain  as  that  made  by  the  mutton 
breed.  In  Minnesota,  also,  Merino  grade 
lambs,  made  poorer  and  more  costly 
gains  than  Shropshire,  Oxford,  or  Cots- 
wold  grade  lambs. 

Lambs  vs.  yearlings,  wethers  and  old 
sheep— Sheep,    like    all    other    animals, 


make  gains  more  rapidly  and  cheaply 
while  young  and  growing.  A  consider- 
able amount  of  data  has  been  secured 
on  the  economy  of  gain  on  these  differ- 
ent classes  of  sheep  which  illustrates 
this  point. 

At  the  Montana  station,  a  comparison 
was  made  between  lambs  and  wethers. 
They  were  fed  for  95  days  on  clover  and 
grain.  The  lambs  in  the  experiment 
made  an  average  gain  of  25  pounds  each, 
at  a  cost  of  $1.13  ;  the  wethers  during  the 
same  period  gained  25.6  pounds  at  a 
cost  of  $1.43.  The  dressed  weight  of 
the  lambs  was  54.8  per  cent  of  their 
live  weight,  while  that  of  the  wethers 
was  52.5  of  the  live  weight.  From  12 
hours  fast  the  lambs  shrank  1.6  per  cent 
and  the  wethers,  3  per  cent.  In  shipping 
the  lambs  from  Montana  to  Chicago, 
the  average  shrinkage  was  8.3  per  cent 
for  the  lambs  and  7.8  per  cent  for  the 
wethers. 

The  Iowa  station  also  made  a  compari- 
son between  lambs  and  yearlings.  Shrop- 
shires  were  used  in  both  cases.  The 
lambs  required  on  the  average  7.18 
pounds  of  dry  matter  for  a  pound  of 
gain  at  a  cost  of  2.88  cents.  The  year- 
lings required  11  pounds  of  dry  matter 
for  a  pound  of  gain  at  a  cost  of  4.44 
cents.  The  lambs  also  gained  much 
more  rapidly  than  the  yearlings,  the 
average  being  0.48  pound  a  day  for  the 
lambs,  and  0.33  pound  a  day  for  the 
yearlings.  On  the  whole  it  cost  56  per 
cent  more  to  produce  gain  with  year- 
lings than  with  lambs  of  the  same  breed. 
As  a  rule  lam1  s  always  make  more  rapid 
gains  on  smaller  amounts  of  food  for  a 
pound  of  gain  than  older  sheep.  The 
meat  also  sells  for  a  higher  price  in  the 
market.  It  is  necessary  to  buy  year- 
lings and  older  sheep  at  a  considerably 
smaller  price  a  hundred  pounds  if  they 
are  to  be  fed  at  a  proportionate  profit. 
Both  the  Missouri  and  Colorado  stations 
have  shown  that  large  lambs  of  the  same 
age  make  more  rapid  gains  than  small 
lambs. 

In  tests  reported  by  the  Colorado  sta- 
tion, Mexican  lambs  were  fed  at  a 
greater  net  profit  than  Mexican  year- 
lings, grade  Merino  lambs  or  grade 
Merino  yearlings,  whether  figured  on 
the  amount  of  money  invested  or  the 
amount  of  hay  fed.  Lambs  in  these  ex- 
periments shrank  less  in  shipping  to 
Chicago  and  in  dressed  weight  than 
yearlings. 


596 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  Montana  station  in  experiment- 
ing with  the  feeding  qualities  of  lambs 
and  wethers  found  that  owing  to  the 
growthy  tendency  of  lambs  their  ration 
must  possess  more  fat  producing  mate- 
rial than  that  of  mature  sheep.  When 
grain  is  not  available  the  pure  wethers 
will  fatten  more  rapidly  than  lambs  on 
clover  or  alfalfa  alone.  Lambs  in  one 
test  made  37.7  per  cent  gains  on  their 
first  weight;  yearlings,  24.7  per  cent; 
two-year  wethers,  20.9  per  cent;  and 
ewes,  17  per  cent  gains  on  their  first 
weight,  during  the  same  feeding  period. 
The  lambs  required  10  pounds  of  air- 
dried  food  to  a  pound  of  gain,  the  one- 
year  wethers,  16.6;  two-year  wethers,  17 
pounds;  and  the  ewes,  17.5  pounds  to  a 
pound  of  gain.  The  lambs  and  wethers 
shrank  about  8.7  per  cent  of  their  weight 
when  shipped  1,400  miles  on  full  feed. 
The  ewes  shrank  11.3  per  cent.  There 
was  a  profit  in  feeding  the  lambs  of  $1.73 
a  head;  of  the  one-year  wethers,  $1.40  a 
head;  of  the  two-year  wethers,  $1.70; 
and  of  the  aged  ewes,  1.8  cents  a  head. 

Wethers  vs.  bucks  for  fattening — In. 
feeding  experiments,  Prof.  H.  W.  Mum- 
ford  found  that  on  the  average,  wethers 
in  60  days  gained  2.25  per  cent  in  live 
weight  and  4  per  cent  in  dressed  weight 
more  than  bucks  of  the  same  age.  This 
difference  is  slight  and  not  likely  to  be 
constant. 

Locoed  sheep — Frequently  under  west- 
ern conditions  sheep  eat  plants  known  as 
loco  weed,  mostly  species  of  astragalus. 
This  has  the  effect  of  making  them  act 
in  a  drunken  manner,  difficult  to  man- 
age, and  undesirable  feeders.  Such  sheep 
are  known  as  locoed  sheep.  At  the 
Montana  station  a  band  of  29  locoed 
sheep  were  fed  123  days  and  gained  as 
rapidly  and  made  as  economical  gains  as 
a  band  of  healthy  wethers. 

Putting  sheep  on  fattening  rations — 
Lambs  that  have  received  grain  at  pas- 
ture are  easily  put  on  fattening  rations 
when  shut  up  in  the  feeding  yards.  Be- 
ginning with  about  }4  pound  of  grain 
daily,  or  perhaps  more  if  the  lambs  have 
been  receiving  larger  rations  than  this 
while  at  pasture,  the  amount  may  be 
gradually  increased  at  the  rate  of  about 
J/4  pound  a  week  until  the  end  of  the 
fourth  week  when  they  may  be  getting 
1V±  pounds  of  grain  a  head  daily.  At 
the  end  of  the  eighth  week,  they  should 
be  getting  l1/^  to  2  pounds  a  head  daily. 
It  will  seldom  be  advisable  to  feed  more 


at  any  time  during  the  feeding  experi- 
ment than  2  pounds  a  head. 

In  very  cold  weather,  the  amount  of 
grain  fed  can  be  slightly  increased,  de- 
creasing again  when  a  warm  spell  sets 
in. 

The  bulk  of  the  lambs  put  in  the  fat- 
tening pens  have  never  been  fed  grain 
and  do  not  know  what  it  is.  With  such 
lambs  not  more  than  one-tenth  to  one- 
sixth  pound  of  grain  should  be  fed  daily 
a  head  in  the  beginning  of  the  fattening 
period.  This  amount  may  be  slowly  in- 
creased to  about  1  pound  of  grain  in  four 
to  six  weeks  and  this  grain  gradually  in- 
creased until  they  are  receiving  as  much 
at  the  end  of  eight  to  12  weeks  as  lambs 
fed  grain  at  pasture.  The  shepherd 
watches  the  feeding  of  each  lamb  daily 
and  so  regulates  the  amount  that  they 
are  always  ready  for  their  feed  and  their 
appetites  never  cloy.  Should  they  lose 
their  appetites  by  over  feeding  it  may 
require  six  weeks  or  more  to  get  them 
back  on  feed  again,  during  which  time 
they  will  have  gained  nothing  or  actually 
lost  in  weight  to  the  great  loss  of  the 
feeder. 

Fattening  rations_For  fattening 
lambs  or  for  older  sheep  that  have  made 
their  growth,  a  ration  having  a  nutri- 
tive ratio  of  1 :6  or  1 :8  is  best.  What- 
ever the  nutritive  ratio  either  for  lambs 
or  sheep,  the  ration  compounded  should 
be  palatable.  Rations  the  sheep  eat  with 
relish  are  most  effective  in  producing 
gains  whatever  the  nutritive  ratio.  The 
character  of  the  grain  fed  will  depend 
in  large  measure  on  the  kind  of  rough- 
age available.  With  clover,  alfalfa,  cow- 
pea,  or  other  leguminous  hays  or  rough- 
age rich  in  protein,  no  single  grain 
either  for  lambs  or  older  sheep  will  be 
found  superior  to  corn  for  fattening 
purposes.  On  the  average,  it  takes  about 
500  pounds  of  corn  and  400  pounds  of 
leguminous  hay  to  produce  100  pounds 
of  gain. 

The  amount  of  grain  to  feed  in  the 
ration  will  depend  upon  the  price  of  the 
grain,  and  the  rapidity  of  gain  desired. 
When  grain  is  high  and  rapid  gain 
not  a  matter  of  importance,  less  grain 
may  be  fed  and  the  roughage  increased 
proportionately.  Generally  speaking,  the 
more  gain  that  can  be  made  on  cheap 
roughage,  the  greater  will  the  profits  be. 
Many  feeders  never  give  over  1  pound  of 
corn  a  head  daily,  when  feeding  such 
material  as  good  alfalfa  or  clover  hay. 


SHEEP 


597 


Amount  lambs  eat  daily — Fattening 
lambs  eight  to  10  months  old  will  eat 
from  1.5  to  3  pounds  of  hay  daily  in  ad- 
dition to  1.5  to  2  pounds  of  grain  and 
1  to  2  pounds  of  sliced  roots  or  silage. 
In  feeding  roughage  to  sheep  it  must 
be  remembered  that  they  are  dainty 
feeders  and  do  not  eat  everything  up 
closely.  It  is  advisable  to  feed  them 
more  roughage  than  is  required,  allowing 
them  to  pick  out  what  they  want  and 
then  clean  out  the  racks  between  each 
feeding,  giving  what  remains  to  cattle 
or  horses. 

Balancing  up  the  roughage  with 
grain — If  the  only  roughage  available 
is  corn  stalks,  millet,  hay,  oat  straw, 
timothy,  sorghum  or  cereal  hays,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  balance  up  the  ration 
with  some  grain  or  mill  product  richer 
in  protein  than  corn.  Otherwise  the 
ration  will  be  too  wide  for  growing  sheep 
and  not  satisfactory  for  mature  sheep. 
Coarsely  cracked  field  peas  or  ground  soy 
beans  are  excellent  for  this  purpose  and 
may  be  mixed  with  corn,  barley,  screen- 
ings, millet  seeds,  oats  or  other  more 
starchy  grains  in  the  proportion  of  one 
part  peas  or  soy  beans  to  three  or  four 
parts  other  grains. 

Among  the  mill  feeds  which  are  ex- 
ceedingly valuable  for  balancing  up  the 
rations,  are  cottonseed  meal,  linseed 
meal,  or  the  gluten  feeds.  These  should 
be  used  in  the  proportion  of  about  one 
part  to  four  to  eight  parts  of  corn  or 
other  grain.  Bran  and  middlings  are 
also  excellent  and  they  may  constitute 
as  much  as  one-fourth  to  one-third  of 
the  grain  ration  by  weight  with  economy 
and  profit. 

The  higher  the  price  of  the  other 
grains  like  corn,  the  more  desirable  will 
it  be  to  use  some  of  the  more  concen- 
trated feeds  like  the  oil  meal  for  balan- 
cing up  the  ration. 

Order  of  feeding  rations — Fattening 
sheep  are  fed  usually  two  or  three  times 
a  day.  Under  ordinary  conditions  twice 
a  day  is  sufficient,  once  in  the  morning 
at  daylight,  and  again  late  in  the  after- 
noon. It  is  a  rule  among  sheepmen 
never  to  waken  the  flock  to  feed  them  in 
the  morning.  In  feeding,  the  grain 
ration  is  usually  given  first,  followed 
by  the  hay  and  later  in  the  day  by  silage 
or  roots  if  these  feeds  are  available.  In 
the  afternoon,  grain  is  again  given  fol- 
lowed by  hay.  Where  sheep  are  watered 
by  hand  this  is  usually  done  in  the  morn- 


ing alter  they  have  been  fed  hay.  If 
silage  or  roots  are  given,  watering  is 
done  after  these  are  given.  If  fresh 
water  is  available  at  all  times  so  much 
the  better,  otherwise,  one  watering  is 
sufficient.  Gentleness  and  quietness  is 
essential  in  the  fattening  pen.  No 
stranger  or  dog  should  ever  be  allowed 
in  the  pens  if  it  can  be  prevented.  Sheep 
are  easily  frightened  and  the  fright 
manifests  itself  in  shrinkage  and  loss. 
The  slamming  of  doors  or  other  needless 
noise  should  be  avoided. 

Time  required  to  fatten  lambs — With 
lambs  that  have  never  received  grain  at 
pasture  it  requires  from  12  to  15  weeks' 
feeding  to  fit  them  for  market.  With 
palatable,  well  balanced  rations  and  un- 
der good  conditions,  lambs  should  gain 
on  the  average  about  Vi  pound  a  day, 
or  from  25  to  30  pounds  in  14  to  16 
weeks.  It  requires  on  the  average  8  to 
9  pounds  of  dry  matter  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain  with  lambs  and  from  30 
to  40  per  cent  more  than  this  with  older 
sheep. 

Way  the  fat  is  laid  on — Sheep  put  on 
fattening  rations  begin  to  show  the  in- 
fluence of  feed  at  the  end  of  the  third 
or  fourth  week.  During  this  time  they 
seem  to  be  simply  getting  into  good  con- 
dition to  put  on  flesh,  though  it  ap- 
pears that  some  flesh  is  being  deposited 
internally.  According  to  Craig:  "To- 
ward the  end  of  that  time,  many  of  the 
lambs  may  be  noticed  standing  leisurely 
in  the  sun  in  a  partially  stretched  pos- 
ture. This  pose  in  the  lambs  is  a  delight 
to  the  shepherd.  The  fattening  process 
seems  to  extend  from  the  internal  re- 
gions, and  is  first  in  evidence  at  the  tail. 
It  then  passes  along  the  back  over  the 
shoulder  and  reaches  the  neck;  from 
this  line  it  seems  to  extend  down  the 
sides  and  over  the  breast  in  front." 

Feeding  after  sheep  are  ripe — If  the 
feeding  has  been  well  done  at  the  end  of 
14  to  16  weeks,  lambs  will  be  ripe  for 
market.  That  is,  they  will  be  so  fat  and 
well  filled  out  that  further  gain  cannot 
be  made  at  a  profit.  In  experiments  at 
the  Minnesota  station  it  cost  4.17  cents 
to  make  1  pound  of  gain  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  feeding  period,  and  23.17 
cents  a  pound  after  the  lambs  were  ripe. 
At  the  North  Dakota  station,  lambs 
fed  a  heavy  grain  ration  for  four  weeks 
after  they  were  ripe  gained  but  5  pounds 
during  the  whole  period,  thus  showing 
that  any  feeding  done  after  the  lambs 


598 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


are  ripe  is  done  at  a  loss.  The  main 
fact  holds  true  also  with  older  sheep. 
When  they  are  ripe  or  ready  for  market, 
they  should  be  marketed  without  further 
delay. 

How  to  tell  a  fat  sheep — The  points 
observed  by  judges  in  estimating  the 
condition  of  fat  sheep  are  the  tail,  the 
middle  of  the  back,  the  neck,  the  flank, 
the  purse  and  the  throat.  According 
to  Craig,  "at  any  of  these  points,  more 
especially  the  back,  the  covering  should 
be  such  in  the  prime  lamb  as  to  prevent 
feeling  the  sharp  projections  of  the  back- 
bone. In  fact,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that 
a  lamb  is  really  prime  unless  instead  of 
a  projection  of  the  backbone  there  is  a 
distinct  trough  or  groove  running  from 
the  tail  to  the  shoulders  and  this  cover- 
ing should  extend  well  down  over  the 
sales  without  softness  due  to  excessive 
fat  or  oily  tissue.  All  lambs  do  not  fat- 
ten as  smoothly  or  as  uniformly  as  here- 
in indicated.  In  most  lambs,  however, 
the  worst  defect  is  bareness  of  the  loin 
and  lightness  in  the  hindquarters.  With 
these  parts  well  covered  and  fully  devel- 
oped, a  rather  sharp  shoulder  and  peaked 
brisket  may  be  overlooked.  Not  only 
should  the  flesh  be  thick  over  the  valu- 
able cuts,  but  it  should  be  firm.  Very 
often  it  may  be  found  that  soft,  rough 
patches  will  be  present  about  the  head 
or  the  tail,  owing  to  the  depositing  of 
too  much  soft  flesh  on  the  back,  which 
may  slip  from  there  on  the  over-ripe 
l"mb  and  gather  at  the  flank  or  along 
the  sides  in  long,  soft  rolls." 


FOR 


FATTENING 


ROUGHAGE 
SHEEP 

Under  this  heading  will  be  discussed 
the  results  of  experiments  and  practice 
in  the  use  of  various  roughages  for  fat- 
tening sheep. 

Alfalfa — Nothing  exceeds  alfalfa  hay 
in  value  as  a  roughage  for  fattening 
sheep.  On  alfalfa  hay  alone  lambs  at 
the  New  Mexico  station  consumed  2.3 
pounds  per  week  and  gained  23.7  pounds 
in  128  days,  requiring  about  11.8  pounds 
of  hay  per  pound  of  gain. 

At  the  Wyoming  station,  where  al- 
falfa was  compared  with  native  hay  as  a 
roughage  for  fattening  lambs,  they  made 
25  per  cent  better  gains  than  the  lambs 
on  native  hay.  Stated  in  another  way, 
an  acre  of  native  hay  produced  476 
pounds  of  gain,  and  an  acre  of  alfalfa, 
1,756  pounds. 


At  the  Montana  station  also,  alfalfa 
hay  gave  about  40  per  cent  better  results 
than  grain  hay,  made  up  of  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  wheat,  oats,  barley  and  peas 
cut  in  the  milk  stage.  At  the  Colorado 
station  it  required  about  400  pounds  of 
alfalfa  hay  and  120  pounds  of  grain  to 
put  range  lambs  in  good  condition  for 
the  market.  In  experiments  at  the  Ne- 
braska station,  lambs  fed  alfalfa  hay 
and  grain  made  52  per  cent  better  gains 
than  like  lambs  fed  the  same  grains  and 
prairie  hay. 

When  sorghum  was  substituted  for 
the  prairie  hay,  the  lot  fed  alfalfa  made 
72  per  cent  better  gains  than  the  lot  fed 
sorghum.  In  these  tests  the  lambs  on 
both  prairie  hay  and  sorghum  were  fed 
at  a  profit. 

All  these  results  show  clearly  the  high 
feeding  value  of  alfalfa  hay  for  fat- 
tening sheep,  due  not  only  to  its  large 
protein  content,  but  also  to  its  great 
palatability  to  sheep.  The  third  and 
fourth  cuttings  are  tisually  considered 
most  satisfactory  for  sheep,  because  the 
stems  are  finer  and  more  leafy.  There 
is  no  danger  whatever  from  bloat  in 
feeding  alfalfa  hay. 

Clover — This  has  been  a  standard  hay 
for  sheep  in  the  East  for  many  years. 
On  clover  alone  at  the  Montana  station, 
sheep  in  one  test  gained  7  pounds  a 
head  monthly  and  in  another  8.1  pounds. 
It  required  14  pounds  of  clover  hay  or 
18  pounds  of  grain  hay  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain.  On  grain  hay  alone  the 
gain  was  but  5.34  pounds  a  month. 

That  station  concludes  that  while 
fairly  good  gains  can  be  secured  from 
feeding  lambs  on  clover  alone,  some 
grain  in  addition  is  required  to  impart 
a  good  finish  to  them  for  shipping  pur- 
poses. 

Alsike  clover  was  found  superior  by 
the  station  to  either  alfalfa  or  red  clover 
for  fattening  lambs,  but  the  range  of 
growth  and  the  yield  of  this  crop  is  not 
so  great  as  either  alfalfa  or  red  clover. 
There  is  considerable  waste  in  feeding 
clover  to  fattening  sheep,  but  they 
should  not  be  forced  to  eat  it  too  closely 
as  they  will  not  do  as  well  as  with  more 
liberal  feeding.  They  select  out  the  ten- 
derest  and  most  nutritious  parts  of  it 
and  the  remainder  should  be  cleaned 
out  of  the  racks  and  given  to  cattle  or 
horses. 

Cowpea  hay — This  is  one  of  the  im- 
portant   leguminous    hay   plants    of    the 


SHEEP 


South,  taking  the  place  of  alfalfa  and 
red  clover  in  a  large  measure.  But  one 
experiment  has  been  reported  in  feeding 
this  crop  to  sheep,  where  at  the  West 
Virginia  station  it  was  found  to  be  much 
superior  to  timothy  and  at  $5  a  ton 
was  found  more  valuable  for  fatten- 
ing lambs  than  mixed  hay  at  $10  a  ton. 

Corn  fodder—Well  cured  corn  fodder 
is  widely  available  and  an  excellent 
roughage  for  fattening  sheep.  It  makes 
the  best  fodder  and  furnishes  the  most 
grain  if  cut  when  the  grain  is  beginning 
to  dent  and  the  lower  leaves  are  begin- 
ning to  turn  color.  It  may  be  cut  and 
fed  whole,  stalks,  leaves,  ears  and  all 
in  racks.  The  sheep  will  eat  a  little 
more  of  the  butt  if  the  stalks  are  shred- 
ded, but  under  western  conditions  the 
cost  of  shredding  is  more  than  the  in- 
creased feeding  value  of  the  stalk  will 
amount  to.  By  this  method  of  feeding, 
the  sheep  will  get  a  considerable  amount 
of  corn;  in  fact,  all  the  grain  they  will 
require.  To  make  a  well-balanced  ra- 
tion, it  will  be  advisable  to  feed  with  the 
corn  fodder  some  good  alfalfa  or  clover 
hay  to  add  protein  and  make  it  a  more 
evenly  balanced  ration.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  feeding  period,  some  shelled  corn 
mixed  with  a  little  oil  meal,  bran  or 
cottonseed  meal,  might  be  fed  with 
profit  in  addition  to  the  fodder.  By 
this  method  of  feeding,  corn  fodder 
makes  one  of  the  cheapest  rations  there 
is  for   sheep,  under  western   conditions. 

If  the  grain  is  husked  and  the  corn 
stover  fed  alone,  it  is  still  very  palata- 
ble to  sheep  and  practically  the  best  of 
the  more  carbonaceous  roughages  that 
can  be  given  them. 

In  experiments  reported  by  the  Utah 
station,  well  cured  corn  fodder  cut  up 
before  feeding  gave  equal  or  better  gains 
with  sheep  than  corn  silage  and  the 
flesh  produced  on  the  fodder  corn  was 
not  so  watery.  For  breeding  ewes  at 
the  Wisconsin  station,  cut  corn  fodder 
proved  superior  to  either  corn  silage, 
oat  straw  or  blue  grass  hay  as  a  winter 
ration. 

Miscellaneous  fodders — Timothy  hay 
is  occasionally  used  as  a  fodder  for  sheep, 
though  it  is  more  generally  given  to 
horses.  It  has  about  the  same  feeding 
value  as  oat  straw.  On  timothy  and 
grain,  sheep  gained  21/4  pounds  a  head 
weekly  at  the  Dakota  station  and  on  oat 
•straw  and  the  same  grain  ration  the 
gains  were  2%  pounds  a  week.     Where 


sheep  are  kept  for  wool,  stock  wethers 
are  frequently  given  no  other  roughage 
during  the  winter  than  oat  straw.  They 
will  just  about  maintain  their  eights 
on  this  feed.  Brome  grass  proved  more 
effective  as  a  sheep  ration  at  the  South 
Dakota   station  than   prairie  hay. 

While  good  clover  hay  or  alfalfa 
makes  the  best  winter  roughage  for 
sheep,  there  are  a  number  of  plants 
which  may  be  substituted  for  them,  es- 
pecially if  a  little  grain  is  fed  in  addi- 
tion. 

At  the  Michigan  station  cheap  and 
substantial  gains  were  made  on  all  the 
following  roughages:  Millet  hay,  oat 
straw,  bean  straw  and  corn  stalks.  The 
least  effective  of  these  was  millet  hay. 
Bean  straw  is  about  equal  to  corn  stalks. 
Considerable  care  was  necessary  in  feed- 
ing the  millet  hay,  as  the  sheep  easily 
scoured  on  it.  Sorghum  hay  is  about 
equal  in  value  to  timothy  hay  or  corn 
stover.  The  best  results  with  this  class 
of  feeds  cannot  be  expected  unless  they 
are  supplemented  with  some  grain  or 
fodder  richer  in  protein,  like  oats,  bran, 
alfalfa,  etc. 

SILAGE  AND  BOOTS  FOR  SHEEP 

The  mutton  sheep  industry  of  Eng- 
land is  largely  based  on  roots,  and  the 
feeding  of  these  has  become  a  science 
in  English  sheep  husbandry.  The 
greater  expense  of  roots,  as  compared 
with  silage  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  different  conditions  under  which 
sheep  are  reared  here,  has  conduced  to 
a  greater  use  of  silage  than  of  roots. 
Generally  speaking,  the  two  are  about 
equal  in  feeding  value.  The  main  pur- 
pose of  feeding  silage  or  roots  in  the 
rations  of  sheep  is  not  so  much  on  ac- 
count of  the  food  constituents  they  con- 
tain, as  for  their  tonic  and  regulating 
effects.  Sheep  relish  both  and  when  fed 
in  a  limited  amount,  both  are  extremely 
valuable,  and  no  one  should  fatten  sheep 
or  raise  lambs  without  one  or  the  other 
of  these  succulents.  Hay  or  other  fibrous 
foods  should  always  be  fed  with  roots 
to  regulate  digestion. 

Silage — The  healthfulness  of  silage 
for  sheep  was  investigated  at  the  Oregon 
station,  with  25  breeding  ewes  and  a 
ram.  The  sheep  were  fed  all  the  steamed 
vetch  and  clover  silage  they  wanted, 
with  about  J/2  pound  of  oats  a  head  daily 
in  addition.  On  this  ration  they  gained 
122   pounds    in   48    days,    and   with   the 


600 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


exception  of  one  animal  all  kept  in  the 
best  of  health,  consuming  /about  6.6 
pounds  of  silage  and  V2  pound  of  oats 
a  head  daily. 

As  the  result  of  experiments  at  the 
Massachusetts  and  New  York  Cornell 
station,  it  has  been  shown  that  4  pounds 
of  corn  silage  is  about  equivalent  in 
feeding  value  to  a  pound  of  mixed  hay. 

The  Wisconsin  station  made  a  test 
of  the  value  of  succulent  vs.  dry  rations 
for  fattening  lambs.  One  lot  was  fed 
on  hay  and  grain  and  gained  2.6  pounds 
a  head  weekly.  The  other  lot  was  fed 
this  same  ration  with  silage  in  addition 
and  gained  2.3  pounds  a  head  weekly. 
When  roots  were  fed,  the  gain  was  2.4 
pounds  weekly.  The  flesh  of  the  lambs 
fed  on  the  dry  ration  contained  43.11 
per  cent  of  water  and  on  the  succulent 
ration  about  49  per  cent  of  water,  which 
indicates  that  succulent  rations  tend  to 
produce  a  watery  flesh.  Similar  results 
with  succulent  rations  on  the  watery 
character  of  the  flesh,  were  noted  at  the 
Utah  station,  when  sheep  were  fed  beets 
and  turnips. 

At  the  Michigan  station  corn  silage 
was  compared  with  sugar  beets  for  fat- 
tening lambs  fed  alike  in  other  respects. 
The  lambs  on  silage  gained  on  the  aver- 
age 21/2  pounds  a  week,  and  on  sugar 
beets  3  pounds  a  week.  In  another  test 
at  the  same  station,  good  corn  silage 
was  compared  with  cut  rutabaga  for  fat- 
tening lambs.  In  this  experiment  the 
gains  were  the  same  with  both  lots,  1.7 
pounds  a  week,  but  the  root  fed  lot  gave 
a  profit  of  only  22  cents  a  head,  while 
on  the  corn  silage  the  gain  was  63  cents 
a  head. 

In  experiments  reported  from  the 
Ontario  agricultural  college,  lambs  fed 
silage  with  hay  and  grain  gained  1.8 
pounds  a  week,  and  when  roots  were 
fed  with  the  same  rations,  the  gain  was 
2.12  pound  a  week.  In  this  experi- 
ment the  proportion  fed  was  two  parts 
hay  with  one  of  silage  or  roots. 

In  experiments  reported  by  the  New 
York  Cornell  station  with  lambs,  the 
gain  when  roots  were  fed  in  the  ration 
was  about  3.4  pounds  a  head  weekly, 
while  when  a  good  quality  of  corn  silage 
was  fed,  the  gain  was  about  3.8  pounds 
a  head  weekly. 

Conclusions  relative  to  silage — The 
experiences  of  sheep  farmers  are  gen- 
erally concordant  in  showing  that  silage 
is  a  very  useful  winter  feed  for  sheep, 


for  adding  succulence  and  palatability 
to  the  rations.  While  it  is  possible  to 
maintain  sheep  entirely  on  a  good  qual- 
ity of  corn  silage,  it  is  not  advisable  to 
do  so.  It  should  be  used  rather  as  only 
a  part  of  the  rations,  feeding  some  good 
hay  with  it. 

The  experiments  noted  above  are  not 
decisive  either  way.  As  compared  with 
roots,  owing,  however,  to  its  much  great- 
er cheapness,  corn  silage  is  likely  to  be 
used  to  a  much  greater  extent  than 
roots. 

On  sandy  lands,  however,  where  tur- 
nips or  beets  can  be  grown,  the  English 
method  of  pasturing  them  off  might  be 
used  to  a  much  greater  profit  in  this 
country  than  it  is.  On  the  heavier  lands 
it  is  probable  that  Dwarf  Essex  rape 
will  continue  to  take  the  lead  as  a  suc- 
culent fall  pasture  crop. 

Boots — The  principal  roots  grown  for 
sheep  in  this  country  are  mangels  and 
rutabagas  or  swedes.  Some  experiments 
have  also  been  made  in  the  use  of  sugar 
beets,  sugar  beet  pulp,  turnips  and  pota- 
toes. In  some  English  experiments 
sheep  gained  faster  when  hurdled  on 
turnips  than  when  fed  turnips  on  pas- 
ture. In  either  wet  or  dry  weather  it 
has  been  found  that  sheep  fatten  more 
readily  on  turnip  land  than  on  grass. 
Some  other  experiments  carried  on  at 
Wye  college,  England,  indicate  that 
sugar  beets  are  not  as  good  as  mangels 
for  fattening  sheep.  The  wool  of  the 
sheep  fed  mangels  was  superior  to  that 
of  the  sheep  fed  sugar  beets.  In  two 
experiments  reported  by  the  English 
Board  of  Agriculture,  mangels  proved 
20  to  30  per  cent  better  than  sugar  beets 
and  it  cost  less  to  grow  them. 

Sugar  beet  pulp,  a  by-product  ob- 
tained in  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar, 
has  been  extensively  used  for  feeding  to 
sheep  at  the  Colorado  station.  Sheep 
fed  sugar  beets,  in  connection  with  a 
small  grain  ration,  slightly  increased  the 
gains  made,  giving  a  return  of  about  $3 
a  ton  for  the  sugar  beets.  When  the 
sheep  were  fed  all  the  sugar  beets  they 
would  eat  or  about  4  pounds  a  head 
daily,  the  beets  had  a  feeding  value  of 
about  $2  a  ton — an  amount  too  small 
to  pay  for  raising  them.  When  pulp 
was  used  instead  of  the  whole  beet,  as 
good  gains  were  made  as  when  the  whole 
beets  were  fed.  The  pulp  contains  about 
90  per  cent  of  water,  so  that  in  a  ton  of 
pulp  there  is  about  200  pounds  of  dry 


SHEEP 


601 


matter.  The  dry  matter  in  sugar  beet 
pulp  was  found  to  be  equal  in  feeding 
value,  pound  for  pound,  to  corn.  That 
is,  a  ton  of  sugar  beet  pulp  containing 
90  per  cent  water,  was  equivalent  in 
feeding  value  to  200  pounds  of  corn. 

In  other  experiments  at  the  station,  a 
pound  of  pulp  was  found  equal  in  feed- 
ing value  to  2  pounds  of  sugar  beets. 

When  sugar  beet  pulp  was  fed  with 
alfalfa  at  the  Utah  station,  it  had  a 
feeding  value  of  $1.86  per  ton.  A 
pound  of  gain  was  made  on  8  pounds 
of  alfalfa  and  18  pounds  of  pulp.  Bet- 
ter results  were  secured  when  a  small 
grain  ration  was  fed  in  addition.  When 
fed  in  limited  quantities  with  alfalfa, 
the  results  were  not  as  good  as  when 
fed  ad  libitum.  Successful  feeders  in 
Utah  assign  to  sugar  beet  pulp .  a  value 
of  about  $2.5"0  a  ton  as  a  feeding  stuff 
for  sheep. 

Owing  to  the  bulky  nature  of  sugar 
beet  pulp,  lambs  cannot  consume  enough 
in  the  later  stages  of  fattening  to  finish 
off  well.  Hence  it  should  be  fed  only  in 
limited  amount  for  its  physiological  ef- 
fects. When  fed  in  large  amounts  dur- 
ing the  finishing  off  period  at  the  Colo- 
rado station,  it  produced  a  soft  flesh 
and  in  shipping  many  of  the  lambs  were 
crippled. 

Owing  to  the  succulent  nature  oi  the 
pulp,  special  care  must  be  taken  to  keep 
the  yards  of  the  sheep  dry  by  means  of 
drains  and  plenty  of  litter. 

Potatoes  were  tested  at  the  Minnesota 
station  as  a  feeding  stuff  for  fatten- 
ing lambs  in  comparison  with  sugar 
beets  and  mangels.  All  the  lambs  were 
fed  like  grain  rations  of  corn,  barley 
and  oil  meal  and  hay.  In  addition,  each 
lot  was  given  all  the  roots  they  would 
eat.  On  the  average  this  was  about  Zx/z 
pounds  a  day.  The  sheep  were  fed  110 
days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  lot 
fed  potatoes  had  gained  32.9  pounds, 
the  lot  fed  mangels  30.6  and  the  lot  fed 
sugar  beets  34.6  pounds.  These  results 
are  slightly  in  favor  of  the  potatoes  and 
sugar   beets. 

The  data  are  useful  in  indicating  the 
value  of  the  small,  unmerchantable  po- 
tatoes for  sheep  feeding.  Ordinarily, 
the  cost  of  raising  potatoes  is  too  great 
to  permit  of  their  use  as  a  feeding  stuff 
in  comparison  with  other  roots  which 
yield  much  heavier,  hence  only  the  small, 
unsalable  potatoes  can  be  used  profitably 
in  the  ration  for  sheep. 


The  Maine  station  found  that  roots 
do  not  have  any  peculiar  feeding  value, 
other  than  that  of  adding  variety  and 
succulence  to  the  ration. 

Conclusions  relative  to  roots — The 
experiments  noted  above  are  not  entirely 
harmonious  as  regards  their  compar- 
ative values.  Roots  do  not  show  any  ad- 
vantage over  silage,  while  the  cost  of 
growing  them  is  usually  in  excess  of 
silage.  They  should  not  be  fed  ordi- 
narily in  quantities  greater  than  4  to  6 
pounds  a  day.  And  the  best  results  will 
be  secured  when  they  are  fed  in  smaller 
amounts  than  2  to  3  pounds  a  day, 
sliced,  and  in  combination  with  hay  or 
grain.  If  roots  are  grown,  mangels  are 
the  cheapest  kind  to  grow  and  are  as 
efficient  practically  as  any  other  kind. 

GRAINS   FOR   SHEEP 

The  grains  commonly  given  to  sheep 
are  corn  and  oats.  Barley  is  frequently 
fed  and  peas  in  the  northern  states  and 
Canada.  Mill  feeds  are  fed  less  com- 
monly. It  is  not  necessary  or  desirable 
usually  to  grind  grains  for  sheep,  with 
the  exception  of  old  ewes,  which  may 
have  lost  their  teeth,  and  for  winter 
lambs  which  are  being  forced.  Many 
experiments  have  been  reported  in  re- 
cent years  relative  to  the  use  and  value 
of  different  grains  and  mill  products 
for  feeding  purposes,  a  brief  review  of 
which  will  serve  to  bring  out  their  use- 
fulness and  value  as  compared  with 
other  grains. 

Barley — The  Colorado  station  made 
a  test  of  the  relative  merits  of  bald  and 
common  barley  for  fattening  lambs. 
Bald  barley  is  slightly  richer  in  protein 
than  common  barley.  Li  the  experi- 
ments reported  bald  barley  produced 
slightly  more  gains  in  lambs  than  when 
they  were  fed  corn.  The  lambs,  how- 
ever, were  unable  to  eat  more  than  a 
pound  of  barley  a  day  without  getting 
off  feed.  Common  barley  on  the  other 
hand  did  not  prove  quite  as  effective  for 
fattening  purposes  as  corn,  but  was 
fully  equal  to  wheat.  In  these  experi- 
ments whole  barley  gave  better  results 
than   ground   barley. 

At  the  Wyoming  experiment  station, 
also,  barley  fed  lambs  made  larger  gains 
than  corn  fed  lambs.  In  experiments  at 
the  Minnesota  station  in  feeding  range 
lambs,  barley,  corn  and  oats  were  found 
about  equally  valuable  in  producing 
gains.    When  fed  with  timothy  hay,  the 


602 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


gains  at  the  Dakota  station  on  barley- 
three  parts,  bran  one  part  was  at  the 
rate  of  2^4  pounds  a  head  weekly.  On 
barley  and  hay  alone  at  the  South  Da- 
kota station,  the  gains  were  2^  pounds 
a  head  weekly.  In  this  experiment  it 
required  about  5  pounds  of  grain  to 
make  a  pound  of  gain;  the  average  of 
many  experiments  shows  that  it  takes 
about  453  pounds  of  barley  with  hay  to 
produce  100  pounds  of  gain.  For  fat- 
tening lambs  barley  may  be  considered 
fully  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  corn.  It 
is  richer  in  protein  than  corn  and  well 
adapted  to  producing  both  growth  and 
fat  in  lambs.  It  is  relished  by  sheep. 
The  bald  barley  must  be  fed  with  cau- 
tion to  prevent  the  lambs  from  getting 
off  feed,  usually  not  in  excess  of  1  pound 
per  head  daily. 

Corn — This  grain  is  probably  superior 
to  all  others  in  producing  gains  during 
the  final  stages  of  fattening  sheep. 
Sheep  are  exceedingly  fond  of  it.  It  is 
usually  fed  whole  and  shelled,  though  as 
mentioned  in  another  place,  it  is  fre- 
quently fed  on  the  stalk,  unhusked,  as 
corn  fodder  in  racks,  which  is  one  of  the 
best  ways  of  utilizing  it. 

From  experiments  reported  by  the 
Wisconsin  and  other  stations,  corn 
alone  does  not  appear  to  be  as  safe  a 
feed,  especially  for  lambs,  as  some  of 
the  other  feeds  like  peas  or  oats.  It 
causes  digestive  disorders  and  the  lambs 
get  off  feed  on  it.  This  is  not  noticed 
to  the  same  extent  with  older  sheep. 

Figuring  corn  at  30  cents  a  bushel,  no 
other  grain  can  compare  with  it  in  pro- 
ducing cheap  mutton,  either  before  or 
after  lambs  are  weaned,  or  in  fattening 
mature  sheep.  The  Colorado  station  re- 
ports an  experiment  in  which  corn  was 
compared  with  wheat  for  sheep.  Dur- 
ing the  early  stages  of  feeding,  wheat 
gave  the  larger  gains,  but  later  in  the 
experiments  better  gains  were  made  on 
corn.  That  station  believes  it  best  to 
feed  wheat  the  first  third  of  the  feeding 
period,  then  half  wheat  and  half  corn 
the  next  third,  finishing  off  on  clear 
corn.  In  fattening  older  sheep,  corn  is 
considered  by  far  the  best  grain  to  feed. 

Corn  need  not  be  soaked  for  sheep; 
but  fed  dry  and  whole.  For  old  sheep, 
corn  is  sometimes  cooked.  One  feeder 
reports  the  fattening  of  2,600  old  sheep, 
in  which  cooked  corn  was  used.  The 
belief  is  expressed  that  the  gains  made 
were  enough  faster  to  pay  for  the  extra 


cost  of  cooking  the  corn  since  the  sheep 
ate  a  greater  quantity  of  the  cooked 
than  of  the  dry  corn.  Usually,  however, 
if  corn  is  ground  for  old  sheep,  it  will 
give  satisfactory  results  and  this  is  likely 
to  be  a  cheaper  method  of  .preparing  it 
than  cooking.  Corn  at  the  Iowa  station 
at  33  cents  a  bushel  was  a  more  econom- 
ical grain  to  feed  to  sheep  on  grass  than 
oats  at  23  cents  or  barley  at  40  cents. 

Cottonseed  meal — Both  cottonseed 
meal  and  cottonseed  cake  are  used  more 
or  less  extensively  for  sheep.  As  is  well 
known,  cottonseed  meal  is  a  rich,  pro- 
tein feed.  It  should  be  used  only  in 
very  small  amounts  and  preferably  with 
other  grains  to  balance  up  the  ration. 
It  should  seldom,  if  ever,  be  fed  in 
greater  amounts  than  %  pound  a  head 
daily  and  better  results  will  be  secured 
if  only  about  Vs  to  ^4  pound  is  fed  in 
combination  with  corn  and  mixed  grains. 
In  some  English  experiments  of  Bom- 
bay vs.  Egyptian  undecorticated  cotton- 
seed cake,  better  gains  were  made  on  the 
Bombay  cake.  Both  of  these  cotton- 
seed cakes  contain  more  hulls  and  lint 
than  the  American  cottonseed  meal  and 
are  not  equal  to  the  American  meal  in 
feeding  value. 

Emmer — This  grain  is  frequently  re- 
ferred to  as  spelt.  Spelt,  however,  is 
not  grown  in  this  country,  except  in  an 
experimental  way.  Emmer  is  a  kind  of 
wheat,  (Triticum  dicoccum).  It  weighs 
from  41  to  45  pounds  a  bushel  and  is 
enclosed  in  the  chaff  the  same  as  barley. 
At  the  South  Dakota  station  it  re- 
quired one-fourth  more  emmer  and  one- 
fifteenth  more  wheat  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain  in  fattening  lambs  than 
of  corn.  Generally  speaking,  the  station 
has  found  that  from  1  to  2  pounds  more 
of  emmer  is  required  to  produce  a 
pound  of  gain  in  sheep  than  of  the 
other  common  grains.  It  is  more  useful 
when  mixed  with  other  grains  than 
when  fed  alone.  It  was  found  about 
two-thirds  as  valuable  as  barley  for  fat- 
tening lambs  and  had  a  value  of  about 
76  cents  a  hundred  pounds  when  corn 
was  worth  82  cents. 

For  fattening  wethers  at  the  Iowa 
station,  emmer  proved,  pound  for  pound, 
practically  as  valuable  as  corn.  At  the 
Colorado  station  likewise,  emmer  proved 
cheaper,  pound  for  pound,  than  corn, 
and  produced  larger  gains,  with  fatten- 
ing lambs. 


SHEEP 


603 


These  results  indicate  a  fair  feeding 
value  for  emmer  and  in  dry  situations 
or  on  soil  too  poor  for  wheat,  it  may 
prove  a  valuable  crop  to  grow  for  sheep 
feeding. 

Flaxseed — Flaxseed  whole  or  ground 
is  seldom  used  for  feeding  sheep  until 
after  the  oil  is  expressed,  when  it  be- 
comes known  as  linseed  meal.  At  the 
Wyoming  station  it  was  found  that  flax- 
seed might  be  used  in  place  of  flaxseed 
meal  as  a  supplement  to  the  corn  rations 
for  fattening  lambs.  It  was  fed  heavily 
without  expressing  the  oil  and  no  uri- 
nary troubles  resulted.  In  other  experi- 
ments when  flaxseed  was  ground  and  fed 
to  lambs  it  was  not  as  valuable  as  bar- 
ley. For  finishing  sheep,  however,  whole 
flaxseed  may  be  used  successfully  with- 
out other  grains.  Not  more  than  Yi  to 
z/±  pound  a  head  should  be  fed  daily. 

Gluten  meal  and  feed — Gluten  meal 
and  gluten  feeds  are  by-products  in  the 
manufacture  of  starch  from  corn.  They 
are  much  richer  in  protein  than  the 
original  corn  grain  or  corn  meal  and 
are  used  principally  for  balancing  the 
ration  and  in  increasing  the  protein  con- 
tents.    For  composition  see  page  75. 

At  the  Illinois  station,  lambs  fed  glu- 
ten meal  with  corn  gained  more  rapidly 
than  on  corn  alone  or  corn  and  oats  or 
whole  oats  alone.  On  corn  and  gluten 
meal  two  to  one,  and  clover  the  gain  was 
.52  pound  a  day,  while  on  clover  alone  it 
was  but  .39  pound  a  day. 

Gluten  feed  is  not  greatly  relished 
by  sheep,  it  is  too  dusty  to  be  fed  alone 
and  should  be  mixed  with  other  feeds. 

In  English  experiments  the  average 
gains  were  14.1  pounds  on  gray  peas,  as 
compared  with  15.1  pounds  on  gluten 
feed  and  15.8  pounds  on  chick  peas  dur- 
ing the  same  feeding  period.  The  sheep 
did  not  care  for  the  gluten  feed  in  this 
experiment.  The  chick  peas  were  great- 
ly reb'shed  by  the  sheep,  either  whole  or 
split.  And  it  is  stated  that  chick  pea 
mutton  is  considered  a  delicacy  in  India, 
where  the  peas  are  fed  to  sheep  in  large 
quantities. 

In  other  experiments  reported  from 
England,  gluten  feed  proved  about 
equal  in  feeding  value  to  split  peas,  or 
to  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  barley  meal 
and  undecorticated  cottonseed  cake,  and 
it  was  a  little  cheaper. 

Kafir  corn — This  grain  has  not  been 
extensively  fed  to  sheep  so  far  as  we  are 


aware.  At  the  Oklahoma  station,  a 
wether  lamb  fed  2  pounds  of  kafir  meal 
a  day  with  prairie  grass  hay  gained  13 
pounds  in  four  weeks.  A  Shropshire 
ram  on  the  same  ration  gained  17  pounds 
during  the  same  period.  In  another 
experiment,  three  wether  lambs  and 
three  rather  inferior  yearlings  were  fed 
kafir  grain  for  52  days  and  made  an 
average  gain  of  2.57  pounds  a  head 
weekly,  giving  5.82  pounds  of  grain  for 
each  pound  of  gain.  These  are  good 
gains  and  show  a  comparatively  high 
feeding  value  for  kafir  corn  grain  and 
meal. 

Linseed  meal—This  is  a  by-product 
in  the  manufacture  of  linseed  oil  from 
flaxseed.  It  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
protein  feeds  we  have,  not  only  on  ac- 
count of  its  high  food  value,  but  also  be- 
cause of  its  physiological,  tonic,  and 
laxative  effects.  It  should  be  used  only 
in  small  quantities.  From  Ys  to  % 
pound  a  head  daily  is  sufficient  and 
Y'i  a  pound  should  be  considered  the 
maximum  amount  to  feed  at  any  time. 

It  is  especially  valuable  for  breeding 
sheep  and  for  show  animals,  adding  lus- 
ter to  the  fleece  and  softness  to  the  skin 
and  generally  producing  a  well-condi- 
tioned sheep.  It  is  especially  valuable 
for  feeding  to  sheep  not  receiving  roots 
or  silage  or  other  succulent  foods. 

In  experiments  in  Scotland,  cotton- 
seed cake  and  maize  in  equal  parts  gave 
slightly  better  results  than  linseed  cake, 
either  alone  or  mixed. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station,  when  lambs 
were  fed  one  part  oil  meal  and  two  parts 
corn  meal,  they  gained  3.3  pounds  a 
head  weekly.  When  cottonseed  meal 
was  substituted  for  the  oil  meal,  the 
gain  was  2.95  pounds  a  head  weekly. 
Even  at  $27  a  ton,  linseed  meal  has  been 
found  profitable  when  fed  in  small 
amounts  for  fattening  lambs.  The  Mas- 
sachusetts Hatch  station  found  old  and 
new  process  meals  about  equally  valu- 
able for  sheep  feeding. 

In  experiments  reported  by  the  Mas- 
sachusetts state  station,  it  was  found 
that  linseed  meal,  cottonseed  meal  and 
Chicago  gluten  feed  could  be  substitut- 
ed, one  for  the  other,  without  materially 
changing  the  cost  of  the  ration  or  its 
feeding  value.  Chicago  maize  feed  and 
Buffalo  gluten  feed  were  found  equally 
valuable  as  feeding  stuffs. 

Millet  seed — Some  varieties  of  millet 
produce  a  large  quantity  of  seed  which 


604 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


has  considerable  value  for  sheep  feed. 
The  Black  Veronezh  variety  (Panicum 
milliaceum),  when  ground  coarsely,  was 
found  excellent  for  fattening  lambs  by 
Watson  and  Skinner  at  the  South  Da- 
kota station,  proving  fully  equal,  pound 
for  pound,  to  wheat,  oats,  emmer  or 
mixed  grain. 

Oats — Oats  are  greatly  relished  by 
sheep  and  are  especially  valuable  for 
lambs  and  breeding  ewes.  They  are  usu- 
ally fed  whole.  At  the  North  Dakota 
station  lambs  fed  whole  oats  and  timo- 
thy gained  2V2  pounds  a  head  weekly 
for  eight  weeks.  When  oats,  corn,  bran 
and  hay  were  fed  to  lambs  at  the  Minne- 
sota station,  36  per  cent  better  gains 
were  made  than  when  the  oats  were 
omitted  from  the  ration.  The  total 
amount  of  grain  consumed  was  the  same 
in  each  case.  "Oats  usually  are  too  ex- 
pensive to  constitute  the  whole  grain  ra- 
tion for  fattening  sheep.  Added  to  corn 
they  give  variety  and  palatability  to  the 
ration.  The  grain  is  more  nearly  like 
barley  in  composition  and  is  therefore 
better  adapted  to  growth  than  fattening. 
Sheep  make  good  gains  on  oats  and  an 
excellent  quality  of  mutton.  When 
they  are  cheap  enough  they  may  be  prof- 
itably fed.  Ordinarily  they  should  con- 
stitute only  part  of  the  grain  ration  for 
fattening  sheep.  For  breeding  ewes  or 
in  the  production  of  wool,  they  make 
one  of  the  best  grain  rations." 

Peas — Northern  field  peas  constitute 
one  of  the  very  best  grains  for  sheep. 
When  coarsely  cracked,  they  are  espe- 
cially valuable  for  growing  lambs  .and 
are  greatly  relished.  Their  value  for 
pasturing  in  the  fields  when  ripe  has 
been  treated  elsewhere  in  this  chapter. 
Peas  are  rich  in  protein.  They  are  usu- 
ally too  expensive  to  be  made  the  sole 
ration  for  sheep,  and  should,  therefore, 
be  mixed  with  corn,  oats  or  some  cheap- 
er grain  in  order  to  secure  their  great- 
est value. 

At  the  Wisconsin  station  when  peas 
were  fed  in  equal  parts  with  corn  20 
per  cent  better  gains  were  made  with 
lambs  than  when  corn  was  fed  alone, 
or  corn  and  oats  mixed. 

In  one  test  at  the  Ontario  agricul- 
tural college,  lambs  gained  2.1  pounds 
weekly  on  peas,  while  on  corn  and  oats 
the  gains  were  2.29  pounds.  In  another 
test,  lambs  fed  corn  alone  gained  2.5 
pounds  a  head  weekly;  on  peas  2.9 
pounds;    and   on   equal   parts    corn    and 


peas,  2.6  pounds.  When  peas  alone  were 
fed,  it  required  3.3  pounds  to  produce 
a  pound  of  gain;  when  corn  was  fed 
alone,  3.8  pounds  was  required;  and 
when  corn  and  peas  were  fed  together 
3.7  pounds. 

Screenings — At  the  large  wheat  ele- 
vators enormous  quantities  of  screen- 
ings accumulate  in  recleaning  the 
wheat.  These  cleanings  consist  largely 
of  broken  and  shriveled  grains  of  wheat, 
weed  seeds,  chaff  and  broken  pieces  of 
straw.  They  have  been  used  extensively 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  larger  elevators  of 
Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  etc,  for  fat- 
tening sheep. 

At  the  Minnesota  station,  when  corn 
was  worth  $13  a  ton  for  fattening  sheep, 
screenings  made  up  of  about  90  per  cent 
small  wheat  grains  and  edible  weed 
seeds  had  a  value  of  $10.35  a  ton.  Whole 
buckwheat  seed  had  a  value  on  the  same 
basis  of  $9.56  a  ton  and  pigeon  grass 
seed  of  $9.40  a  ton.  This  gives  screen- 
ings a  value  about  two-thirds  that  of 
good  grain. 

In  experiments  at  the  North  Dakota 
station  lambs  fattened  on  wheat  screen- 
ings gained  2  pounds  a  head  weekly  at 
a  cost  of  5.2  cents  a  pound  of  gain. 
Much  better  results  have  been  obtained 
in  feeding  lambs  screenings  at  the  Mon- 
tana station  than  in  feeding  wheat,  oats, 
barley  or  mixed  grain,  but  for  wethers 
the  screenings  have  not  proved  as  val- 
uable as  barley  or  mixed  grain. 

Sheep  on  clover  and  damaged  wheat 
at  the  Montana  station  made  100  pounds 
gain  at  a  cost  of  $3.22.  Slightly  better 
gains  were  made  on  clover  and  screen- 
ings than  on  clover  and  grains,  and  the 
cost  of  a  100  pounds  increase  was  $1  less 
on  the  screenings.  The  better  gain  on 
the  screenings  was  thought  to  be  due 
to  the  greater  variety  afforded  by  this 
feed,  which  was  greatly  relished  by  the 
sheep. 

In  experiments  at  the  Utah  station, 
the  gains  on  screenings  varied  from 
1.44  to  1.68  pounds  a  head  weekly. 

Soy  beans — This  feed,  while  rich  in 
protein  and  excellent  for  balancing  ra- 
tions for  sheep  fed  corn  and  hay,  is  usu- 
ally too  expensive  to  be  fed  as  the  sole 
grain  to  fattening  sheep. 

In  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  sta- 
tion, a  pound  of  soy  beans  produced  as 
large  gains  as  1.2  pounds  of  oats.  The 
greatest  value  from  soy  beans  will  be 
found  in  using  them  in  small  amounts 


SHEEP 


605 


— about  %  pound  a  head  daily,  in  com- 
bination with  corn  or  other  grains. 

Dried  sugar  beet  pulp_Some  of  the 
sugar  beet  factories  are  kiln  drying  the 
pulp  and  offering  this  material  for  stock 
feed.  Occasionally  the  molasses  from 
the  sugar  beet  factory  is  mixed  with 
the  feed.  The  Michigan  experiment 
station  reports  the  results  of  feeding 
these  materials  to  sheep.  Both  the  beet 
pulp  and  the  dried  molasses  beet  pulp, 
possess  feeding  values  comparing  very 
favorably  with  corn.  When  these  ma- 
terials were  fed  in  grain  mixtures,  more 
mutton  was  produced  at  less  cost  than 
on  similar  amounts  of  grain  mixtures 
alone.  The  dried  molasses  beet  pulp 
possessed  a  little  higher  feeding  value 
than  dried  beet  pulp  without  the  mo- 
lasses; but  in  the  experiment  noted  this 
difference  was  not  great  enough  to  offset 
the  greater  price  paid  for  the  molasses 
beet  pulp. 

The  gain  on  dried  molasses  beet  pulp 
three  parts  and  linseed  meal  one  part 
averaged  2.4  pounds  a  week.  The  mo- 
lasses beet  pulp  cost  $13.70  and  dried 
beet  pulp  $11.60.  On  the  dried  beet 
pulp  the  gain  was  2.3  pounds  a  week. 

Sugar  beet  molasses  was  fed  with  a 
ration  of  alfalfa  and  bran  to  lambs  at 
the  Utah  station  and  gave  very  satisfac- 
tory results  both  as  regards  economy 
and  rapidity  of  growth.  The  molasses 
was  poured  over  the  alfalfa  and  about 
one-third  pound  a  head  fed  daily.  The 
weekly  gains  on  this  ration  were  1.4 
pounds  per  head,  while  on  alfalfa  and 
best  screenings,  the  gain  was  1.59  pounds 
a  head.  These  figures  indicate  a  satis- 
factory feeding  value  for  sugar  beet  mo- 
lasses. 

Wheat — This  grain  is  not  fed  to  sheep 
except  when  the  price  is  very  low  or 
when  it  is  off  grade.  Frequently,  how- 
ever, it  is  fed  in  small  amounts  to  add 
variety  to  the  ration.  For  fattening 
purposes  it  appears  to  be  about  10  per 
cent  less  valuable  than  corn,  though  in 
the  early  stages  of  fattening  lambs  it 
is  fully  equal  to  corn.  (See  Corn  For 
Sheep.) 

From  experiments  reported  by  the 
Utah  station,  frosted  wheat  or  unmar- 
ketable shrunken  wheat  seems  to  be 
fully  as  valuable  as  the  best  marketable 
wheat. 

Macaroni  wheat  proved  equal  to  bread 
wheat,  pound  for  pound,  as  a  fattening 


grain  for  lambs  at  the  South  Dakota 
station.  Whole  macaroni  wheat  made 
cheaper  gains  than  the  ground  macaroni 
wheat  and  bran  or  whole  macaroni  wheat 
and  bran.  That  station  found  that  it 
may  be  profitably  fed  to  lambs  when 
worth  65  cents  a  bushel. 

Wheat  bran  [a  an  excellent  feed  for 
fattening  sheep,  but  for  young  lambs 
should  be  used  only  in  small  amounts. 

Wheat  middlings  fa  one  0f  the  best  of 
the  mill  products  for  sheep,  being  espe- 
cially valuable  for  young  lambs  and  also 
for  old  sheep. 

Sheep  fattening  on  a  large  scale — In 
some  of  the  western  states,  especially  in 
Colorado  and  Nebraska,  the  sheep  feed- 
ing industry  has  been  developed  on  an 
enormous  scale.  Range  sheep  are  pur- 
chased and  brought  to  the  corn  and  al- 
falfa sections,  where  they  are  fed  for  a 
few  months  in  bands  of  thousands  and 
then  marketed.  The  sheep  are  divided 
into  lots  of  400  to  500  and  fed  in  cor- 
rals, in  the  open,  without  shelter,  except 
some  kind  of  windbreak  protection.  The 
yards  are  so  arranged  as  to  minimize 
labor.  A  common  method  of  feeding  is 
to  have  the  lot  divided  by  driveways  in 
the  middle.  Grain  troughs  are  then 
placed  in  each  lot  sufficient  to  accom- 
modate the  whole  band  at  one  time. 
The  lots  are  so  arranged  that  the  sheep 
can  be  herded  in  the  one  while  the 
troughs  are  being  filled  with  grain  in 
the  other. 

Hay  is  placed  along  the  fence  on  the 
outside  of  the  lot,  a  space  about  7  inches 
between  the  first  and  second  boards  of 
the  fence  being  left  so  that  the  sheep 
can  reach  through  and  get  it.  Where 
possible,  the  alfalfa  is  stacked  between 
the  yards  and  if  not  thus  convenient  it 
is  drawn  in  wagon  loads  and  distribu- 
ted. Water  troughs  are  placed  usually 
alongside  of  the  driveways  and  some 
filled  by  windmills  and  others  by  hand. 

With  a  feeding  plant  thus  convenient- 
ly arranged  it  is  possible  for  four  men 
to  take  care  of  10,000  head  of  sheep. 
Sometimes  the  yards  are  made  in  zigzag 
or  cross  fashion  and  thus  broken  up  so 
the  sheep  cannot  run  freely  from  one 
end  of  the  lot  to  the  other,  as  they  fre- 
quently do  when  feeling  good,  often  to 
their  injury.  Shelled  corn  is  the  grain 
chiefly  fed  and  alfalfa  constitutes  the 
principal  roughage.  In  favorable  years 
enormous  profits  are  made  by  this  meth- 
od of  feeding. 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


MARKETING  AND  SHIPPING  SHEEP 

Fat  sheep  should  be  shipped  to  market 
when  they  reach  mature  condition.  A 
prime  fat  sheep  has  been  described  else- 
where in  this  chapter.  (See  page  508. ) 
Fat  lambs  usually  bring  the  highest 
price  of  any  sheep  on  the  market.  The 
most  desirable  weights  are  between  90 
and  95  pounds,  and  the  best  prices  are 
usually  obtained  in  May  or  June. 

The  shrinkage  in  shipping  varies 
from  1  to  2  pounds  a  head  for  a  short 
shipment  of  100  or  200  miles,  to  7  to 
8  pounds  a  head  when  shipped  1,400  to 
1,800  miles. 

A  single  deck  car  wiH  carry  about 
100  sheep  and  a  double  deck  car,  150 
to  200.  Details  as  regards  shipping, 
etc,  have  been  discussed  in  Chapter  IV. 

Sheep  of  the  same  size  and  class 
should  be  shipped  together  in  order  to 
thus  make  a  better  appearance  and  are 
likely  to  bring  a  better  price  on  the 
market  than  a  mixed  lot.  Sheep  dress 
out  from  50  to  65  per  cent  of  their  live 
weight.  Directions  for  slaughtering  are 
given  in  Chapter  V. 

HOTHOUSE   OR  WINTER  LAMBS 

This  is  probably  the  most  profitable 
phase  of  the  sheep  industry  when  prop- 
erly managed.  It  consists  in  the  pro- 
duction of  fat  lambs  weighing  35  to  60 
pounds  live  weight  and  the  marketing 
of  these  during  the  period  between 
Christmas  and  the  following  March  or 
April.  The  lambs  are  dressed  and  bring 
between  $6  and  $12  apiece.  The  chief 
markets  are  the  larger  cities  like  Phil- 
adelphia, New  York,  Chicago,  etc,  but 
there  is  a  growing  yearly  demand  in  all 
the  smaller  cities  for  winter  lambs.  A 
few  lambs  can  be  sold  at  Christmas 
time,  but  the  market  is  rather  limited 
at  this  period,  owing  to  the  large 
amount  of  poultry  then  on  the  market. 
The  best  market  comes  in  January  and 
February  and  up  to  about  March  15. 
From  March  on  the  price  for  winter 
lambs,  while  a  little  higher  than  for 
lambs  born  earlier  in  the  season,  is 
not  so  good  as  in  January  and  Febru- 
ary. 

Best  breeds  for  winter  lambs — The 
chief  difficulty  in  the  production  of 
early  winter  lambs  is  in  getting  the 
ewes  to  breed,  so  that  they  will  drop 
their  lambs  in  October,  November  and 
December.     The  two  pure  breeds  appar- 


ently best  suited  for  this  purpose  are 
the  Dorsets  and  the  Tunis.  The  Dorset 
is  much  the  more  popular  of  the  two. 

Various  other  breeds  of  sheep  are  also 
used  to  produce  winter  lambs,  but  are 
not  so  satisfactory  as  the  Dorsets,  be- 
cause there  is  no  uniformity  in  the 
early  breeding.  A  few  may  breed  in 
May  and  along  during  the  summer,  but 
most  of  them  will  not  begin  breeding 
until  September  and  October,  which  is 
too  late  for  the  best  prices  of  winter 
lambs.  The  Dorsets  are  big  mill?;  yield- 
ers,  leading  all  other  breeds  in  this  re- 
spect. The  lambs  are  sent  to  market 
while  sucking  the  ewe  and  a  large  and 


Fig.    375 — CHAMPION"     WETHER     LAMB     AT 
CHICAGO  IN  1905 

continuous  supply  of  milk  is  a  vital  fac- 
tor in  their  rapid  growth.  On  this  ac- 
count, Dorset  lambs  grow  faster  and  ar- 
rive at  a  marketable  age  sooner  than 
most  other  pure  breeds. 

Dorset  and  Shropshire  ewes — In  ex- 
periments reported  by  the  New  York 
Cornell  station,  pure  bred  Shropshires 
were  compared  with  pure  bred  Dorsets 
to  determine  their  relative  value  for 
winter  lambs.  The  Shropshire  lambs 
averaged  9.7  pounds  in  weight  at  birth, 
and  42.75  pounds  a  head  nine  weeks 
later,  thus  making  an  average  weekly 
gain  of  3.5  pounds  a  head.  The  Dorset 
lambs  averaged  10.6  pounds  at  birth  and 
weighed  53.5  pounds  a  head  when  nine 
weeks  old,  having  made  an  average 
weekly  gain  of  4.8  pounds  a  head. 


SHEEP' 


607 


The  following  year,  when  the  experi- 
ment was  repeated,  the  Shropshire  lambs 
gained  on  an  average  2.87  pounds  apiece 
for  12  weeks,  and  the  Dorsets  4.47  pounds. 
In  both  experiments  the  lambs  of  both 
breeds  were  given  all  they  would  eat. 
The  Dorset  ewes  ate  more  food  than  the 
Shropshire  ewes,  stood  forced  feeding 
better  and  were  less  affected  by  changes 
in  the  weather  than  the  Shropshires. 

When  grade  Shropshire  and  grade 
Dorset  ewes  were  compared,  the  lambs 
from  the  grade  Shropshire  ewes  made 
an  average  weekly  gain  of  2.66  pounds 
a  week  and  from  the  grade  Dorset  ewes 
3.64  pounds.  Here  again  the  advantage 
of  Dorset  blood  in  the  ewes  for  produc- 
ing rapid  growing  lambs  is  shown. 

Shropshire  vs.  Merino  ewes — The  Col- 
orado station  investigated  the  relative 
merits  of  Shropshires  crossed  on  Meri- 


i' 

\               hi 

Fig.   376 — PRIZE  DORSET  LAMBS 

nos  as  compared  with  Dorsets  crossed  on 
Merinos  for  producing  early  lambs.  In 
these  experiments  the  Dorset-Merinos 
produced  about  20  per  cent  more  lambs 
than  the  Shropshire-Merinos,  and  on  this 
account'  were  about  16  per  cent  more 
profitable.  The  gains  in  feeding  were 
about  the  same  for  both  crosses,  as  were 
also  the  prices  received  for  them. 

Establishing  a  breeding  flock — It  is 
generally  conceded  that  the  best  results 
in  growing  hothouse  lambs  are  secured 
by  the  use  of  Dorsets  or  their  grades. 
Pure  Dorset  ewes  are  too  expensive  for 
this  purpose.  Fortunately  the  Dorset 
bucks  are  no  more  expensive  than  those 
of  any  other  breed,  and  experiments  at  a 
number  of  stations  in  crossing  grade 
ewes  with  a  pure  Dorset  buck  show  that 
the  characteristics  of  the  Dorset  ewe  to 
breed  fully  three  months  earlier  than 
the  other  breeds  is  transmissible  through 
the  male  line  to  the  first  cross,  and 
more  strongly  still  to  the  second  cross 


of  the  Dorset  on  the  first  cross  ewe,  re- 
serving each  year  the  ewes  which  breed 
earliest.  Not  only  is  the  tendency  to 
breed  earlier  transmitted  to  the  off- 
spring, but  also  the  tendency  to  produce 
twins  and  triplets. 

Mr.  J.  S.  Woodward,  writing  on  this 
subject  in  a  recent  number  of  the; 
American  Agriculturist,  states  that  the 
most  satisfactory  combination  for  win- 
ter lambs  is  the  pure  bred  Dorset  bucks 
crossed  on  American  Merino  ewes.  This 
produces  plump,  fat  lambs,  not  so  large 
as  lambs  of  a  similar  age  from  mutton 
breeds,  but  one  that  is  plump  and  fat, 
and  one  that  will  bring  the  highest  price 
in  the  market.  A  30-pound  lamb  with 
a  kidney  as  fat  as  a  goose  egg  sells  for 
more  than  a  40  or  45-pound  lamb  with  a 
kidney  only  as  large  as  a  quail's  egg. 

Age  of  ewes—The  ewe  should  be 
not  less  than  two  or  more  than  six  years 
old,  and  have  a  good  mouth;  she  should 
be  short  legged,  large  bodied  with  a 
clear,  bright  eye,  good  udder  and  sound 
teats,  and  a  heavy  milker.  High  grade 
Dorset  ewes  may  sometimes  be  kept 
until  eight  to  10  years  old,  even  when 
they  are  gummers,  and  still  produce 
profitable  lambs.  In  some  of  the  west- 
ern states,  old  ewes  are  bought,  fed  and 
bred  for  winter  lambs,  and  mother  and 
lambs  sold  together  for  $6  to  $8,  when 
the  ewe  alone  if  sold  in  the  fall  would 
bring  but  $2.25  to  $2.50. 

As  a  result  of  six  years'  experiments 
at  the  Minnesota  station,  Professor 
Shaw  found  that  the  breeding  habit  of 
common  grade  ewes,  which  usually  drop 
their  lambs  in  the  spring,  may  be  so 
changed  in  two  or  three  generations  of 
judicious  crossing  and  selection  that 
they  will  produce  lambs  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter.  This  change  was  brought 
about  most  quickly  by  mating  the  ewes 
with  pure  bred  Dorset  rams  and  always 
reserving  the  earlier  dropped  lambs  for 
breeding  uses.  Professor  Shaw  also 
found  that  dams  that  have  suckled 
winter  lambs  may  usually  be  bred  more 
readily  before  being  turned  out  on  grass 
than  subsequently.  This  is  especially 
true  if  they  are  fed  a  stimulating  grain 
ration  while  yet  in  the  shed.  When  the 
early  breeding  habit  has  once  been  es- 
tablished in  the  ewes  the  quality  of  the 
lambs  produced  can  be  improved  by  us- 
ing   Southdown    and    Shropshire    bucks. 

Breeding  for  hothouse  lambs — In  the 
production  of  winter  lambs,  if  the  ewes 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


are  bred  about  May  1,  only  a  few  will 
normally  take  tbe  buck  at  this  time;  per- 
haps not  more  than  5  per  cent.  By 
shutting  the  ewes  up  for  a  time  on 
scant  feed,  then  turning  on  good  pas- 
ture with  supplementary  nitrogenous 
feed,  like  gluten  meal,  wheat  bran,  etc, 
turning  with  them  at  night  a  Dorset 
buck  in  good,  vigorous  condition,  the 
percentage  that  breed  will  be  consider- 
ably increased.  With  care  in  feeding 
along  these  lines,  10  per  cent  more  will 
be  with  lamb  by  the  middle  of  June 
and  50  per  cent  by  the  middle  of  Aug- 
ust. By  October  the  buck  should  be 
removed  from  the  flock.  With  pure 
Dorset  sheep  or  with  high-grade  Dorset 
ewes,  Miller  and  Wing,  in  the  Winter 
Lamb,  lay  down  the  following  rules  rel- 
ative to  breeding: 

(1)  Have  the  ram  with  ewes  not  ear- 
lier than  middle  of  March,  not  later 
than  the  middle  of  May.  (2)  Put  ram 
with  ewes  nights,  not  days.  (3^  Use 
young  ram  and  feed  him  well  while  in 
service.  (4)  Do  not  have  ram  too  fat. 
(5)  Do  not  have  ewes  too  thin.  (6) 
If  ewes  were  not  shorn  in  the  fall  shear 
as  early  as  you  dare.  (7)  Feed  ewes 
green  food,  such  as  ensilage,  turnips, 
carrots,  mangels,  etc,  and  some  corn. 

Whatever  the  condition  of  the  ewes, 
the  quantity  of  the  feed  given  them  at 
breeding  time  should  be  increased.  Dur- 
ing the  natural  breeding  period  of  sheep 
in  the  fall,  the  ewes  are  normally  gain- 
ing in  flesh.  The  nearer  we  can  ap- 
proach normal  fall  breeding  conditions 
in  spring,  the  more  likely  the  ewes  are 
to  breed. 

Summer  and  fall  feeding  of  pregnant 
ewes — The  ewes  will  require  but  little 
attention  during  the  summer  other  than 
a  good  supply  of  pasture,  pure  water  and 
shade.  If  pastures  become  short  and  dry 
they  should  be  supplemented  with  other 
feeds.  One  of  the  best  for  this  pur- 
pose is  pumpkins.  Pumpkins  possess 
considerable  nutriment,  especially  the 
seeds,  and  are  highly  palatable  to  sheep. 
In  addition,  the  seeds  are  a  vermifuge 
of  considerable  value.  They  are  usual- 
ly fed  by  simply  hauling  them  to  the 
pasture  and  breaking  and  allowing  the 
sheep  to  gnaw  them  at  will.  If  fed  in 
excessive  quantities,  the  ewes  may  be- 
come too  fat.  For  milking  ewes,  pump- 
kins are  considered  especially  valuable. 
They  may  be  kept  on  hand  for  feeding 
purposes    until   about    Christmas. 


In  addition  to  pasture,  ewes  giving 
suck  to  their  lambs  should  receive  a 
liberal  grain  ration,  made  up  of  corn, 
oats,  barley,  bran,  etc.  Gluten  feed  or 
linseed  meal  is  especially  valuable  at 
this  time.  Since  it  is  intended  that  the 
lambs  shall  be  marketed  after  running 
from  two  to  three  months  with  the  dam, 
the  necessity  of  giving  heavy  rations  to 
the  ewes  for  milk  production  is  readily 
understood. 

Feeding  hothouse  lambs — The  lambs 
will  begin  to  eat  when  about  three  weeks 
old.  It  is  very  desirable  that  they  be 
given  fresh  pasture,  such  as  clover,  al- 
falfa, rape,  peas  and  oats  or  some  sim- 
ilar forage  which  they  relish.  They 
learn  to  eat  grain  just  as  soon  as  they 
learn  to  eat  forage.  The  best  grains  are 
ground  corn  mixed  with  ground  peas, 
oats  or  barley.  When  about  four  weeks 
old  they  will  eat  as  much  as  a  pound  of 
grain  a  head  daily.  They  may  be  given 
all  they  will  eat  up  clean  without  fear, 
as  at  that  age  they  practically  never 
overeat.  A  little  sugar  sprinkled  on  the 
grain  may  aid  in  teaching  them  to  eat 
it.  The  grain  should  be  varied  every 
two  or  three  days,  to  keep  up  their  appe- 
tites and   interest. 

It  has  been  noticed  that  lambs  will 
eat  a  particular  kind  of  grain  with  con- 
siderable relish  for  a  day  or  two  and 
then  seem  to  tire  of  it  and  consequently 
consume  less.  Before  this  stage  is 
reached  a  change  in  the  grain  ration 
should  be  made.  The  observant  feeder 
will  soon  note  the  kind  of  grain  relished 
best  by  the  lambs.  Whole  oats  and 
whole  wheat  are  readily  eaten.  A  lamb 
creep  should  be  provided  so  that  the 
lambs  can  be  fed  away  from  the  ewes. 
A  self-feed  arrangement  is  not  desir- 
able with  the  lambs  since  they  muss 
over  much  of  the  feed,  which  thus  be- 
comes unsavory  and  often  ferments. 
Cleanliness  in  feeding,  while  desirable 
for  all  sheep,  is  especially  so  for  winter 
lambs. 

Lambs  born  in  the  late  fall  and  early 
winter,  in  addition  to  the  ewes'  milk 
and  grain,  should  be  liberally  fed  with 
the  best  quality  of  clover  and  alfalfa 
hay  and  given  silage  or  sliced  roots  in 
addition.  In  a  test  at  the  Cornell  ex- 
periment station,  of  the  relative  value 
of  these  two  succulent  foods  for  winter 
lambs,  a  lot  fed  all  the  roots  (mangel- 
wurzels)  it  would  eat,  in  addition  to 
other  feeds,  gained  on  an  average  3.44 


SHEEP 


pounds  a  head  weekly,  while  another 
similar  lot  fed  corn  silage  of  good  qual- 
ity gained  3.85  pounds  a  head  weekly. 
These  results  are  in  favor  of  the  silage. 
Many  feeders,  however,  prefer  roots. 
The  latter,  however,  are  more  expensive. 

Winter  feed  for  ewes — Watson  states 
that  "whenever  the  ewes  go  into  win- 
ter quarters  in  good  flesh,  very  little  or 
no  grain  and  but  few  roots  should  be 
fed  before  lambing  time.  This  will  en- 
able the  owner  to  carry  his  ewes  through 
a  critical  period  with  less  trouble  than 
if  grain  and  roots  are  fed  liberally  be- 
fore the  lambs  are  born." 

After  lambing,  the  ewes  should  be 
fed  a  small  quantity  of  grain  at  first 
and  this  gradually  increased  to  a  pound 
and  a  half  or  two  pounds  a  head  daily. 
In  addition  good  clover  or  alfalfa  hay 
should  be  fed  liberally  and  a  liberal  ra- 
tion of  silage  or  roots  given.  A  little 
extra  grain  and  care  at  this  time  during 
the  eight  to  nine  weeks  after  lambing, 
will  bring  greater  profits  than  at  any 
other  time  during  the  year.  The  extra 
food  "may  bring  the  lamb  into  prime 
condition  and  cause  it  to  sell  for  the 
highest  market  price,  while  the  same 
lamb  without  this  increased  nourish- 
ment would  be  only  in  fair  condition 
and  sell  in  the  market  for  not  more 
than  two-thirds  the  price  of  prime  lambs. 
It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the 
lambs  be  well  fattened.  No  matter  how 
large  and  thrifty  the  lamb  may  be,  it 
will  not  sell  for  the  highest  price  if  it 
is  not  fat." 

Shelter  in  fall  and  winter — Some 
shelter  should  be  provided  to  protect  the 
lambs  from  cold  rains.  In  fact,  it  is 
best  never  to  let  the  lambs  get  wet.  On 
this  account  it  is  desirable  to  have  them 
up  nights.  A  cold  rain  which  wets  them 
through  is  a  serious  check  to  their 
growth.  When  freezing  weather  comes 
and  they  are  kept  up  all  the  time,  they 
require  comfortable  quarters  such  a3 
have  been  described  for  the  regular  flock. 
The  term  hothouse  used  in  connection 
with  winter  lambs  is  a  misnomer,  as 
they  do  not  require  any  warmer  shelter 
than  the  regular  breeding  stock. 

Of  course,  when  the  lambs  are  dropped 
in  the  winter  time,  the  pens  should 
be  warm  enough  so  that  the  lambs  will 
not  chill.  Sometimes  the  shepherd  can 
tell  in  advance  when  the  ewe  is  about 
to  lamb  and  in  such  cases  the  ewes  may 
be   put    in    small,    comfortable   pens   by 


themselves.  A  lantern  hung  up  in  this 
pen,  providing  the  pen  is  tight,  will  keep 
the  lamb  comfortable  on  the  coldest 
night.  By  going  the  rounds  of  the  flock 
about  10  o'clock  at  night  and  again 
about  4  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the 
shepherd  can  usually  save  all  the  lambs 
dropped. 

Marketing  hothouse  lambs — Winter 
lambs  must  be  marketed  in  a  fat  con- 
dition. This  is  of  much  greater  im- 
portance than  size.  Large  lambs  not 
well  conditioned  present  what  is  known 
as  a  staggy  appearance  and  never  bring 
top  prices  in  the  market.  Early  in  the 
season,  smaller  weight  lambs  bring  the 
best  prices.  As  the  winter  advances 
heavier  lambs  are  in  demand.  The  early 
lambs  are  usually  sold  by  the  piece,  later 
in  the  winter  they  are  all  sold  by  the 
pound. 

Great  pains  must  be  taken  in  dressing 
the  lambs  that  they  present  a  neat  and 
clean  appearance  on  the  market,  other- 
wise it  is  impossible  to  get  top  prices. 

It  will  usually  be  desirable  to  make 
arrangements  with  a  commission  man 
beforehand,  to  whom  the  lambs  may  be 
sent  for  sale.  Usually  the  lambs  should 
be  sent  so  that  they  arrive  in  the  mar- 
ket between  Wednesday  and  Friday. 
Miller,  in  the  Winter  Lamb,  states  that 
he  formerly  shipped  from  Ohio  to  New 
York  by  express,  paying  at  the  rate  of 
$1.50  a  100  pounds.  Tn  recent  years, 
however,  he  has  shipped  by  refrigerator 
rates  at  half  this  price  and  the  lambs 
have  gone  through  in  equally  good  con- 
dition. For  the  New  York  market  Wat- 
son states  as  a  rule  Tuesday  or  Wednes- 
day market  is  the  best.  The  wholesale 
market  closes  Friday  noon  and  the 
lambs  should  reach  New  York  before 
this  time.  As  noted  before,  the  early 
season  market  is  best,  the  price  being 
sometimes  double  what  it  is  later  in  the 
winter. 

Dressing  lambs  for  winter  market — . 
Especial  care  must  be  taken  in  dressing 
the  lambs  for  the  winter  market.  In 
order  that  they  may  be  perfectly  bled 
and  that  the  wool  may  not  be  smeared 
about  the  head  and  neck  with  blood,  it 
is  advisable  to  suspend  the  lamb  by  the 
hind  feet  so  that  its  head  clears  the  floor 
by  a  foot  or  more.  The  lambs  may  be 
prepared  by  simply  removing  the  stom- 
ach and  entrails,  leaving  the  feet  and 
head    on    and    the    pluck    undisturbed. 


610 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Sometimes  the  head  is  removed.  Mar- 
kets vary  in  their  requirements  as  re- 
gards dressing.  The  prevailing  methods 
can  be  learned  by  writing  to  the  com- 
mission man. 

In  bleeding  the  lamb  an  opening  is 
made  with  a  sharp  pointed  knife  on  one 
side  of  the  neck,  immediately  back  of 
the  head.  The  opening  need  not  be 
large  but  the  blade  should  be  given  a 
considerable  sweep  in  order  to  sever  the 
artery.  The  appearance  of  bright  red 
blood  is  proof  of  this.  The  wool  should 
be  clipped  from  the  brisket  up  the  belly 
and  between  the  hind  legs,  after  which 
the  lamb  is  opened  from  tail  to  brisket. 

The  skin  on  the  inside  of  the  hind 
quarters  should,  be  cut  up  about  four 
inches  and  loosened  from  the  muscles 
for  two  inches  on  either  side  for  the  at- 


fully  spread  over  the  exposed  flesh,  being 
attached  in  place  by  good  toothpicks. 
A  small  slit  is  made  in  the  caul  over  the 
kidneys,   which    are   pulled   through. 

Where  backsets  or  spreaders  are  used, 
each  end  of  the  spreaders  should  have 
a  shoulder  and  a  projecting  point.  On 
the  use  of  these  Watson  states  as  fol- 
lows: "One  of  these  points  should  be 
inserted  from  the  outside  at  the  flank 
near  the  opening  made  for  the  removal 
of  the  intestines,  the  spreader  crossing 
the  back  diagonally  and  the  point  at 
the  other  end  inserted  in  a  similar  man- 
ner in  the  opposite  side  of  the  lamb 
near  the  chest.  In  like  manner  a  second 
spreader  is  inserted  so  that  the  two 
cross  each  other  in  the  form  of  an  X 
on  the  back  of  the  lamb." 

After  the  caul  fat  is  spread  in  place, 


Fig.    377 BAND    OP    SHEEP    ON    THE    RANGE 


tachment  of  the  caul  fat.  "This  should 
be  removed  from  the  stomachs  before 
they  are  detached  and  in  very  cold 
weather  placed  in  warm  water  until 
ready  to   be   used." 

The  stomach  and  intestines  should  be 
removed  without  disturbing  the  heart, 
lungs  or  liver.  In  warm  weather,  how- 
ever, these  will  also  have  to  be  removed 
to  keep  the  meat  from  spoiling.  "As 
soon  as  the  intestines  are  removed 
spreaders  should  be  inserted  to  give  the 
lamb  the  best  appearance  when  offered 
for  sale.  For  lambs  weighing  from  30 
to  40  pounds  dressed  weight,  spreaders 
about  14  inches  long  will  be  about  the 
right  length.  If  too  long  spreaders  are 
used,  there  is  danger  of  breaking  the 
ribs  and  thereby  injuring  the  appear- 
ance." 

After  the  stomach  and  intestines 
have  been  removed  the  caul  fat  is  care- 


the  lamb  should  be  left  to  cool  for  12  to 
24  hours.  In  very  cold  weather  12  hours 
may  be  enough.  When  all  the  animal 
heat  is  out  of  the  carcass  it  should  be 
neatly  wrapped  for  shipment. 

For  this  purpose  a  square  yard  of 
clean  muslin  should  first  be  sewed  on  so 
as  to  cover  all  the  exposed  surface,  af- 
ter which  a  covering  of  burlap  may  be 
put  on.  Some  shippers,  however,  put 
two  or  three  lambs,  wrapped  in  muslin 
or  paper,  in  a  neatly  made  crate,  and 
simply  cover  over  the  top  of  the  crate 
with  strong  burlap.  Whatever  method 
is  employed  the  point  to  be  remembe-red 
is  that  the  lambs  must  be  so  handled  as 
to  arrive  in  the  market  in  a  neat,  clean 
presentable  condition. 

Watson  states  as  a  result  of  consid- 
erable inspection  on  the  market,  that 
very  often  insufficient  provision  is  made 
for  removing  all  the  bloody  liquid  from 


SHEEP 


611 


the  chest.  By  the  ordinary  method  of 
slaughtering  lambs  a  considerable  amount 
of  liquid  will  accumulate  at  this  point 
and  unless  it  is  removed  it  will  seri- 
ously injure  the  appearance  of  the  lamb 
when  shown  for  sale.  This  can  be  ef- 
fectually removed  by  making  an  open- 
ing with  a  knife  at  the  lower  part  of  the 
chest  and  keeping  it  free  until  all  the 
blood  is  completely  drained  out.  This 
should  be  done  while  the  carcass  is 
hanging. 

SHEEP   RANCHING   IN   THE   WEST- 
ERN   STATES 

Nearly  half  of  the  sheep  grown  in  the 
United  States  are  produced  under  range 
conditions,  and  primarily  for  wool.     The 


Within  recent  years,  however,  sheep 
men  have  found  it  desirable  to  provide 
some  winter  food  for  the  sheep  to  tide 
them  over  during  heavy  snowstorms  or 
for  a  prolonged  period  when  the  ground 
is  covered  with  snow. 

Location  of  sheep  ranches — The  sheep 
ranches,  as  a  rule,  are  so  located  that  the 
range  which  each  man  controls  may  be 
divided  into  a  summer  and  winter  pas- 
ture. The  summer  range  is  located  at 
the  higher  altitude,  usually  in  the 
mountain  valleys  and  high  plateaus, 
where  a  comparatively  large  amount  of 
rainfall  occurs.  A  large  portion  of  the 
best  range  is  found  in  United  States 
forest  reserves.  Sheep  in  .  New  Mexico 
and   Arizona   are  usually  driven  to   the 


Fig.  378 GOOD  TYPE  OF  SHEEP  DOG 


management  of  western  sheep  is  there- 
fore totally  different  from  that  observed 
by  eastern  shepherds.  Individual  sheep 
owners  under  range  conditions,  may 
own  from  2,000  to  100,000  sheep,  which 
are  maintained  in  bands  of  2,000  to 
4,000  head  by  a  herdsman  attended  by  a 
couple  of  dogs.  The  sheep  are  grazed, 
partially  on  lands  owned  or  rented  by 
the  ranger,  but  more  largely  on  the 
free,  government  lands. 

In  many  localities  the  sheep  are  suc- 
cessfully grazed  the  year  around  with- 
out shelter.  This  is  especially  true  in 
the  southwestern  portion  of  the  United 
States.  Farther  north  shelter  becomes 
more  desirable,  though  even  in  Montana 
some  localities  may  be  found  where 
sheep   can   be   grazed   the   year   around. 


summer  range  along  in  April,  and  in 
Montana  and  Wyoming  some  time  in 
June  or  July.  This  summer  range 
where  the  ewes  can  get  fresh  green  feed 
to  maintain  their  milk  supply,  is  con- 
sidered absolutely  essential  in  most  lo- 
calities. The  sheep  remain  in  the  moun- 
tains until  danger  from  snowfall,  when 
they  are  brought  back  again  to  the  win- 
ter range  at  lower  level.  This  usually 
occurs  about  September  15. 

Method  of  grazing — Under  the  best 
condition  of  management  the  sheep  are 
allowed  to  feed  in  a  rather  open  forma- 
tion, to  give  each  sheep  an  equal  show 
and  to  prevent  too  close  grazing.  Each 
day  the  sheep  are  driven  from  one  to 
three    miles    from    camp    and    brought 


612 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


home  at  night.  When  the  grazing  be- 
comes short  in  that  locality  the  camp  is 
moved  some  distance  away  and  the  new 
camp  made  a  center  for  further  grazing. 
Herders  are  always  assisted  by  sheep 
dogs ;  in  fact,  it  would  be  practically  im- 
possible to  handle  the  sheep  without 
them. 

The  winter  range  is  usually  located 
conveniently  near  to  the  ranch  house  or 
to  large  sheds  or  hay  stacks.  In  regions 
where  heavy  snows  are  expected  they 
must  be  maintained  near  covered  corrals 
or  a  supply  of  hay,  in  order  to  prevent 
disaster  from  heavy  snows.  Under  the 
dry  atmospheric  conditions  of  the  West, 
the   grasses  on   unpastured  ranges  cure 


in  recent  years,  however,  it  has  been 
found  desirable  to  grow  a  sheep  that 
will  produce  mutton  as  well  as  wool. 
The  Merino  breeds  have  therefore  been 
extensively  crossed  with  the  different 
types  of  the  mutton  breeds,  using  prin- 
cipally Cotswold  and  Lincoln  bucks.  A 
buck  of  the  mutton  type  is  used  until 
the  wool  of  the  sheep  begins  to  appear 
too  coarse,  when  the  flock  is  crossed  back 
again  with  Merino  bucks  using  chiefly 
the  Delaine  or  Rambouillet  type. 

The  time  of  shearing  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  latitude.  In  the  southwestern 
states,  the  sheep  are  sheared  twice  a 
year,  while  in  the  northern  states  they 
are  sheared  but  once,  usually  in  June, 


Fig.    379 — SHEARING    BY    HAND 


up  into  a  very  nutritious  kind  of  hay 
on  which  sheep  maintain  themselves  in 
good  condition  during  the  winter.  The 
chief  forage  plants  are  the  legumes, 
especially  lupines,  various  species  of 
sage-brush  and  numerous  wild  grasses. 
Alfilaria  (Erodium  cicutarium)  is  one 
of  the  very  best  green  winter  pasture 
plants. 

Running  water  is  not  essential  for 
sheep  in  winter  time  where  snow  is 
plentiful,  since  the  sheep  can  feed  on 
the  snow.  This  makes  it  possible  to 
range  sheep  on  land  that  could  not  be 
used  in  the  summer  time  for  want  of 
water. 

Breeds  raised_In  the  early  days  the 
Merino  was  the  breed  principally  grown, 
usually  mixed  with  other  crosses.    With- 


after  cold  weather  is  past.  The  shearing 
is  done  by  professionals  who  travel  from 
the  southern  part  of  the  country  north- 
ward with  the  season.  In  shearing  by 
hand,  an  expert  can  handle  from  90  to 
150  sheep  a  day,  while  some  of  the  best 
shearers  have  sheared  as  many  as  250 
sheep  in  a  day.  On  a  good  many  ranches 
a  sheep  shearing  plant  run  by  gasoline 
or  some  other  form  of  power  is  main- 
tained. The  sheep  cannot  be  sheared 
any  faster  by  machines  than  by  hand, 
but  it  is  believed  that  a  little  more  wool 
can  be  obtained  than  by  hand  shearing 
and  that  a  novice  is  less  likely  to  cut 
the  sheep  in  shearing.  Large  companies 
have  also  been  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  shearing  sheep. 


SHEEP 


613 


The  fleeces  are  tied  up  and  are  put 
in  large  sacks.  For  the  purpose  of 
sacking,  a  platform  is  built  with  a  cir- 
cular opening,  underneath  which  the 
sacks  are  fastened.  The  wool  is  thrown 
into  the  sacks  and  is  there  tramped 
down  until  the  sacks  are  filled  as  full 
as  possible.  The  sacks  contain  from 
300  to  400  pounds.  They  are  then  sewed 
up  and  are  ready  for  hauling  away  to 
market.  No  sorting  of  the  wool  is  done 
on  the  ranch  except  that  the  wool  from 
the  black  sheep  is  usually  kept  separate. 


small   flocks   as   soon   as   the  lambs   are 
dropped. 

The  bands  are  watched  nights  by  a 
night  herder  and  lambs  which  may  be 
born  then  are  separated  with  their 
mother  from  the  rest  of  the  band,  which 
might  otherwise  trample  the  lamb  to 
death.  The  ewe  and  lamb  are  placed 
in  an  individual  lambing  pen  of  scarcely 
sufficient  size  to  hold  them.  Here  they 
are  kept  for  a  few  hours  until  it  ap- 
pears that  the  lamb  is  owned  or  moth- 
ered. 


Fig.  380 — HAND  SHEARING  MACHINE  WITH  FLEXIBLE    SHAFT 


This  brings  a  little  higher  price  than 
the  white  wool. 

Lambing — The  lambing  season  is 
the  earliest  period  in  the  year  when 
suitable  climate  and  feeding  conditions 
may  be  expected.  It  is  not  desirable  to 
have  the  lambs  come  before  grass  in  the 
spring,  since  without  green  grass  ewes 
do  not  give  sufficient  milk.  Late  snow- 
storms or  cold  rains  may  also  seriously 
increase  the  death  rate  of  the  lambs. 
At  the  lambing  season  a  large  number 
of  extra  men  are  required,  since  the 
h.ands  of  ewes  must  be  divided  up  into 


Daytimes  a  lambing  wagon  follows 
each  lambing  band.  The  wagon  is  di- 
vided into  small  pens  on  either  side  in- 
to which  the  lamb  and  ewe  are  placed 
as  soon  as  the  lamb  is  born.  When  the 
wagon  is  full  they  are  hauled  to  the 
lambing  shed.  The  ewes  with  young 
lambs  are  kept  for  the  first  few  days  in 
bands  of  25  to  100,  usually  called  lamb- 
ing bands.  These  bands  are  purposely 
kept  small  to  make  sure  that  the  lambs 
are  owned  by  their  mother.  Each  band 
is  under  the  care  of  a  herder.  Were  the 
ewes  and  lambs  allowed  to  run  in  large 


614 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


bands  at  this  time,  it  would  be  an  easy 
matter  for  the  lambs  to  become  sepa- 
rated from  their  mothers.  Where  they 
are  thus  separated  for  24  hours,  the  ewe 
frequently  fails  to  recognize  and  own 
her  lamb.  This  is  not  only  a  serious 
matter  from  the  standpoint  of  the  lamb 
but  also  on  account  of  the  ewe  whose 
unmilked  udder  may  become  perma- 
nently injured  thereby.  At  the  end  of 
a  week  or  10  days  the  small  lambing 
bands  are  brought  together  into  a  herd 
of  2,500  to  3,000.  At  this  age  the  lambs 
are  ready  for  docking,  castrating  and 
marking.  From  now  on  the  lamb  band 
may  be  driven  to  greater  distances  from 
the  home  ranch.     The  increase   in  the 


fall,  that  is,  when  three  to  six  months 
old.  The  ewes  at  this  time  are  nearly 
dry  and  require  but  little  or  no  atten- 
tion when  the  lambs  are  separated  from 
them.  At  weaning  time  ewes  and  lambs 
are  put  in  separate  bands  and  kept  far 
enough  apart  so  that  they  do  not  hear 
each  other  bleating. 

The  bucks  are  maintained  in  separate 
bands  of  from  50  to  1,000  or  more  until 
the  season  of  service.  In  Montana  and 
Wyoming  they  are  turned  in  with  the 
ewes  about  December  1,  which  brings 
the  lambing  period  in  May.  Farther 
southwest  they  are  turned  in  earlier; 
about  one  buck  is  provided  for  each  50 


Fig.   381 — SHEEP   SHEARING   PLANT   FOR   30  SHEEP 


flocks  under  western  conditions  varies 
from  50  to  100  per  cent,  averaging  about 
80  per  cent.  Single  lambs  are  pre- 
ferred to  twins  under  range  conditions, 
since  the  ewes  frequently  fail  to  own 
the  second  lamb,  which  necessitates 
bringing  it  up  as  a  "bum"  lamb.  These 
lambs  have  to  be  brought  up  on  a  bot- 
tle or  an  ewe  must  be  caught  and  held 
for  them  until  they  learn  to  steal  milk 
from  other  ewes.  Where  possible,  of 
course,  they  are  given  to  ewes  that  have 
lost  lambs. 

The  lambs  are  not  usually  separated 
from  the  ewes  until  the  bands  return 
from  the  summer  mountain  range  in  the 


Winter  feeding  on  the  range — At  the 
present  time  the  most  cautious  sheep- 
men provide  considerable  forage  for 
winter  use.  Of  the  cultivated  forage 
crops,  alfalfa  is  by  far  most  commonly 
employed.  It  cannot  be  grown,  however, 
under  ranch  conditions,  except  by  irri- 
gation. On  the  better  lands  it  may  be 
grown  and  stacked  for  75  cents  to  $1.25 
a  ton,  while  its  feeding  value  is  from  $5 
to  $7  a  ton.  Some  sheepmen  raise  from 
100  to  1,500  acres  of  alfalfa  yearly,  and 
feed  it  during  the  winter.  Usually 
three  crops  are  obtained,  which  necessi- 
tates a  continuous  haying  from  June 
to  October. 


SHEEP 


615 


Where  sheepmen  are  not  favorably 
located  for  growing  alfalfa  many  use 
simply  the  native  hays,  which  are  fre- 
quently found  in  very  great  abundance. 
Lupines  are  the  more  important  of 
these.  To  prevent  lupine  poison,  which 
sometimes  occurs  from  eating  the  ripe 
seed,  the  plants  are  not  harvested  imtil 
late  in  the  season,  after  the  seeds  have 
fallen.  Stock  sheep  are  fed  simply  a 
maintenance  ration  during  the  winter. 
Either  lambs  or  sheep  that  are  to  be 
marketed  are  placed  in  corrals  and  not 
allowed  to  run  upon  the  range. 

They  are  fed  all  the  alfalfa  hay  they 
want.  This  is  placed  on  the  outside  of 
the  fence,  leaving  space   for  the  sheep 


shipped  to  market.     (See  Sheep  Fatten- 
ing on  a  Large  Scale.) 

Cost  and  profit  in  sheep  ranching — 
Where  winter  feeding  is  unnecessary, 
and  public  lands  are  used  for  grazing, 
the  annual  cost  of  caring  for  sheep  in 
the  West  is  about  25  cents  a  head. 
Where,  however,  an  expensive  plant  is 
necessary  with  buildings  and  winter 
feeding,  the  cost  is  considerably  in- 
creased, varying  from  25  cents  to  $1.25  a 
head  yearly.  The  income,  of  course,  de- 
pends upon  management,  season,  and 
the  price  and  condition  of  wool.  At  the 
present  time,  the  income  from  the  fleece 
varies  from  $1  to  $1.50  a  head,  and 
the  lambs  sell  in  the  fall  for  from  $2  to 


Fig.  382 — ANGORA  GOATS 
(Courtesy  of  John  Frye) 


to  stick  their  heads  through  to  get  it. 
The  hay  is  fed  directly  on  the  ground, 
as  it  has  been  found  that  less  loss  occurs 
in  this  manner  than  when  fed  in  racks. 
The  corrals  are  usually  built  so  that  a 
stream  of  water  runs  through  a  por- 
tion of  it.  Salt  is  supplied  in  large 
lumps  and  sometimes  roots  or  grain  are 
fed  in   addition. 

On  alfalfa  alone  sheep  will  gain  6 
to  8  pounds  a  month,  requiring  about 
three  months  to  put  them  in  good 
marketable  condition.  Many  of  the 
sheep,  however,  are  sold  to  feeders  who 
make  a  specialty  of  buying  range  sheep 
and  carrying  them  farther  east  to  the 
grain  belt,  where  they  are  fattened  and 


$3  a  head,  depending  upon  their  con- 
dition. This  amount  for  lambs  can  be 
considerably  increased  by  feeding  for  a 
longer  period  with  alfalfa  hay.  Under 
the  better  conditions  a  net  profit  of  50 
cents  to  $1  a  head  is  sometimes  ob- 
tained, which  makes  the  business  enor- 
mously profitable  where  it  is  managed 
on  a  sufficiently  large  scale. 

The  more  responsible  sheepmen  have 
permanent  locations  with  land  and 
buildings  of  their  own,  and  additional 
lands  which  they  rent.  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  wandering  sheepmen  who 
have  no  permanent  location,  but  travel 
from  the  southern  ranges  northward 
with    the    season,    driving    their    flocks 


610 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


wherever  they  can  find  pasture.  Such 
sheepmen  constitute  a  distinct  menace 
to  the  legitimate  sheep  industry.  A 
number  of  these  men  with  large  bands 
all  aiming  for  the  same  point,  tend  to 
greatly  overgraze  certain  areas,  denud- 
ing them  of  grass  and  forage  plants  and 
greatly  injuring  the  range.  It  has  been 
shown  again  and  again  that  where  the 
land  is  not  leased  and  where  no  indi- 
vidual or  set  of  individuals  can  control 
the  range,  the  results  are  disastrous  to 
the  grass.  The  rent  for  grazing  land 
varies  from  1  to  2  cents  an  acre,  and 
the  land  can  often  be  bought  for  from 
$3  to  $4  an  acre. 


for  their  fleeces  as  those  do  who  grow 
sheep  for  wool  alone. 

In  years  past  Merino  wool  lias  been 
the  chief  wool  on  the  American  market. 
The  medium  and  coarse  grades,  supplied 
largely  by  the  mutton  type  of  sheep, 
have  been  offered  in  very  much  smaller 
quantities,  as  a  result  of  which  better 
prices  have  been  paid  in  recent  years 
than  for  Merino  wool.  By  far  the  larger 
proportion  of  woolen  goods  is  manu- 
factured from  Merino  wool;  but  for 
some  purposes  longer  wools  are  superior, 
and  for  one  purpose  or  another  every 
grade  and  length  of  wool  can  be  used. 


Fig.  383 — ANGORAS  IMPORTED  IN  1901 


RAISING  SHEEP  FOR  WOOL  ALONE 

Sheep  cannot  be  profitably  grown  for 
wool  alone  on  high  priced  agricultural 
lands  when  wool  brings  but  20  to  25 
cents  a  pound.  In  large  flocks,  under 
western  range  conditions,  where  land  is 
cheap  and  one  man  can  handle  from 
2,000  to  4,000  sheep,  there  is  often  con- 
siderable profit  in  growing  sheep  for 
wool  alone;  but  even  under  western  con- 
ditions a  very  large  number  of  ranch- 
men believe  in  growing  a  general  pur- 
pose sheep  which  will  not  only  yield  a 
good  fleece,  but  also  a  good  mutton  car- 
cass. Mutton  growers  in  the  eastern 
states  frequently  obtain  as  much  money 


For  all  grades  of  wool,  however,  there  is 
apparently  a  bright  future. 

Statistics — The  United  States  pro- 
duces about  one-eighth  of  the  wool  of 
the  world  and  the  average  weight  of  the 
fleeces  produced  in  this  country  is  7.2 
pounds.  At  the  present  time  the  price 
varies  from  15  cents  for  unwashed  Me- 
rino wool  to  35  cents  for  the  various 
grades  of  unwashed  combing  wool,  mak- 
ing the  value  of  the  fleece  average  from 
$1  to  $2  each. 

The  wool  of  sheep  grows  contin- 
uously throughout  the  year.  If  the  feed 
of  the  sheep  is  uniform  and  nutritious, 


SHEEP 


617 


a  uniform  quality  of  wool  will  be  pro- 
duced according  to  the  breed  of  sheep. 
Anything  which  affects  the  health  of  the 
animal  also  affects  the  quality  of  the 
wool.  During  a  period  of  sickness  or 
scant  rations,  the  wool  may  temporarily 
stop  growing.  When  the  animal  recov- 
ers, or  when  better  rations  are  fed,  the 
wool  begins  growth  again.  As  a  result, 
however,  of  this  interruption,  a  weak 
spot  is  produced  in  the  wool  which 
greatly  decreases  its  strength  and  value 
for  manufacturing  purposes. 

The  particular  kind  of  ration  fed,  so 
long  as  it  is  nutritious,  apparently  has 
but  little  influence  on  the  quality  of 
wool  produced.  Craig  at  the  Wisconsin 
station  found  that  lambs  fed  grain  at  an 
early  age  grew  faster  and  produced 
about  1  pound  a  head  more  wool  than 
those  not  fed  grain.  When  the  wool 
was  scoured,  however,  the  amount  of 
washed  wool  produced  by  the  different 
lots  was  practically  the  same,  showing 
that  the  grain  feeding  had  produced 
more  yolk  in  the  wool  but  not  more 
wool. 

In  another  experiment,  Craig  fed  a 
ration  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  10 
in  comparison  with  a  more  nitrogenous 
ration  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  3.6. 
The  sheep  fed  the  narrow  ration  clipped 
2.8  pounds  unwashed  and  0.8  pound 
washed  wool  more  than  those  fed  the 
wide  ration.  The  difference  in  weight, 
however,  was  found  to  be  due  almost  en- 
tirely to  the  greater  yolk  in  the  fleece 
of  the  sheep  fed  the  narrow  ration.  The 
amount  of  wool  produced  is  apparently 
more  a  matter  of  breeding  than  of 
feeding,  other  factors  being  equal. 

Yolk — By  yolk  in  the  wool  is  meant 
the  natural  grease  or  oil  secreted  by  the 
skin.  Under  normal  conditions  the 
yolk  passes  down  through  the  fiber  and 
escapes  apparently  at  the  end  where  it 
gradually  works  its  way  back  into  the 
fleece,  giving  it  a  kind  of  creamy  ap- 
pearance. In  healthy  sheep  the  yolk  con- 
stitutes about  one-third  of  the  weight 
of  the  fleece.  At  the  factory,  the  fleeces 
are  scoured  and  the  yolk  washed  out  be- 
fore the  wool  is  used  for  manufacturing 
purposes. 

We  have  seen  that  grain  feeding  or 
the  feeding  of  nitrogenous  rations  con- 
tributed to  the  production  of  the  yolk 
and  consequently  a  heavier  fleece.  The 
feeding  of  foods  rich  in  oil  also  seems 
to  favor  the  secretion  of  yolk.    The  yolk 


is  of  great  importance  in  the  fleece,  as 
it  keeps  it  soft  and  compact,  clean  and 
bright  on  the  inside  and  is  a  protection 
to  the  sheep  in  turning  water.  It  is  a 
characteristic  index  of  the  healthfulness 
of  the  sheep,  since  in  sheep  underfed  or 
unthrifty  it  may  be  nearly  lacking,  while 
if  present  in  excessive  quantities,  indi- 
cated by  accumulations  in  flakes,  it  may 
be  taken  as  a  sign  of  unthriftiness,  due 
to  overfeeding. 

Examining  the  fleece — The  score 
card  for  the  wool  breeds  of  sheep  is 
given  on  page  577.  In  examining  the 
fleece  on  the  sheep,  it  is  first  opened  over 
the  shoulder.  This  is  the  point  where 
the  finest  and  soundest  wool  of  the  fleece 
is  likely  to  be  found.  In  parting  the 
wool,  the  hand  should  be  used  in  a  flat 
position.  The  poorest,  coarsest  wool  on 
the  fleece  is  found  on  the  thigh,  while 
the  thinnest  wooled  portion  is  likely  to 
be  found  on  the  belly.  The  more  nearly 
the  fleece  approaches  in  length,  thick- 
ness and  fineness  the%  wool  on  the  shoul- 
ders, the  greater  is  the  value  of  the  fleece. 
A  dense  fleece  is  especially  desirable,  as 
it  affords  greater  protection  to  the  sheep 
from  cold  and  exposure  to  wind  and 
rain,  and  protects  the  inner  wool  from 
dirt  and  dust. 

Shearing  sheep— Sheep  are  sheared 
once  a  year  in  all  portions  of  the  United 
States,  except  the  southwest,  where  they 
are  sheared  twice  a  year,  in  April  or 
]\fay,  and  again  in  October.  The  shear- 
ing is  done  either  by  hand  or  by  ma- 
chinery. Good  shearers  in  the  East  can 
shear  from  40  to  60  sheep  a  day,  on  the 
average,  and  the  price  for  shearing  is 
from  8  to  10  cents  a  head. 

Hand  machines — On  small  farms  or 
where  there  are  less  than  400  or  500 
sheep  to  shear,  the  use  of  sheep  shearing 
machines  is  of  very  doubtful  economy. 
On  a  small  scale  shearing  machines  are 
run  by  hand  power,  requiring  one  strong 
boy  or  man  to  turn  the  machine  and 
another  to  handle  the  clippers.  The 
clippers  work  on  the  principle  of  the 
sickle  of  a  mowing  machine,  the  knife 
moves  very  rapidly,  the  power  being 
transmitted  through  a  flexible  shaft. 
Sheep  cannot  be  sheared  any  faster  by 
machine  than  by  hand;  with  care,  how- 
ever, the  wool  can  be  cut  closer  and 
perhaps  a  little  more  secured  a  fleece 
than  by  hand  shearing.  The  extra  man, 
however,  required  to  run  the  machine, 
more  than  offsets  any  greater  value  of 


618 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  wool.  Where,  however,  a  man  has 
a  flock  of  1,000  or  more  to  shear,  and 
can  supply  the  power  for  running  the 
machines  by  steam  or  gasoline,  it  may 
be  found  economical.  In  the  hands  of 
the  novice  a  little  better  job  can  be  done 
with  the  machine  clippers  perhaps  than 
with  hand  shears,  otherwise  there  is  no 
advantage  in  them.  A  further  disad- 
vantage is  that  the  knives  must  be  re- 
turned to  the  factory  for  sharpening, 
oftentimes  causing  delay  at  a  critical 
time  in  the  shearing. 


fective  from  the  manufacturer's  stand- 
point and  practically  as  good  prices  are 
secured  for  unwashed  wool  now  as  for 
the  so-called  washed  wool.  Of  course,  if 
shearing  is  done  in  the  latter  part  of 
April,  washing  is  generally  out  of  the 
question,  as  at  that  early  time  of  the 
year  it  would  endanger  both  the  health 
of  the  sheep  and  the  men  employed  to 
wash  them. 

When  sheep  are  wasbed,  they  are  usu- 
ally driven  to  some  river  or  creek,  where 
the  water  is  waist  deep,  and  then  taken 


Fig.    384 YEARLING    ANGORA 

(Bur.  Anim.  Ind.  Bui.  27) 


The  time  to  shear  sheep  in  the  north- 
ern states  is  April  or  May.  The  earlier 
the  sheep  can  be  sheared  in  the  season, 
without  causing  discomfort  from  cold 
to  the  sheep,  the  greater  the  weight  of 
fleece  is  likely  to  be  and  the  better  the 
quality  of  the  wool. 

Washing  sheep — Some  years  ago, 
sheep  were  generally  washed  before 
shearing.  This  practice  has  almost  en- 
tirely gone  out  of  vogue.  The  washing 
in  creeks  or  otherwise  is  entirely  inef- 


one  by  one  into  the  stream.  When  a 
sheep  is  thoroughly  soaked,  the  fleece 
\s  shaken  and  squeezed  so  that  the  dirt 
is  washed  away.  The  head  of  the  sheep 
should,  of  course,  be  held  above  water, 
and  after  they  are  washed  they  should 
be  turned  on  a  clean,  grassy  lot  to  dry. 
Oftentimes  the  fleece  is  so  hea^y  with 
water  that  the  sheep  will  need  assistance 
in  getting  on  their  feet.  Ewes  in  lamb 
must  be  handled  with  especial  care, 
though  in  most  flocks  the  washing  will 


SHEEP 


619 


not   take   place    until    June,    when    the 
lambing  season  should  be  over. 

Clean  wool — Great  care  must  be  taken 
in  the  winter  feeding  of  sheep  and  hous- 
ing to  prevent  the  wool  from  becoming 
filled  with  chaff,  burs,  etc.  The  wool 
is  valued  always  on  the  basis  of  its 
scoured  weight,  and  the  buyer  always 
allows  for  whatever  dirt  may  be  present 
in  it.  The  wool  of  sheep  that  have  ac- 
cess to  a  straw  stack  in  winter  is  likely 
to  be  filled  with  chaff  and  will  not  bring 


Tying  wool — Sheep  should  be  sheared 
on  a  clean  floor  or  bench,  free  from  dust, 
chaff  or  other  litter  in  order  that  the 
fleece  may  be  kept  perfectly  clean.  If 
the  wool  is  put  in  sacks  or  bales,  no 
tying  is  required.  Otherwise,  the  sides 
of  the  fleeces  should  be  turned  in  and 
the  fleece  rolled  together  inside  out  and 
tied  with  a  light,  strong  string,  using 
as  little  as  possible  to  securely  hold  the 
fleece  together.  The  use  of  common, 
heavy,  large  sized  sheep  twine  is   espe- 


~F'lg.     385 — GOAT     KIDS     IN"     CORRAL 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  Year  Book) 


within  2  to  5  cents  a  pound  as  much  as 
it  would  if  the  wool  was  free  from  chaff. 
Likewise  wool  which  is  full  of  sand  or 
burs  is  docked  by  the  buyer.  The  dock- 
age is  not  so  much  on  account  of  the 
weight  of  the  burs  and  chaff  itself,  as 
of  the  difficulty  in  separating  these  sub- 
stances from  the  fleece.  This  is  usually 
a  very  tedious  and  expensive  process  and 
cannot  be  done  without  more  or  less  in- 
jury to  the  wool  fiber.  Racks  should  be 
provided  for  sheep,  at  which  tbey  may 
eat  without  getting  their  necks  full  of 
chaff,  seeds  and  dust. 


cially  objectionable,  not  so  much  be- 
cause it  increases  the  weight  of  the  fleece 
2  or  3  ounces,  but  because  the  fiber 
becomes  mixed  with  the  wool  and  must 
be  combed  out  before  the  wool  can  be 
used  for  manufacturing.  Mumford 
found  that  the  lower  price  of  Michigan 
wools  as  compared  with  Pennsylvania 
and  Ohio  wools  was  largely  due  to  the 
old  square  method  of  doing  up  the  fleece 
and  the  use  of  heavy,  coarse  sheep  twine 
in  tying  it. 

The  best  twine  to  use  is  about  No.  18 
hemp  or  small  linen.    If  the  box  is  used 


620 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


to  do  tip  the  fleece,  it  should  he  a  little 
longer  than  usual  and  smaller  and  much 
less  twine  used. 

The  tags  should  be  trimmed  off  the 
fleece  and  sold  separately.  They  should 
never  be  done  up  in  the  fleece.  When 
sheep  die  of  natural  causes,  the  wool 
may  be  pulled  off  and  sold.  This  pulled 
wool  is  not  as  valuable  as  sheared  live 
wool,  as  it  will  not  take  dye  as  well  and 
should  always  be  sold  separately  as 
pulled  wool.  Likewise  the  pelt  of  a  dead 
sheep  is  much  less  valuable  than  from 
one  that  has  been  killed. 

Paint  marks  on  the  wool  represent  so 
much  loss  to  the  manufacturer  and  con- 
sequently lower  the  price  for  the  wool. 

Classification  of  wool — The  grower 
will  seldom  be  in  a  position  to  sort  his 
wool  in  such  a  manner  that  it  would  be 
any  benefit  to  the  manufacturer.  It 
should,  however,  be  graded  uniformly 
as  regards  fleeces  of  different  breeds,  put- 
ting those  together  of  the  same  breed 
and  character.  Beyond  this  the  grower 
will  seldom  be  able  to  go.  Wool  is  clas- 
sified in  several  different  ways  and  in 
order  that  the  grower  may  interpret  the 
market  prices  of  these  different  grades, 
a  brief  account  will  be  given  of  them. 

In  a  broad  way,  wool  is  classified  as 
Domestic,  Territory  and  Carpet  or 
Blanket  wool.  By  Domestic  wool  is  un- 
derstood the  kind  of  wool  generally  ob- 
tained from  sheep  grown  under  general 
farm  conditions.  It  should  be  bright, 
free  from  sand,  dirt,  burs,  etc.  Should 
it  contain  these  materials,  it  would  fall 
into  the  Territory  class. 

The  Territory  wools  are  so  called  be- 
cause they  are  produced  most  abundantly 
in  the  territories  and  are  generally 
discolored  and  dirty  with  sand,  burs, 
seed,  etc.  Where,  however,  range  wool 
is  clean,  it  falls  into  the  Domestic  class. 

The  Carpet  or  Blanket  wool  is  com- 
posed of  wools  containing  a  large 
amount  of  hairy  fiber  and  kemp.  By 
kemp  is  meant  the  coarse  white  hairs 
which  are  found  mixed  with  the  wool  in 
greater  or  less  quantity.  Kemp  is  usu- 
ally prominent  in  the  face,  the  forearm 
and  the  inside  of  the  flank.  Whenever 
kemp  is  found  in  these  latter  places,  it 
is  likely  to  be  more  or  less  abundant 
throughout  the  whole  breed.  This  kemp 
or  hair  does  not  take  dye  readily  and 
on  this  account  injures  the  fleece  for 
manufacturing,  except  for  the  coarser 
grades  of  goods  like  carpets  and  blank- 


ets. In  breeding  sheep  for  wool,  those 
which  exhibit  kemp  should  be  fattened 
for  market. 

The  Domestic  and  Territory  wool  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes,  desig- 
nated as  clothing  or m  carding  wool,  De- 
laine and  combing  wool.  This  classifi- 
cation is  based  entirely  on  the  length, 
quality  and  strength  of  the  wool.  And 
each  one  of  these  classes  may  be  graded 
as  fine,  medium  or  coarse. 

Generally  speaking,  clothing  wools  are 
short  wools  of  relatively  fine  quality 
and  less  than  21  2  inches  in  length.  The 
Delaine  wools  are  also  fine  wools  clipped 
from  all  varieties  of  Merinos,  which 
grow  a  long,  strong  wool  staple,  21 2  to 
3  inches  in  length,  while  combing  wools 
are  those  over  3  inches  in  length  which 
are  sound.  Nearly  all  of  the  coarser 
long  wools  are  graded  as  combing  wools. 
However,  a  wool  which  may  be  long 
enough  for  combing,  if  it  be  unsound, 
is  classed  as  clothing  or  carding  wool. 
These  three  different  classes  of  wool  are 
subdivided  according  to  quality  or  size 
of  fiber  as  follows : 


Clothing  wools 


Combine:  wools 


Delaine  wools 


¥ 


Picklock 

XXX 

XX 


Xo.  1  or  1o  blood 
Xo.  2  or  %  blood 
Xo.  3  or  3i  blood 

%  blood 

y4  blood 

Coarse  or  common 

Braid 

Pine 

Medium 

Low 


In  this  classification  the  Picklock  is 
the  highest  grade  of  clothing  wool;  it 
is  now  rarely  found  on  the  market  since 
usually  only  the  wool  from  pure  Saxony 
Merinos  grade  Picklock.  The  XXX  is 
next  highest  in  grade  and  is  also  scarce. 
It  is  sometimes  found  when  Saxony  Me- 
rinos are  crossed  with  the  common 
American  or  Spanish  Merinos.  The  XX 
grade  is  a  little  lower  than  XXX  and 
is  the  standard  grade  usually  produced 
by  the  pure  bred  Merino.  The  three- 
fourths  blood  Merino,  all  high  grade 
Merinos,  and  the  coarser  pure  blood 
Merino  wools  grade  as  X. 

'"The  terms  one-half,  three-eighths 
and  one-fourth  blood  do  not  necessarily 


SHEEP 


621 


mean  that  the  wools  were  grown  on 
sheep  posses-:::.:  just  that  fraction  of 
Merino  blood.  Many  sheep  containing 
no  Merino  blood  grow  wool  grading 
three-eighths  and  one-fourth  blood. 
Xumber  1  or  one-half  blood  is  the  next 
coarser  grade  thai:  X.  Number  $  is 
coarser  than  Xuniber   1.   and  so  on." 

1  .arse  and  grade  wool  are  invariably 
combing  wools  and  are  the  grades  most 
frequently  produced  by  Lincolns.  L 
ters   and  is,  which  have  fleeces 

coarse  and  long  in  staple  but  bright  and 
lustrous.  Fine  Delaine  wool  is  Merino 
wool  fine  enough  to  grade  X,  or  above, 
and  long  in  staple. 

'"Medium  Delaine  is  the  grade  next 
coarser  than  the  above,  while  Low  De- 
laine  is  long  enough  to  be  combing  but 
a  grade  finer  than  the  finest  combing 
wool,   namely,    three-eighths  blood." 

In  addition  to  these  grades  of  wool 
noted  above,  other  grades  known  as  felt- 
ing wools  and  Xoils  are  occasionally 
quoted.  The  felting  wools  usually  pos- 
-  short  staple  and  are  adapted  to 
felting  purposes,  because  they  felt- 
quickly.  In  felting  "the  fibers  are  in- 
terlocked  in   such   a   way   that   a   solid 


is  produced  without  the  interme- 
;  rocess  of  spinning  and  weaving."1" 
Xoils    refers    to    the    dead    and    tender 
wools  which  are  broken  off  in  the  proc- 
-    ?ombing  wool  fibers  between  fine 
needles.     They  may  also  be  called  comb- 
ing waste.     "The  long  and  healthy  fibers 
are  carried  along  through  the  combing 
process  and  formed  into  what  are  called 
jps." 

The  long  staple  wool  usually  includes 
the  Lincoln,  the  Leicester.  Cotswold. 
Romney  Marsh  and  Blackface  or  High- 
land. The  short  staple  includ-- 
Southdown.  Hampshire.  Suffolk,  Shrop- 
shire, Oxford,  Cheviot  and  Welsh.  The 
Delaine,  of  course,  comes  from  the  De- 
laine and  Improved  Merinos. 

Prof.  H.  W.  Mumford.  whose  classi- 
fication of  wools  has  been  followed  above, 
secured  typical  ewe  fleeces  from  a  large 
number  of  sheep  breeders.  The  fleeces 
were  believed  to  be  representative  of  the 
various  breeds.  The  following  table 
shows  the  weight  of  these  fleeces,  the 
percentage  of  shrink  in  washing,  their 
commercial  grade  and  the  pri 
pound. 


WEIGHT    OF    FLEECE    A>T>    COMMERCIAL  GRADE   OF  1"  IFFEREXT   BREEDS. 


~"    -  -   - r  ■  . ,       :-■ 


American    Merino .  .  17.1 

National  Delaine  Merino  9.6 
American  Rambouillet.  S.l 
H ...v.;  s.-.:r-  -  _"    :?-    : ".  i  ;: 

Southdown     7.7 

Shropshire    10.7 

Suffolk      (Ram) 6.9 

Hampshire    9.4 

Oxford   Down    15.1 

Oxford   Down    18.fi 

ster    (Ram) 12.5 

Cotswold     12.3 

Lincoln    14. T 

Tunis     B.8 

Dorset    Horn B.9 

Cheviot    9.1 

Rambouillet- Am.  Merino  7.3 


an* 


Pnee  Price 

f  :  —■-.  '  <:    ".---:                 '. 

n  G^i«  F.eeee  Scoured 

per  St.  per  lb.  Fleece 

t  i               t 

xClothir.r  - 

Fine  Delaine 81%  51  8.04 

xClothing 14%  1.61 

:h:ng    19  18%  8.11 

%   combing 23  .37%  :  " 

-_      :  TV."  .:._                   ..  .42-.*  -     - 

Low    Sg    combing.    .23  .53 %  1.61 

mbing     23  .41  i  .  " 

i  ■  ir.s 19  .32*4  2.88 

Brai  ".    :    ml  rag           -  12%  2.58 

,    blood 19 

Braid   combing. . .    .19 
Braid  combing    .  .    .. 

mbing  .....     --  -  1.69 

mbing  sa  12%  2.34 

y:r? 22^  .31  .     5 

%    ;r..bing    21*-  .31  L.4C 


The  table  shows  the  percentage  shrink 
-  .ring  different  wools  to  vary  from 
27.4  per  cent  in  the  case  of  C 
sheep  to  72.4  per  cent  in  Merinos.  The 
Lincoln  produces  the  most  valuable 
fleece,  followed  by  the  Oxfords,  both 
breeds  yielding  combing  wools, 

GOATS 

:s  are  more  or  less  familiar  ani- 
mals    in   the   Unit    I  Si    I   -      3  pets  for 

children.      In    the    southwestern    states 


Angoras  are  grown  under  range  condi- 
tions   for    mohair.      There    are    also    a 

many  common  goats  in  the   S 
among  the  negro  farmers.    According  to 
the  last  ecu-    -  5 goats 

for  the  whole  country,  of  which  78 
were  reported  from  cities.  Aboul  700,- 
000  of  the  total  are  of  the  Angora  breed, 
the  remainder  are  all  sorts  of  animals, 
except  distinct  breeds  of  milch  goats  of 
which  there  are  so  few  as  not  to  affect 
the  total  materially. 


622 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


It  is  thus  seen  that  by  far  the  most 
important  goats  in  the  country  are  of 
the  Angora  breed.  These  were  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  about  1849 
from  Turkey.  Other  importations  from 
tbat  country  followed  until  1876.  Some 
were  also  obtained  from  Cape  Colony. 
For  the  most  part  the  Angoras  found 
their  way  into  the  southern  and  south- 
western states,  principally  Texas,  New 
Mexico  and  California,  where  they  con- 
stitute an  important  feature  of  animal 
industry.  At  the  present  time,  consid- 
erable   increased    interest    is   manifested 


The  demand  for  mohair  in  the  United 
States  for  manufacturing  purposes  is 
far  in  excess  of  the  amount  produced, 
so  that  where  favorable  conditions  exist 
for  goat  raising,  there  is  assurance  of  a 
market  for  the  product.  The  mohair 
from  high-grade  Angoras  brings  from 
30  to  50  cents  a  pound  and  the  fleece 
weighs  from  2  to  4  pounds  each. 

The  meat  of  the  common  goat  also  is 
eaten  extensively  while  young,  and  is 
considered  equal  to  mutton.  With  the 
older  common  goats  the  meat  is  less  de- 
sirable,  as   it   acquires   a    strong   flavor. 


mmi:-,:  ? 


Fig.  386 — BRIDGE  FOR  SEPARATING  DOES  FROM  KIDS 
(From  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric.  Year  Book) 


in  them  and  they  are  now  found  in  prac- 
tically every  state  in  the  Union. 

Angora  goats  are  useful  from  several 
different  standpoints.  Their  skins  are 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
leather  or  for  rugs.  The  fine  hair  of  the 
Angora  is  known  as  mohair,  and  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  manufacture  of 
various  dress  goods  and  plushes.  Their 
habit  of  browsing  is  utilized  profitably 
by  farmers  in  clearing  up  brush  land. 
Their  flesh  is  delicate,  palatable  and 
nutritious,  and  their  milk,  though  not  as 
abundant  as  in  the  milch  breed  of  goat, 
is  superior  to  cow's  milk  in  richness  and 
is  especially  valuable  for  invalids  and 
children. 


This  is  not  true,  however,  with  the  An- 
gora breed,  whose  meat  is  much  less  pro- 
nounced in  flavor,  resembling  more  that 
of  mutton  in  all  stages  of  growth.  The 
price  paid  a  pound,  however,  is  usually 
1  to  2  cents  less  than  that  paid  for  mut- 
ton. The  meat  is  usually  bought  as 
goat  meat  and  sold  as  mutton.  Some- 
times, however,  it  is  sold  under  its  true 
name,  as  Angora  mutton  or  Angora 
venison,  the  term  venison  being  espe- 
cially applicable  when  the  goats  are  fat- 
tened on  a  wide  range  of  forage  plants, 
such   as   is   obtainable   in   browsing. 

The  use  of  one  or  two  goats  of  either 
Angora   or  common  breed  in  a  flock  of 


SHEEP 


sheep,  is  sometimes  maintained  as  a  pro- 
tection against  dogs  and  wolves,  as  the 
goats  will  defend  themselves  and  the 
herd  against  attacks  of  these  animals. 
Goats  readily  adapt  themselves  to  a  wide 
range  of  conditions.  They  prefer,  how- 
ever, rather  high,  dry  land  and  love 
to  sport  about  on  rocks  and  logs.  On 
lowlands  they  are,  like  sheep,  subject  to 
foot  rot  and  lung  worms,  and  for  these 
reasons  goat  raising  on  lowlands  is 
likely  to  prove  unprofitable. 

Considerable  interest  has  been  man- 
ifested in  the  raising  of  goats  for  skins, 
since  the  United  States  imports  about 
$25,000,000  worth  of  goat  skins  annually. 
Goat  skins  properly  dried  and  cured 
are  worth  from  30  to  40  cents  a  pound, 
and  it  is  a  heavy  skin  that  will  weigh 
4  pounds  when  dried.  The  conditions  in 
the  United  States  where  goats  could 
be  raised  for  their  skins  alone  are  ex- 
ceedingly limited,  since  the  cost  of  rais- 
ing them  would  more  than  equal  the 
value  of  the  pelt.  Angora  pelts  are  not 
as  valuable  as  some  of  the  other  breeds, 
as  they  are  more  tender  and  not  suitable 
for  use  in  shoemaking.  The  skins  that 
are  imported  come  chiefly  from  India 
and  other  countries  in  which  labor  is 
very  cheap,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether 
under  present  conditons  America  can 
compete  with   the  foreign  market. 

In  case  of  death,  however,  the  skin  of 
goats  grown  for  mohair  or  for  milk 
should  be  saved,  as  it  represents  a  large 
part  of  the  investment. 

American  goat  raising — The  best  con- 
ditions for  goat  raising  in  the  United 
States  are  probably  in  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains and  Pacific  coast  states.  In  these 
states  the  climate  is  generally  dry  and 
foot  rot  and  lung  worm  are  very  uncom- 
mon. Goats  apparently  relish  a  much 
wider  range  of  forage  plants  than  sheep, 
they  also  travel  much  faster  and  in  a 
day  get  over  much  more  territory  than 
does  a  band  of  sheep.  They  seem  to  pre- 
fer brush,  briars,  weeds  and  other  coarse 
fodders,  which  are  seldom  eaten  by  cat- 
tle or  sheep,  to  the  best  pastures  of 
clover  and  alfalfa.  This  makes  them 
of  greater  value  in  clearing  new  land 
than  sheep.  Both  the  common  and  An- 
gora goats  are  equally  valuable  for  this 
purpose,  and  if  combined  in  sufficient 
number  on  the  brush  lot  will  in  two  or 
three  years  kill  out  the  brush  entirely, 
and  by  their  droppings  enrich  the  land 
to  such  an  extent  that  blue  grass  and 


other  desirable  pasture  grasses  will  take 
complete  possession,  thus  fitting  the 
land  for  sheep  or  cattle  that  may  follow. 

The  general  care  and  management  of 
goats  in  the  eastern  states  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  sheep.  In  the  west- 
ern states  they  may  be  herded  like  the 
wool  breeds  of  sheep  in  bands  of  2,000  to 
3,000.  Considerable  difference,  however, 
is  observed  in  the  manner  of  treating 
the  kids,  as  they  are  much  more  delicate 
than  lambs. 

Description  of  Angora  goat — Accord- 
ing to  Thompson,  it  is  exceedingly 
doubtful  whether  there  is  anywhere  an 
absolutely  pure  bred  Angora  goat.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Turkish  grow- 
ers in  order  to  increase  the  output  of 
mohair,  crossed  the  Angora  extensively 
on  the  common  Kurd  goat  of  that  coun- 
try. What  is  today  called  the  pure  bred 
Angora  is  the  product  of  crossing  and 
recrossing. 

According  to  Hoerle,  the  American 
Angora  goat  should  have  a  long,  round 
body,  straight  bnck  and  shoulders  and 
hip  equally  high  from  the  ground,  shoul- 
ders and  quarters  heavy  and  fleshy, 
chest  broad,  legs  short  and  strong,  head 
shaped  like  that  of  the  common  goat  but 
less  coarse  and  cleaner  cut,  the  horns 
heavy  with  an  outward  twist  inclining 
backward  and  to  the  outside.  The  entire 
animal  should  be  densely  covered  with 
mohair,  with  the  exception  of  the  face 
and  legs,  and  in  the  finest  specimens, 
the  mohair  tuft  on  the  forehead  should 
be  well  developed.  The  mohair  should 
be  in  long,  curly  ringlets.  The  more 
even  in  length  and  quality  the  mohair 
is  on  all  parts  of  the  body,  the  better. 
The  larger  part  of  the  Angoras  shed 
their  hair  annually  if  not  sheared  to 
prevent  it.  Occasionally  they  do  not. 
The  offensive  odor  in  the  common  goat 
is  practically  entirely  absent  in  the  An- 
gora, except  in  the  rutting  season,  and 
even  then  it  is  noted  only  to  a  slight 
degree. 

The  female  goat  is  called  a  doe  and 
the  male  a  buck,  while  the  young  is 
termed  a  kid.  The  term  wether  is  used 
in  the  same  sense  as  with  sheep. 

The  mohair  on  the  goat  becomes 
coarser  as  the  animals  grow  older.  With 
the  better  bred  animals  the  best  fiber  is 
found  upon  the  kid,  followed  by  the 
yearling  wethers  and  does.  Eelative  to 
the  amount  of  mohair  produced  by  An- 
goras, Mr.  C.  P.  Bailey  states  that  "half 


w  I 

B  «« 


o   •< 


E-c     M 


I   s 


SHEEP 


625 


breed  goats  scarcely  shear  enough  to  pay 
for  the  shearing;  three-fourths-bred 
goats  shear  1  to  IV2  pounds,  worth  15 
to  20  cents.  Seven-eighths-bred  goats 
shear  2  to  3  pounds,  worth  20  to  30 
cents.  Fifteen-sixteenths-bred  goats  shear 
3  to  5  pounds,  worth  30  to  40  cents." 
The  fourth  cross  or  fifteen-sixteenths 


F/FTH  Y£Xf? 

Fig.  388 — TEETH  OF  GOATS  OF  DIFFERENT 
AGES 

blood,  is  the  lowest  grade  that  he  would 
use  exclusively  for  mohair.  The  aver- 
age length  of  the  year-old  fleece  is  prob- 
ably about  10  inches,  though  lengths  of 
18  to  20  inches  have  been  reported.  It 
is  claimed  that  goats  running  together 
in  small  herds  will  shear  30  to  40  per 
cent  more  than  when  running  in  large 
herds,  showing  that  they  require  plenty 
of  room. 

Breeding  Angora  goats — In  growing 
Angora  goats  for  mohair,  does  must  be 
secured  which  are  at  least  fifteen-six- 
teenths Angora  blood.  The  use  of  such 
animals  will  cost  from  $8  to  $12  each 
and  bucks  from  $50  to  $100.  It  can 
be  readily  seen  that  this  requires  a  large 
amount  of  capital  to  go  into  the  busi- 
ness on  an  extensive  scale,  and  unless 
there  is  sale  for  the  surplus  goats  for 
breeding  stock,  the  profits  would  not  be 
great  on  the  investment. 

The  method  commonly  suggested  for 
building  up  a  flock  of  Angoras,  is  to 
secure  pure  bred  Angora  bucks  and  cross 
them  upon  the  common  goat.    In  select- 


ing common  goats  for  stock  only  those 
should  be  used  which  are  pure  white. 
Any  other  color  is  objectionable.  The 
does  should  be  of  the  short  hair  variety, 
since  the  long  haired  ones  persist  in 
throwing  out  hairs  among  the  mohair 
which  greatly  decreases  its  value.  With 
a  first-class  buck,  the  flock  should  be  in- 
creased at  least  100  per  cent  the  first 
year,  since  many  of  the  common  goats 
will  have  twins.  The  kids  reach  matur- 
ity when  about  16  to  18  months  old, 
though  both  the  bucks  and  does  will 
breed  when  about  six  months  of  age. 
The  doe  kids  from  the  first  cross  should 
be  crossed  with  another  pure  bred  An- 
gora buck.  This  will  give  three-fourths- 
bred  animals.  With  about  the  fourth 
cross  a  high  grade  of  mohair  can  be  ex- 
pected. 

By  examining  this  method  of  produc- 
ing a  flock  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is 
rather  a  slower  process  and  more  expen- 
sive than  is  apparent  at  first.  For  in- 
stance, if  100  common  does  are  bought, 
and  they  drop  100  kids,  the  chances  are 
that  only  about  50  of  these  will  be  fe- 
males. If  the  second  year  these  50  half 
breeds  are  crossed,,  they  may  also  drop 
50  kids,  only  25  of  which  will  be  fe- 
males. The  third  cross  will  likewise 
give  12  or  13  females,  and  the  fourth 
cross  only  six  or  seven  females.  Of 
course,  the  flock  by  this  time  will  be 
made  up  of  three  or  four  different  grades 


MBIXATIOX   si 
AXD  TABLE 


[EARIXG    TROUGH 


of  does  and  each  year  thereafter  will  see 
an  additional  number  of  high-grade  An- 
goras added  to  the  flock. 

Goats  are  in  prime  condition  when 
from  two  to  six  years  old,  but  may  be 
bred  up  to  10  or  12  years  old.  The 
verage  life  is  a  little  longer  than  that 
of  the  sheep.  In-and-in  breeding  or  the 
crossing  together  of  the  related  animals 
is  not  generally  considered  advisable,  as 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


it  tends  to  weaken  the  constitution  of 
the  stock.  It  is  practiced,  however,  by- 
some  Angora  goat  breeders  with  success. 
It  is  a  matter  which  requires  great  skill 
and  judgment,  and  in  the  hands  of  the 
ordinary  breeder  is  likely  to  be  a  failure. 


ig.  390 — PLAN  OF  GOAT  HOUSE  FOR  Mil  CH 
GOATS 

The  bucks  should  not  be  put  with  the 
does  until  October  or  November.  The 
period  of  gestation  with  the  ewes  is  the 
same  as  that  for  sheep,  being  practically 
21  weeks.  The  does  will  breed  twice  a 
year  if  given  an  opportunity,  but  usu- 
ally this  is  not  desirable.  One  buck  is 
allowed  to  50  does,  and  if  placed  with 
only  part  of  the  flock  at  a  time,  may  be 
satisfactorily  used  for  100  does. 

The  pure  bred  Angora  goats  seldom 
ever  drop  more  than  one  kid.  The  pro- 
duction of  twins  is  looked  upon  as  an 
indication  of  common  blood.  Goats  are 
sheared  once  or  twice  a  year,  depending 
upon  the  climate  and  locality.  In  Texas, 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and  sometimes 
in  California,  shearing  takes  place  in 
March  or  April  and  again  in  September 
or  October,  the  reason  being  that  owing 
to  the  warm  climate  the  fleece  will  often 
be  shed  in  the  fall  if  not  clipped.     In 


other  parts  of  the  country  they  are  usu- 
ally sheared  in  the  months  of  April  or 
May.  The  summer  fleeces  in  the  South- 
west are  rather  short  and  much  less  de- 
sirable for  manufacturing  purposes.  The 
price  of  these  fleeces  is  not  as  high  as 
for  the  yearling  fleeces  and  the  com- 
bined weight  of  the  two  fleeces  is  but  a 
little  more  than  the  weight  from  annual 
shearing. 

Shearing  goats_Goats  are  sheared 
with  sheep  shears  or  with  machinery  in 
the  same  manner  as  sheep  and  the  argu- 
ments there  presented  as  to  the  merits 
of  these  two  methods  apply  also  to 
goats.  They  are  seldom  washed  before 
shearing.  After  shearing  the  fleece 
should  be  packed  and  sacked  without 
being  tied.  The  practice  of  some  shear- 
ers in  tying  with  coarse  twine  is  objec- 
tionable, as  the  fiber  gets  mixed  with 
the  mohair,  making  considerable  extra 
work  to  remove  it,  thus  reducing  the 
price.  If  the  fleeces  are  tied,  only  a 
small,  hard,  smooth  twine  should  be 
used. 

The  amount  of  mohair  annually  im- 
ported is  about  1,200,000  pounds,  while 
the  amount  produced  in  the  country  is 
a    little    over    1,000,000    pounds.      The 


Fig.    391 — MILCH   GOAT   STALLS 

tariff  of  1897  puts  a  duty  of  12  cents  a 
pound  upon  mohair,  and  a  duty  on 
dressed  and  finished  goat  skins  of  20 
per  cent. 

There  are  two  registration  associa- 
tions in  the  United  States  for  Angora 
goats,  the  American  Angora  Goat  Asso- 
ciation,   with    headquarters    at    Kansas 


SHEEP 


627 


City,  Mo.,  and  the  National  Angora 
Eecord  Association,  with  headquarters 
at  Salem,  Oregon. 

Relative  profits  with  Angoras  and 
sheep — Under  the  agricultural  condi- 
tions in  eastern  and  northern  United 
States,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  An- 
gora goats  can  compare  favorably  as  an 
investment  with  sheep.  A  good  two  or 
three-year-old  ewe  will  cost  $3.50  to 
$4.50.  She  will  produce  one,  two  or 
tbree  lambs  yearly,  besides  a  fleece  worth 
$1   to  $1.50.     The  lambs   if  allowed  to 


Fig.    392 — SCHWARZWALD   MILCH   GOAT 

run  with  the  ewe  and  not  given  grain, 
will  sell  for  $1.50  to  $2  apiece  in  the 
fall,  and  if  fed  grain  and  fattened  will 
sell  for  $3  to  $5  apiece.  A  goat  on  the 
other  hand  will  cost  $8  to  $12  apiece, 
will  drop  but  one  kid  and  the  fleece  is 
worth  no  more  than  that  of  the  sheep. 
The  cost  of  production  is  about  the 
same  in  both  cases.  The  investment 
and  the  risk  in  the  goats  is  a  little  larger 
than  in  sheep. 

It  is  only  in  exceptional  circumstan- 
ces that  Angoras  will  equal  sheep  in 
profitableness;  certainly,  not  under  gen- 
eral farm  conditions. 

Care  of  Angoras_As  before  noted, 
Angoras  are  great  travelers  and  will  run 
all  over  the  farm  inside  of  half  a 
day  unless  fenced  in.  A  wire  fence  4 
feet  high,  with  the  wires  spaced  close 
enough  so  that  they  cannot  get  their 
heads  between  them,  will  confine  them 
satisfactorily.  If  the  fence  is  made  of 
rail  and  slants  the  least  bit  outward, 
they  will  readily  climb  it.  They  should 
not  be  closely  herded  and  do  best  when 
given  absolute  freedom,  except  as  con- 
fined by  fences. 

They  require  shelter  from  rain  and 
storm.  This  is  much  more  necessary 
for  Angoras  than  for  sheep.     Dry  cold 


does  not  injure  them  in  the  least,  but 
when  their  heavy  fleece  becomes  soaked 
with  cold  water  or  heavy  with  sleet, 
many  deaths  are  sure  to  follow.  If 
given  access  to  shelter,  goats  will  seek 
it  to  avoid  the  coming  rains.  It  is 
claimed  that  they  are  good  barometers 
and  can  foretell  stormy  weather.  Dur- 
ing the  night  time  goats  should  be  kept 
in  confinement,  whether  pastured  or  on 
the  range.  They  require  a  dry  place  in 
which  to  sleep  and  eat,  and  this  is  also 
necessary  on  account  of  the  fleece  which 
would  otherwise  become  filthy  with  dirt. 
Considerably  more  shed  room  should  be 
allowed  than  for  sheep. 

Where  the  winters  are  open,  goats 
will  browse  all  winter.  In  winter  feed- 
ing they  require  much  the  same  man- 
agement and  care  as  sheep,  and  may  be 
given  straw  and  fodder  of  any  kind. 
Oats  constitute  one  of  the  best  grains 
and  may  be  fed  whole.  In  fattening 
goats  for  market,  they  may  be  fed  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  recom- 
mended for  sheep  and  lambs.  With  clo- 
ver or  alfalfa  roughage,  little  or  no 
grain  need  be  fed.  No  other  animal  is 
so  particular  in  regard  to  cleanliness  in 
feeding.  Salt  is  required  in  even  greater 
abundance  than  for  sheep  and  is  best 
given  as  rock  salt  in  the  form  of  lumps 
under  shelter. 

Kidding_The  first  two  or  three  days 
after  the  kid  is  dropped  it  is  exceedingly 
weak  and  delicate  and  will  die  from  very 


Fig.    393 GERMAN   FORM    MILCH   GOAT 


little  exposure  and  neglect.  They  are 
much  more  delicate  than  lambs.  Later 
on  when  they  are  able  to  follow  the  does, 
they  are  stronger  than  lambs.  If  the 
kids  come  in  cold  weather,  especially 
warm  stables  must  be  provided,  as  well 


628 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


as  succulent  feed,  for  the  does  to  main- 
tain a  good  milk  supply.  The  does 
should  be  kept  together  at  kidding  time 
in  limited  numbers,  perhaps  not  more 
than  20  in  a  pen. 

If  the  kids  are  dropped  on  the  range 
or  at  pasture,  they  must  be  carried  home 
and  special  care  given  to  see  that  the 
does  own  them.  After  dropping  the 
kid  the  doe  hides  it  and  will  go  off  and 
feed  half  a  day  or  more  before  returning 
to  it.  The  kid  is  so  weak  that  it  is 
unable   to   follow   the   doe  until   two   or 


Fig.    394 AFRICAN    DWARF    MILCH    GOAT 

three  days  old,  and  then  makes  but  little 
headway.  For  this  reason,  in  handling 
Angora  goats,  the  kids  are  kept  at  the 
stables  for  eight  to  ten  days  after  they 
are  dropped.  Sometimes  each  kid  is  tied 
to  a  stake  in  the  shed  with  a  string 
about  14  inches  long.  The  string  is 
shifted  from  one  leg  to  the  other  to 
avoid  lameness  and  should  be  provided 
with  a  swivel  to  prevent  twisting.  By 
another  method,  a  board  from  12  to  20 
inches  high  is  placed  across  the  bottom  of 
the  door.  When  the  does  go  out  to  feed 
they  easily  jump  over  this,  but  the  kids 
being  weak  are  retained  in  the  shed 
until  the  does  come  back.  A  bridge  is 
sometimes  used  instead  of  the  board. 
By  this  method  the  does  jump  up  onto 
the  bridge  and  are  less  likely  to  injure 
their  udders  than  by  jumning  over  the 
board.  The  kids  ordinarily  are  not  al- 
lowed to  run  with  their  mothers,  partic- 
ularly under  range  conditions,  until  six 
to  eight  weeks  old.  The  kids  are  weaned 
when  about  4!/2  months  old.  The  bucks 
should  always  be  weaned  as  early  as  five 
months,  as  they  begin  breeding  soon 
after  this  age.  Those  not  wanted  for 
breeding  purposes,  should  be  castrated 
when   about   four  weeks   old. 

Milch   goats_The  milch  goat  indus- 


try is  entirely  in  its  infancy  in  this 
country.  So  far  as  the  writers  know, 
there  are  only  a  few  herds  kept  es- 
pecially for  milk,  and  these  are  near  the 
larger  cities.  In  Europe,  particlarly 
in  Switzerland,  Germany  and  France,  as 
well  as  some  of  the  countries  of  southern 
Europe,  goats  are  extensively  reared  for 
their  milk  and  a  large  number  of  milk 
breeds  have  been  developed.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  milk  of  goats  is  peculiarly  val- 
uable for  invalids.  It  is  richer  in  sugar 
and  fat  than  cow's  milk,  and  it  more 
nearly  approaches'  mother's  milk  in  com- 
position than  that  of  any  other  animal. 
On  this  account  it  is  especially  valuable 
for  nursing  infants  and  also  for  invalids. 

At  Palisades  Park,  N.  J.,  an  Italian 
colony  keep  about  500  goats,  from  which 
a  good  revenue  is  derived  from  the  sale- 
of  milk,  butter  and  kids. 

A  good  milch  doe  should  yield  two 
quarts  of  milk  a  day.  The  period  of 
lactation  varies  from  six  to  seven  months 
in  the  year.  With  some  breeds  a  yield 
of  4  to  5  quarts  of  milk  a  day  is  com- 
mon and  3  quarts  may  be  regarded  as 
the  average  of  the  better  breeds.  The 
cost  of  keeping  milch  goats  is  very  small 
as  compared  with  that  of  a  cow,  since 
they  relish  a  very  much  wider  range  of 
forage  and  will  eat  a  large  proportion  of 
the  waste  of  the  kitchen.  For  this  rea- 
son  it  is  believed  they  have  an  impor- 


Fig.     395 — NUBIAN     GOAT 

tant  place  as  a  milch  animal  for  the 
poor  man  who  cannot  afford  to  keep  a 
cow,  and  especially  for  poor  people  who 
live  in  the  suburbs  of  large  cities,  or 
who  work   in   mining  districts. 

For  invalids  also  they  have  an  impor- 
tant place.  On  this  account  it  would 
seem  that  their  numbers  might  be  in- 
creased at  sanitariums,  where  a  hicrh 
ouality  of  nutritious  milk  is  especially 
desired.     In  this  connection  goats  have 


SHEEP 


629 


a  peculiar  value  in  that  they  can  be 
easily  transported  on  the  cars  and  can 
be  taken  from  place  to  place  at  a  small 
cost.  It  is  well  known  that  the  milk  of 
cows  varies  greatly  in  composition,  and 
while  that  of  one  animal  may  agree  with 
an  invalid,  the  milk  supplied  by  another 
animal  would  disagree,  this  of  course 
would  be  overcome  if  the  invalid  should 
take  his  milk  animal  along  with  him. 

Goat  milk  has  a  distinct  flavor  and 
character  of  its  own.  The  fat  globules 
are  exceedingly  small,  rising  to  the  sur- 
face very  slowly.  The  color  of  the  milk 
is  nearly  always  pure  white.  It  contains 
on  the  average  about  85.6  per  cent  water, 


Fig.     396— TOGGENBURG     MILCH     GOAT 

4.6  fat,  4.3  sugar,  1.3  albumen,  3.5 
casein.  The  flavor  of  the  milk  is  affected 
by  the  character  of  the  feed  and  the 
surroundings.  The  goat  is  a  scavenger, 
and  if  allowed  to  eat  all  that  it  can  pick 
up  on  the  street  and  in  the  garbage  pail, 
the  milk  is  liable  to  have  a  decided 
flavor.  In  addition,  the  milch  goat  has  a 
peculiar  odor  and  requires  unusual  care 
to  keep  it  clean. 

The  chief  factor  influencing  the  flavor 
of  the  milk  is  the  dirt  which  falls  from 
the  body  of  the  animal  into  the  milk 
at  milking  time.  The  buck  has  an  espe- 
cially strong  odor  and  if  the  doe  is 
milked  near  the  buck  this  odor  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  milk.  The  goats  should 
never  be  milked  in  the  stable,  but  out- 
side in  the  open  air. 

Does  in  full  flow  of  milk  should  be 
milked  three  times  a  day,  later,  twice  a 
day  will  be  sufficient.  Goats'  milk  is 
extensively  used  in  the  preparation  of 
various   cheeses,   particularly  Roquefort, 


Ricotto,  Schweitzer  and  various  other 
cheeses. 

One  of  the  special  features  claimed 
for  goats  is  that  they  are  immune  to 
tuberculosis.  Careful  investigations 
have  shown  that  where  goats  are  allowed 
to  roam  at  will  out  of  doors,  less  than 
1  per  cent  have  tuberculosis.  When 
kept  in  stables,  however,  under  the  same 
conditions  as  dairy  cows,  they  develop 
tuberculosis  to  an  equal  extent.  The 
claim,  therefore,  that  they  are  less  tuber- 
culous than  dairy  cattle  depends  entire- 
ly upon  the  conditions  under  which  they 
are  kept.  Ordinarily  they  are  allowed 
more  freedom  than  dairy  cattle  and 
there  is  much  less  likelihood  of  produc- 
ing tuberculous  milk. 

Breeding  milch  goats_The  milch 
breeds  should  be  bred  twice  a  year,  since 
their  period  of  lactation  is  only  from 
six  to  seven  months.  In  order  to  have 
a  continuous  supply  of  milk  a  flock  of 
two  or  three  goats  will  be  necessary. 
The  bucks  should  never  be  allowed  to 
run  with  the  does  except  at  breeding 
time. 

Teed  for  milch  goats  should  be  the 
same  as  that  for  dairy  cattle.  Goats 
relish  grains,  oats,  dry  fodders  and  roots. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  raise  the  kids 
and  at  the  same  time  use  the  goat's 
milk  for  family  purposes,  the  kid  may 
be  brought  up  on  a  bottle  with  cow's 
milk,  in  the  same  manner  as  lambs. 

As  with  Angoras,  the  average  life  of 
the  milch  goat  is  about  12  years,  and 
they  are  at  their  best  from  five  to  seven 
years  old.  They  may  be  used  as  brush 
wood  destroyers,  like  Angoras,  and  are 
equally  valuable.  The  number  of  breeds 
of  milch  goats  is  quite  large.  Thompson 
in  The  Milch  Goat,  describes  over  30. 

Toggenburg  breed— Probably  the  most 
valued  European  breed  is  the  Toggen- 
burg, from  Switzerland.  It  is  a  brown 
colored  animal  with  a  white  bar  down 
each  side  of  the  face.  There  are  both 
long  haired  and  short  haired  strains. 
They  are  lanky  and  lean  in  appearance 
and  comparatively  free  from  odor.  The 
teats  are  usually  very  large  and  long. 
The  breed  is  generally  hornless.  These 
goats  give  from  4  to  5  quarts  of  milk  a 
day,  while  the  best  does  yield  from  4  to 
6  quarts. 

The  Saanen  goat  is  another  valued 
Swiss  breed.  This  is  one  of  the  largest 
milch  breeds  of  goats  produced  in  Swit- 
zerland. Its  color  is  pure  white,  the  hair 


630 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


short,  except  a  strip  dong  the  spinal 
column,  and  down  the  flank.  It  is  prac- 
tically a  hornless  breed.  All  the  better 
does  are  considered  excellent  milkers. 
Other  important  Swiss  breeds  are  the 
Appenzell  and  Schwarzthal  goat. 

The  Maltese  goat  is  the  important 
milk  breed  produced  on  the  island  of 
Malta  in  the  Mediterranean  sea.  Among 
the  important  German  milk  breeds  are 


the  Schwarzwald  goats,  which  is  a  fawn 
colored  breed  with  a  black  stripe  down 
the  middle  of  the  back;  the  Langensal- 
zaer  goat,  a  hornless  breed  of  various 
colors,  Harz  Mountain  goats,  etc.  For 
•an  extended  account  of  Milch  goats 
see  United  States  Department  Agricul- 
ture, Bureau  Animal  Industry  Bui.  No. 
68,  by  George  F.  Thompson.  The 
American  Milch  Goat  Record  Associa- 
tion was  organized  in  1903. 


PART  XI 


Poultry 


EXPLANATION  OF  COLORED  PLATE  ON 
THE  FOWL 


The  Exterior 

Upper    bill 

Lower     bill 

Cleft    of    bill 

Nostrils 

Comb 

Forehead 

Crown    of    head 

Occiput 

Eye 

Ear   lobes 

12  Wattles 
Throat 

Nape  of  neck 
Upper  neck 
Lower  neck 
Neck  covers 
Fore  breast 
Lower  breast 
Belly 

Rump    and    anus 
Upper   back 
Lower    back 
Saddle 

Angle    of    wing 
Wing    coverts 
Shoulder    coverts 
Primaries    of    wing 
Small     wing    coverts 
Saddle  feathers 
■32  Tail     feathers 
Knee 

Lower    part    of    thigh 
Hock 
Tarsus 
Spur 
•41  Toes 


Skeleton 

1  Intermaxillary 

2  Lower    mandible 

3  External    nares 

4  Nasal 

5  Frontal 

6  Cranium 

7  Eye   socket 

8  Interorbital    foramen 

9  Quadrate 

10  Cervical     vertebrae 

11  Dorsal 

12  Lumbar 

13  Sacral 

14  Caudal 

15  Clavicle 

16  Sternum 

17  Body   of   same 

18  Spine  of  same 

19  Anterior    process    of 
same 

20  Costal   process   of 
same 

21  Styloid   process   of 
same 

22  External    process    of 


23  Coracoid 

24  Scapula 

25  Humerus 

26  Radius 

27  Ulna 

28  Carpals 

29  Metacarpals 

30  Thumb 

31  Middle   finger 

32  Third   finger 

33  Ribs 

34  Uncinate  processes  of 

35  Sternal    ribs 

36  Ilium 

37  Ischium 

38  Pubis 

39  Acetabulum 

40  Femur 

41  Patella 

42  Tibia 

43  Fibula 

44  Calcaneum 

45  Tarsals 

46  Metatarsal 

47  Spur    core 
48-51  Toes 


Exterior  without 
Feathers 

1  Upper    bill 

2  Lower     bill 

3  Cleft    of    bill 

4  External   nares 

5  Comb 

6  Forehead 

7  Crown    of    head 

8  Occiput 

9  Eyelids 

10  Ear    lobes 
11.  12  Wattles 

13  Throat 

14  Nape    of    neck 

15  Upper    neck 

16  Lower    neck^ 

17  Fore    breast 

18  Lower   breast 

19  Belly 

20  Upper   back 

21  Lower  back 

22  Rump 

23  Shoulder  joint 

24  Arm 

25  Elbow 

26  Forearm 

27  Carpus 

28  Middle     finger 

29  Thumb 

30  Knee 

31  Lower     thigh 

32  Hock 

33  Tarsus 

34  Spur 
35-38  Toes 

39  Skin    with    feather 


Muscles 

1  Masseter 

2  Temporal 

3  Trachea 

4  Esophagus 

5  Crop 

6  Neck  muscles 

7  Keel  of  sternum 

8  Pectorals 

9  Latissimus    dorsl 

10  Intercostals 

11  Abdominal  muscles 

12  Tail    muscles 

13  Fat    tissue 

14  Wing  muscles 

15  Lower  wing  muscles 

16  Thumb 

17  Middle    finger 

18  Third   finger 

19  Thigh  muscles 

20  Leg 


Internal  Organs 

1  Upper    bill 

2  Lower    bill 

3  Cleft    of    bill 

4  External  nares 

5  Comb 

6  Cerebrum 

7  Cerebellum 

8  Medulla   oblongata 

9  Spinal    cord 

10  Cross    section    spinal 
cord 

11  Cross    section   muscu- 
lature 

12  Pharyngeal    cavity 

13  Larynx 

14  Trachea 

15  Bronchi 

16  Lung 

17  Heart 

18  Aorta 

19  Pulmonary   artery 

20  Posterior    vena    cava 

21  Sternum 

22  Esophagus 

23  Crop 

24  Thoracic    part   of 
esophagus 

25  Entrance    into 
stomach 

26  Fore  stomach 

27  Gizzard 

28  Pancreas 

29  Jejunum 

30  Cloaca    with    anus 

31  Kidney 

32  Vas    deferens 

33  Testicle 

34  Suprarenal    bodies 
35-36  Oil    gland 

37  Fat  tissue 


Foldout 

Here 
♦  ♦ 

♦ 


FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


POULTRY 


The  poultry  industry  ;n  the  United 
States  is  a  very  important  one.  On 
farms,  the  care  of  poultry  is  largely  left 
to  the  women,  the  farmer  not  consider- 
ing it  worth  his  while  to  look  after  so 
small  a  matter.  The  census  of  1900 
furnishes  some  startling  figures  on  the 
importance  of  this  industry  in  the 
United  States.  In  that  year  the  number 
of  fowls  of  all  kinds  was  placed  at  250,- 
681,673,  having  an  estimated  value  of 
$85,784,996.  In  one  year  this  number 
of  fowls  produced  poultry  worth  $136,- 
891,877,  and  eggs  worth  $144,286,370, 
a  total  value  of  $281,178,247,  or  an 
annual  gross  income  on  the  investment 
of  380  per  cent. 

The  egg  product  alone  for  that  year 
was  greater  than  the  combined  gold  and 
silver  product  of  the  United  States  for 
any  year  since  1850,  while  the  value  of 
poultry  and  eggs  together  was  worth 
more  than  either  the  gold  or  silver  pro- 
duction of  the  world  for  any  year  since 
the  beginning  of  records  with  but  two 
exceptions,  1898  and  1899.  As  compared 
with  other  animals,  the  poultry  and  eggs 
of  that  year  outvalued  the  total  exports 
of  animals  and  animal  products  during 
all  the  years  down  to  and  including 
1900.  These  figures  are  startling  in  their 
magnitude  and  bring  out  strongly  the 
importance  of  the  poultry  industry. 

CHICKENS 

Profits  in  the  business — The  profits 
to  be  made  in  the  poultry  business  seem 
most  alluring  to  the  man  who  figures 
it  out  on  paper.  Theoretically,  a  hen 
will  lay  on  the  average  150  eggs  a  year, 
which,  at  two  cents  apiece  would  bring 
in  $3.  The  cost  of  maintaining  the  hen 
is  $1,  leaving  a  net  profit  of  $2.  To 
secure  an  income  of  $1,000,  therefore,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  have  about  500  hens. 
The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  many 
have  made  this  sum  and  more  than  this 
with  500  hens,  while  more  than  90  per 


cent  of  those  who  have  attempted  it 
have  failed.  The  poultry  business  is  a 
trade  and  an  art  and  the  man  who  suc- 
ceeds in  it  must  serve  his  apprenticeship 
and  perhaps  make  many  failures  before 
he  finally  makes  the  profits  exceed  the 
losses. 

Cost  of  producing  eggs — Some  inter- 
esting figures  on  the  cost  of  producing 
eggs  are  supplied  by  the  New  York  Cor- 
nell experiment  station  which  made  a 
ttst  in  co-operation  with  practical  com- 
mercial poultry  growers  in  that  state  to 
determine  the  average  cost  of  producing 
eggs  in  the  winter  and  the  amount  of 
food  consumed.  In  the  experiment  no 
restrictions  were  placed  upon  the  owners 
as  to  how  the  fowls  were  to  be  fed,  cared 
for  or  managed.  They  were  simply  asked 
to  produce  by  the  usual  method  of 
feeding,  the  greatest  possible  number  of 
eggs  at  the  lowest  possible  cost. 

In  all,  records  were  kept  of  5,200 
fowls  for  the  four  months,  December  to 
March  inclusive.  The  average  cost  of  a 
dozen  eggs  with  these  hens  was  18  cents, 
ranging  from  a  minimum  of  about  6 
cents  a  dozen  to  a  maximum  of  $6  a 
dozen.  The  average  price  of  eggs  dur- 
ing the  experiment  was  25  cents  a  dozen. 
The  cost  of  food  consumed  during  the 
four  months  was  at  the  rate  of 
$35.33  for  100  hens.  And  the  net  profit 
$16.30  or  about  $4  a  month  on  100  hens. 
Each  100  hens  on  the  average  laid  daily 
22.8  eggs;  or  about  one  egg  for  each  five 
hens. 

In  these  experiments  one  flock  of 
500  White  Leghorn  hens  laid  4,504  eggs 
which  sold  at  $389.38.  The  cost  of  pro- 
duction was  $159,  thus  leaving  a  net 
profit  of  $230.38  for  four  months  work. 
Another  man  with  a  flock  of  387  fowls 
secured  3,716  eggs  during  the  test,  which 
sold  for  about  $55.52.  The  cost  of  pro- 
duction was  $65.50.  Thus  there  was  an 
actual  loss  of  $9.98  for  four  months' 
work.     Both  flocks  laid  well  but  the  first 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Other  French  meat  breeds  are  the  La 
Fleche  and  Creve-coeur,  both  black 
breeds  with  Y-shaped  combs.  The  La 
Fleche  breed  is  rather  tall,  gaunt  look- 
ing, delicate  constitutioned,  furnishing 
flesh  of  excellent  quality,  second  only  to 
the  Game  in  delicacy.     They  are  moder- 


Fig. 


400 SILVER       SPANGLED       HAMBURG 

COCKEREL 


ate  layers  of  large  white  eggs.  The 
Creve-coeurs  are  more  compact  in  form 
and  are  crested,  but  are  likewise  weak 
constitutioned.  Cocks  weigh  about  8 
pounds,  hens  7  pounds.  The  La  Fleches 
are  about  ^2  pound  heavier. 

General  purpose  breeds — As  the  name 
indicates  these  breeds  occupy  a  middle 
ground  between  the  small  '  egg  laying 
breeds  and  the  large  meat  breeds.  They 
are  intermediate  in  size  and  while  not 
as  good  layers,  perhaps,  as  the  strictly 
egg  breeds,  are  much  better  layers  than 
the  meat  breeds. 

Plymouth  Rock — This  is  one  of  the 
best  and  most  popular  of  the  general 
purpose  breeds.  There  are  several 
strains.  The  Barred  Rock  which  is  per- 
haps the  most  popular,  with  both  single 
and  double  comb  strains,  White  Ply- 
mouth Rock,  Buff  Plymouth  Rock,  Par- 
tridge, and  Silver  Pencil.  In  the  Barred 
Rock  the  color  is  gray-white,  regu- 
larly crossed  with  parallel  bars  of  blue 
black.  This  breed  is  especially  valuable 
for  farmers  and  market  poultrymen. 
They  are  of  medium  size,  well  propor- 
tioned, with  a  deep,  full  breast,  hardy 
and  mature  early.  They  are  good  winter 
layers,  and  one  of  the  best  breeds  for  set- 
ting. The  eggs  are  brown  colored,  run' 
ning  about  eight  to  the  pound.  The 
standard    weight    of    the    cock    is    9^2 


pounds,    cockerels    8    pounds,    hens    7V2 
pounds,  pullets  6^  pounds. 

The  Wyandotte  stands  next  in  im- 
portance to  the  Plymouth  Rock  in  pop- 
ularity. They  are  a  much  later  developed 
breed  than  the  Plymouth  Rock  and 
are  somewhat  more  blocky  in  shape. 
They  are  especially  sought  after  for  the 
production  of  broilers.  For  utility  pur- 
poses they  may  be  regarded  as  the  equal 
of  the  Plymouth  Rock.  The  farmer  who 
selects  either  of  these  breeds  will  make 
no  mistake.  There  are  Black,  Buff, 
Golden,  Partridge,  Silver  and  White 
varieties,  the  White  Wyandotte  being 
most  popular.  The  chicks  are  exceed- 
ingly hardy  and  mature  early.  The  hens 
are  excellent  sitters  and  good  mothers 
and  as  good  layers  as  the  Plymouth 
Rocks.  The  eggs,  however,  are  not  quite 
so  attractive  in  color  or  so  uniform  in 
shape  as  those  of  the  Plymouth  Rock, 
being  a  somewhat  lighter  shade  of 
brown.  The  standard  weight  of  cocks 
is  8V2  pounds ;  cockerels,  7V2 ;  hens,  6V2 ; 
and  pullets,  hx/i. 


Fig.     401 — LIGHT     BRAHMA     HEN 

The  Rhode  Island  Red  closely  re- 
sembles the  White  Wyandotte  in  gen- 
eral form.  While  bred  more  particu- 
larly for  roasters  and  broilers  they  are 
equally  as  good  layers  as  the  Wyandotte. 
The  color  is  a  reddish  buff,  and  there 
are  both  single  and  rose  comb  varieties. 
They  are  hardy  and  good  layers  and 
rapidly   growing   m  popularity  in   New 


POULTRY 


England.  The  Khode  Island  Whites 
closely  resemble  the  Wyandotte,  both 
the  Eeds  and  Whites  are  a  little  smaller 
than  the  Plymouth   Rock. 

Dominique — While  this  is  one  of  the 
oldest  American  breeds  it  is  similar  in 


Fig.  402 — BUFF  COCHIN 

appearance  though  slightly  smaller  than 
the  Plymouth  Rock  and  on  this  account 
has  been  largely  supplanted  by  the  Ply- 
mouth Rock  in  recent  years. 

The  Java  is  also  one  of  the  oldest  of 
the  American  class  but  has  been  sup- 
planted in  recent  times  by  the  more 
modern  varieties.  They  are  an  excellent 
general  purpose  fowl,  in  size  about  equal 
to  the  Plymouth  Rock  and  are  likewise 
good  layers,  sitters  and  mothers.  There 
are  three  types  of  this  breed,  the  Black, 
Mottled  and  White.  The  standard 
weight  of  the  cocks  is  91/2  pounds, 
cockerels  8  pounds,  hens  T1/^  and  pul- 
lets 6%. 

Dorking — There  are  three  varieties 
of  this  English  breed,  the  White,  Sil- 
ver Gray  and  Colored.  All  are  charac- 
terized by  having  five  toes  and  producing 
flesh  of  excellent  table  qualities.  They 
are  all  good  layers  and  sitters  and  ex- 
cellent farm  fowls.  The  standard  weight 
of  the  cocks  is  as  follows :  Colored,  9 
pounds;  Silver  Gray,  8  pounds;  White, 
7:/2  pounds.  The  hens  weigh  from  6  to 
7  pounds. 

Orpington — A  very  promising,  re- 
cently introduced  English  breed.  There 
are  Buff,    White,    Black  and    Spangled 


varieties  with  single  and  rose  combs. 
The  Buff  is  most  popular.  In  size  they 
are  about  equal  to  the  Plymouth  Rock. 
They  are  excellent  layers,  hardy  and  an 
excellent  farm  fowl.  The  skin  is  white. 
Shanks  are  pink. 

Indian  Game — This  is  a  popular  breed 
of  aristocratic  looking  birds  weighing 
about  the  same  as  the  Plymouth  Rocks. 
The  meat  is  of  unexcelled  flavor;  but 
they  are  only  medium  layers.  There 
are  both  Black,  (Cornish)  and  White 
varieties.  The  breast  of  the .  breed  is 
very  white,  round  and  prominent  with 
well  rounded,  tapering  thighs. 

Breeds  to  select  on  the  farm — For 
general  farm  conditions,  where  both 
eggs  and  meat  are  desired,  we  know  of 
no  breed  superior  to  the  Barred  Ply- 
mouth Rock,  though  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  other  varieties,  perhaps  just  as 
good.     Where  a  specialty  is  to  be  made 


Fig.    403 — BLACK    LANGSHAN 

of  eggs,  some  of  the  egg  breeds  should 
be  chosen  and  our  preference  is  for  the 
White  Leghorns.  We  assume  that  the 
farmer  is  not  interested  in  the  produc- 
tion of  fancy  breeds  such  as  the  Polish, 
the  Game,  Silkies  which  have  hair -like 
feathers,  Frizzles,  with  feathers  that 
curl  backward  at  the  end.  Yokohamas, 


640 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


noted  for  tneir  great  length  of  tail  and 
hackle  feathers,  Bantams,  etc.  Neither 
will  the  farmer  ordinarily  desire  to  con- 
fine himself  to  the  heavy  meat  breeds, 
since  they  mature  too  slowly  and  pro- 


Fig.     404 — SALMON     FAVEROLLE     HEN 

duce  too  few  eggs  to  make  them  profit- 
able, under  general  farm  conditions,  in 
comparison  with  the  general  purpose 
breeds. 


Tests  of  Breeds — A  good  many  ex- 
periments have  been  reported  in  which 
the  value  of  the  different  breeds  for  egg 
production  have  been  tested.  At  the 
Michigan  station,  three  pens,  contain- 
ing 25  fowls  each,  laid  the  following 
number  of  eggs  during  the  year :  Golden 
Wyandottes,  3,555;  Barred  Plymouth 
Rock,  3,360;  Brown  Leghorns,  3,225.  In 
another  six  months'  test  at  the  same 
station,  tbe  average  number  of  eggs  laid 
by  the  different  breeds  was  as  follows: 
Single  Comb  Brown  Leghorns,  80.6; 
Rose  Comb  Brown  Leghorns,  84.4; 
White  Plymouth  Rock,  75.8;  Golden 
Wyandotte,  102.8;  Silver  Pencil  Ham- 
burg, 86.7;  Partridge  Cochin,  92.5; 
Dark  Brahmas,  59.2;  Cornish  Indian 
Game,  63.2. 

In  a  test  at  the  Canada  experimental 
farms,  White  Leghorns  laid  the  most 
eggs,  then  Plymouth  Rocks,  followed  by 
Black  Minorcas.  At  the  West  Virginia 
station,  White  Leghorns  laid  on  the 
average  20  more  eggs  a  hen  and  were 


53  cents  more  profitable  a  hen  during 
tbe  year  than  mongrel  fowls.  White 
Leghorns,  however,  weigh  only  about 
3  V&  to  4  pounds  each.  The  meat  is  white 
and  of  inferior  quality.  For  these  reas- 
ons the  heavier  general  purpose  breeds 
are  recommended  for  the  farm. 

Color  op  eggs — Some  markets  make 
a  distinction  in  price  between  white  and 
brown  eggs.  The  Boston  market  will 
pay  from  2  to  5  cents  a  dozen  more 
for  brown  eggs  than  for  white  ones; 
in  New  York  City,  white  eggs  are  pre- 
ferred. The  following  breeds  produce 
brown  eggs:  Plymouth  Rock,  Wyan- 
dotte, Rhode  Island  Red,  Orpington, 
Langshan,  Java,  Indian  Game,  Fave- 
rolles,  Brahma,  Cochin,  Dominique, 
English  Game,  etc. 

The  following  breeds  produce  white 
shelled  eggs :  Leghorn,  Spanish,  Minorca, 
Andalusian,  Hamburg,  etc. 

One  breed  on  the  farm — Whatever 
breed  is  selected,  it  should  be  adhered 
to  strictly,  since  if  the  poultry  is  mar- 
keted alive,  a  uniform  lot  makes  a  better 
impression  and  brings  a  better  price 
than  a  mixed  lot  of  fowls.  A  uniform 
lot  of  fowls  on  the  farm  advertises  the 


Fig.    405 — creve-coeur    cock 

place  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  a 
mixed  lot.  If  all  the  fowls  are  white 
or  buff  or  barred,  they  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  passers-by,  and  create  a  demand 
for  eggs  for  breeding  purposes.     These, 


POULTRY 


641 


of  course,  always  bring  a  much  better 
price  than  eggs  sold  for  eating  or  cook- 
ing, ranging  from  75  cents  to  $2  a  set- 
ting. 

We   strongly   recommend  pure   breeds 
for    the   farm.     Pure-bred   cocks    should 


Pig.    406 — BUFF    PLYMOUTH    ROCK    PULLET 

always  be  used  and  only  those  hens  re- 
tained for  breeding  purposes  which  show 
in  a  striking  degree  tbe  markings  of  the 
breed  to  which  they  belong.  Both  the 
Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyandottes  are  as 
hardy,  as  good  foragers,  and  as  good 
layers  as  the  scrub  and  mixed  breeds 
commonly  seen  throughout  the  country. 
They  are  as  easily  raised,  much  more 
uniform  in  size,  more  attractive  and 
more  profitable. 

FEEDING   FOR   EGG   PRODUCTION 

Under  natural  conditions,  fowls  lay 
the  most  of  their  eggs  in  the  spring,  and 
under  domestication  this  tendency  is 
still  strong  in  all  breeds.  The  greatest 
profit  from  eggs  is  secured  when  they 
are  laid  in  late  fall  and  early  winter. 
In  order  to  induce  hens  to  lay  during 
this  period,  we  should  surround  them 
with  conditions  approximating  those  of 
the  spring  months. 

Eggs  are  quite  similar  to  lean  meat 
in  composition,  and  hence,  in  feeding 
for  egg  production,  we  should  feed  a 
comparatively  large  amount  of  nitrog- 
enous material.  This  is  best  secured 
by  feeding  mixed  grains,  succulent 
feeds,  like  green  grass,  cut  and  steamed 
clover  and  alfalfa  hay,  roots,  etc.,  and 


also  some  kind  of  meat.  In  the  spring 
and  summer  months  hens  at  liberty  con- 
sume an  enormous  quantity  of  bugs, 
worms,  flies,  etc.,  and  in  feeding  for  egg 
production  in  the  winter  a  substitute  in 
the  form  of  ground  bone,  meat  meal, 
beef  scraps,  etc,  should  be  provided. 
So  far  as  experiments  go,  they  indicate 
that  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  rations 
fed  to  hens  should  be  about  1 :4. 

Nitrogenous  vs.  carbonaceous  rations 
for  hens — In  a  test  reported  by  the 
West  Virginia  station,  100  hens  re- 
ceiving a  nitrogenous  ration  laid  7,555 
eggs  in  a  year,  while  100  hens  fed. a  car- 
bonaceous ration  laid  but  3,431  eggs. 
The  Utah  station  reports  that  it  secured 
more  eggs  on  a  nitrogenous  ration  hav- 
ing a  nutritive  ratio  of  1:4.9,  than  on  a 
carbonaceous  ration  with  a  nutritive  ra- 
tio of  1:6.7.  At  the  Rhode  Island  sta- 
tion more  eggs  were  produced  when  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  was  1 :2.8, 
than   when    1:5   or    1:8.4,   respectively; 


Fig.     407 — WHITE     WYANDOTTE     COCKEREL 

the  fewest  eggs   were  produced  on  the 
widest   ration,    1 :8.4. 

On  the  other  hand,  at  the  Massachu- 
setts Hatch  station,  hens  fed  a  ration 
rich  in  corn,  1 :6.5,  laid  25  per  cent  more 
eggs  in  winter  and  33  1-3  per  cent  more 


642 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


in  summer  than  hens  fed  a  ration  with 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :4.7.  The  hens  fed 
the  more  carbonaceous  corn  ration 
gained  more  in  weight  than  those  fed  a 
nitrogenous    ration    and    the    eggs    pro- 


Fig.     408 SINGLE     COIIB     RHODE     ISLAND 

RED    HEX 

duced  were  of  superior  quality,  though 
a  trifle  smaller. 

Likewise  in  a  comprehensive  test  at 
the  New  York  Cornell  station,  a  nitrog- 
enous ration  of  oats,  corn-on-cob,  and 
a  mixture  of  linseed  meal,  bran  and 
ground  oats,  was  fed  to  a  lot  of  hens  for 
one  year  in  comparison  with  a  carbona- 
ceous ration  of  corn  meal,  corn-on-cob 
and  oats.  Clean,  comfortable  quarters, 
green  feed,  and  a  small  run  were  given 
to  both  lots  and  meat  scraps  fed  occa- 
sionally. The  hens  fed  the  more  nitrog- 
enous rations  were  always  in  better 
health  and  their  plumage  was  full  and 
glossy,  while  the  other  hens  were  oftener 
sick  and  their  plumage  often  ragged 
and  dull  and  the  vices  of  feather  pulling 
and  egg  eating  more  common  among 
them.  Nevertheless,  the  hens  on  the 
more  carbonaceous  ration  laid  28  per 
cent  more  eggs  in  number  and  24  per 
cent  more  in  weight  than  the  other  lot. 

In  the  case  of  the  smaller  breeds  of 
fowls  in  the  test  the  number  of  eggs 
laid  was  57  per  cent  better  on  the  car- 
bonaceous  than   on  the  nitrogenous   ra- 


tion. The  amount  of  dry  feed  con- 
sumed was  about  the  same  in  both  lots. 
In  the  opinion  of  the  station  the  re- 
sults of  the  test  as  a  whole  indicate: 
"That  for  laying  fowls  of  the  smaller 
breeds  Indian  corn  or  corn  meal  can  be 
fed  in  quite  large  proportion  with  a 
considerable  margin  in  its  favor  over 
certain  more  nitrogenous  foods;  but 
that  while  smaller  fowls  even  when  con- 
fined, suffer  little  serious  disadvantage 
under  the  ration,  larger  breeds  will  not 
endure  for  a  long  period  a  very  large 
proportion  of  corn  meal  in  their  food 
and  unless  at  liberty  will  do  better  on 
a  somewhat  more  nitrogenous  ration. 
For  exhibition  stock  a  highly  nitrog- 
enous ration  is  recommended,  except 
perhaps,  for  a  short  period  when  extra 
weight  is  to  be  desired." 

In  this  exneriment  the  bones  of  the 
corn  meal  lot  were  as  well  developed  as 
those  of  the  lot  fed  linseed  meal. 

At  the  New  York  state  station  a 
small  amount  of  tallow  was  fed  to  lay- 
ing hens  without  apparent  beneficial  or 
harmful  results  as  regards  egg  produc- 
tion. The  tallow  ration  has  an  appar- 
ent tendency  to  delay  molting  and  on 
this  account  it  is  believed  that  summer 
rations  should  be  highly  nitrogenous  to 
encourage  early  molting  and  a  new 
growth  of  feathers. 


Fig.    409 — ROSE    COMB    DOMINIQUE    COCK 

Grain  for  laying  hens — For  growing 
chicks  and  fattening  fowls,  grain  is 
most  economically  fed  ground.  With 
laying  hens  opinions  differ  as  to  the 
necessity    of    grinding    grains.     At    the 


POULTRY 


643 


New  York  state  station  a  test  was  made 
during  two  years  with  White  Leghorns 
and  Cochins  to  compare  whole  grains 
with  ground  grains.  On  the  average  it 
cost  about  7  cents  more  per  hen 
when  whole  dried  grain  was  fed  than 
when  37  to  50  per  cent  of  the  grain  was 
ground  and  fed  moistened.  The  amount 


Fig.    410 — MOTTLED    JAVA 

of  eggs  produced,  however,  was  practi- 
cally the  same  on  both  rations.  The 
Cochins,  however,  regularly  laid  about 
30  per  cent  more  eggs  on  the  whole 
grain  rations  than  on  the  ground  ra- 
tions. With  the  Leghorns  the  results 
were  practically  the  same  the  first  year 
but  about  16  per  cent  better  on  the 
ground  moistened  ration  the  second 
year. 

At  the  West  Virginia  station  consid- 
erably better  results  were  secured  with 
both  old  and  young  hens  as  regards  egg 
production,  when  about  one-third  of  the 
grain  ration  was  fed  ground  moist,  than 
when  all  the  grain  was  fed  whole  and 
scattered  in  the  litter. 

Corn  is  the  standard  grain  for  chick- 
ens. It  uniformly  produces  eggs  of  ex- 
cellent quality  and  yellow  corn  has  the 
additional  advantage  of  producing  a 
rich,  yellow  yolk.  It  is  also  usually  the 
cheapest  grain.  Corn  has  been  fed  in 
comparison  with  various  other  grains, 
at  a  number  of  the  experiment  stations. 
At  the  Massachusetts  Hatch  station  it 
was  found  fully  as  efficient  as  wheat  in 
producing  eggs  when  these  grains  were 
fed    in    combination    with    beef    scraps. 


Usually  it  should  be  fed  cracked  and 
scattered  in  the  litter. 

A  ration  entirely  of  corn  is  wholly 
unsatisfactory  for  either  laying  hens  or 
fattening  fowls.  It  may,  however,  form 
a  large  proportion  of  the  grain  ration. 
At  the  New  York  state  station  laying 
hens  fed  continuously  for  about  two 
months  on  corn  and  corn  meal  picked 
the  feathers  and  flesh  from  each  other 
so  that  two  of  the  hens  were  killed, 
while  on  a  mixed  diet,  the  hens  kept  in 
perfect  plumage. 

At  the  Utah  station  the  number  of 
eggs  produced  was  practically  the  same 
whether  corn  or  sunflower  seed  was  fed. 
But  a  wheat  ration  resulted  in  a  larger 
production  of  eggs  than  a  corn  ration. 
Exceptionally  glossy  plumage  was  pro- 
duced on  the  sunflower  seed. 

Buckwheat  is  generally  highly  prized 
as  a  food  for  laying  hens.  In  a  test  at 
the  Massachusetts  Hatch  station,  decid- 


Fig.    411 — SINGLE    COMB    BUFF    ORPINGTON 

edly  more  eggs  were  produced  on  a 
corn  ration  than  on  a  buckwheat  ration, 
when  both  of  these  grains  were  fed 
with  milk  albumen  as  the  principal 
source  of  animal  food.  Buckwheat 
whole  or  ground  is  highly  recommended 
by  the  Canadian  stations  for  egg  pro- 
duction. 


644 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Cowpeas  make  an  excellent  stimulat- 
ing feed  for  chickens  and  experiments 
have  shown  that  they  give  nearly  as 
good  results  when  fed  whole  as  when 
ground. 

Kafir  corn  has  given  better  results  in 
station  experiments  when  fed  whole  than 
when  ground.  For  growth  or  fat  it  has 
proved  superior  at  the  Oklahoma  sta- 
tion to  either  maize  or  corn  meal. 

Whole  oats  are  not  greatly  relished 
by  hens.  Only  heavy  oats  should  be 
used.  Ground  oats  give  good  results  in 
mashes  and  nothing  is  better  for  young 
chicks  than  rolled  oat  meals.  When 
ground  without  the  hulls  oats  are  an 
excellent  ration  either  for  laying  or  fat- 
tening. 

Barley  is  better  than  oats  for  hens, 
because  it  has  a  smaller  percentage  of 
hulls.  It  gives  very  good  results  either 
whole  or  ground.  Many  place  barley 
next  to  wheat  for  eggs. 

Whole  wheat,  or  wheat  screenings 
make  an  ideal  ration  for  hens.  Bread 
wheat  is  usually  too  expensive  compared 
with  other  grains  to  constitute  the 
larger  part  of  the  ration.  Both  wheat 
shorts  and  bran  are  widely  and  profit- 
ably used  in  mashes  for  hens,  tending  to 
maintain  the  hens  in  a  healthy  condi- 
tion. 

Mash  for  laying  hens — It  is  generally 
conceded  by  poultrymen  that  some  kind 
of  a  soft  food  should  form  a  part  of  the 
daily  ration  of  laying  hens.  It  has  been 
argued  that  the  digestive  organs  of 
hens  contain  the  least  amount  of  food  in 
the  morning  and  that  therefore  this  is 
the  best  time  to  feed  the  soft  feed  as  it 
will  be  digested  and  assimilated  quicker 
than  whole  grain.  On  this  point  rela- 
tively little  difference  in  egg  produc- 
tion was  observed  by  the  Massachusetts 
Hatch  station  either  in  summer  or  win- 
ter, whether  chickens  were  fed  mash  in 
the  morning  or  in  the  evening.  The 
hens  fed  mash  in  the  evening  voided 
more  droppings  during  the  night,  show- 
ing that  the  digestive  action  on  mash 
was  very  rapid.  So  far  as  the  experi- 
ment went  it  was  considered  most  favor- 
able to  feed  the  mash  in  the  morning. 

The  West  Virginia  station  also  re- 
ports about  the  same  results  as  regards 
egg  production  whether  mash  was  fed  in 
the  morning  or  in  the  evening. 

Feeding  mash  at  evening — Gowell  at 
the  Maine  station,  however,  states  that 
after  a  number  of  years'  observation,  he 


gave  up  the  morning  mash  and  fed  it 
late  in  the  afternoon  and  with  far  better 
results.  "The  full  meal  in  the  morning 
had  produced  laziness,  fatness  and  soft 
shelled  eggs  in  our  Plymouth  Rocks,  but 
these  bad  conditions  and  results  were 
not  encountered  when  the  birds  were  re- 
quired to  eat  slowly  and  exercise  by  dig- 
ging the  hard  grains  out  of  the  straw 
bedding." 

The  daily  method  of  feeding  hens  at 
that  station  is  stated  by  Gowell  as  fol- 
lows: "Each  pen  of  22  received  1  pint 
of  wheat  in  the  deep  litter  early  in  the 
morning.  At  9:30  a.  m.  ^2  pint  of  oats 
was  fed  to  them  in  the  same  way.  At  1 
p\  m.  V2  pint  of  cracked  corn  was  given 
in  the  litter  as  before.  At  3  p.  m.  in 
winter,  and  4  p.  m.  in  summer  they 
were  given  all  the  mash  they  would  eat 
up  clean  in  half  an  hour. 

"The  mash  was  made  of  the  following 
mixture  of  meals:  200  pounds  wheat 
bran ;  100  pounds  corn  meal ;  100  pounds 
wheat  middlings;  100  pounds  linseed 
meal;  100  pounds  gluten  meal;  100 
pounds  of  beef  scraps.  The  mash  con- 
tained one-fourth  of  its  bulk  of  clover 
leaves  and  heads  obtained  from  the  feed- 
ing floor  in  the  cattle  barn. 

"The  clover  was  covered  with  hot 
water  and  allowed  to  stand  for  three  or 
four  hours.  The  mash  was  made  quite 
dry  and  rubbed  down  with  the  shovel  in 
mixing,  so  that  the  pieces  of  clover  were 
separated  and  covered  with  the  meal. 
Cracked  bone,  oystershell,  clean  grit  and 
water  were  before  them  all  of  the  time. 
Two  large  mangels  were  fed  to  the  birds 
in  each  pen  daily  in  winter.  They  were 
stuck  on  a  large  nail  which  was  partly 
driven  in  the  wall  a  foot  and  a  half 
above  the  floor.  Very  few  soft  shelled 
eggs  were  laid  and  so  far  as  known  not 
an  egg  has  been  eaten  by  the  hens  dur- 
ing the  last  five  years." 

Feeding  mash  dry — More  recently  the 
station  has  been  feeding  the  mash  made 
as  above  described,  dry.  It  is  fed  in 
troughs  and  kept  constantly  before  the 
birds  at  all  times.  The  dry  mash  is  not 
relished  to  the  same  extent  as  the  wet, 
but  is  eaten  a  mouthful  or  two  at  a  time 
whenever  the  hens  feel  like  it.  When 
thus  fed  the  hens  do  not  gorge  them- 
selves and  do  not  get  overfat  or  lazy  or 
lay  soft  shelled  eggs,  as  is  so  commonly 
the  case  in  Plymouth  Rocks  when  given 
warm  mashes  and  corn  in  the  morning. 


TOULTEY 


645 


Much  less  labor  is  required  in  feeding 
the  mash  this  way  and  so  far  as  ob- 
served there  has  been  less  sickness  than 
ever  before  and  an  even  larger  produc- 
tion of  eggs. 

Animal  food  for  laying  hens — Hens 
should  always  have  some  animal  food 
for  the  best  results  in  egg  production. 
There  is  some  question  as  to  the  best 
form  in  which  it  should  be  fed.  Ex- 
cellent results  are  secured  from  the  feed- 
ing of  fresh  ground  bone  or  meat  scraps. 
The  supply  of  this  material  is  frequent- 
ly inadequate  and  hence  reliance  must 
be  had  on  some  of  the  commercial  prep- 
arations, like  meat  meal,  dried  blood, 
meat  scraps,  milk,  milk  albumen,  etc. 

Fresh  meat — Chickens  relish  the 
fresh  meat  scraps  most.  This  material 
is  more  watery,  less  concentrated  and 
hence  can  be  fed  in  much  larger  quan- 
tity than  meat  meals  and  dried  blood. 

At  the  Utah  stations  hens  fed  fresh 
meat  scraps  averaged  201 V2  eggs  per 
fowl  during  the  year,  while  those  fed 
beef  meal  laid  133  eggs.  The  fresh 
meat  was  fed  three  times  weekly,  while 
the  meat  meal  was  given  in  the  mash 
daily.  There  was  40  per  cent  more  fat 
in  the  fresh  meat  fed  than  in  the  meat 
meal.  At  another  station  tallow  was 
added  to  the  ration  without  influencing 
egg  production  either  favorably  or  un- 
favorably. 

At  the  "West  Virginia  station  veiy 
similar  results  were  obtained  with  meat 
meal  and  ground  fresh  meat  and  bone. 
At  that  same  station,  hens  fed  beef 
scraps  produced  a  few  more  eggs  than 
when  fed  milk  albumen  or  ground  fresh 
meat  and  bone.  The  difference  was  not 
significant  and  the  fertility  of  eggs  was 
equally  high  in  each  case. 

Milk  albumen — At  the  Utah  station, 
when  hens  were  fed  milk  albumen  in 
comparison  with  fresh  meat  scraps,  the 
hens  on  the  milk  albumen  ration  aver- 
aged 101  eggs  a  fowl,  while  those  fed 
fresh  meat  scraps  averaged  143V2  eggs. 
The  Utah  work  taken  as  a  whole  indi- 
cates that  both  meat  meal  and  milk  al- 
bumen, which  is  a  by-product  of  milk 
sugar  factories,  are  inferior  to  fresh 
meat  scraps  or  cut  bone  for  egg  produc- 
tion. 

In  a  three  months'  test  at  the  Canada 
experiment  farms  pullets  fed  1  ounce 
of  green  bone  each  in  addition  to  other 
feeds,  laid  about  60  per  cent  more  eggs 
than  pullets  not  fed  green  bone. 


Out  of  five  experiments  at  the  Massa- 
chusetts Hatch  station  two  were  in  fa- 
vor of  cut  bone  and  three  in  favor  of 
animal  meal  for  egg  production.  The 
latter  proved  the  safer  food  also. 

Dried  blood — In  a  test  reported  from 
New  South  Wales,  dried  blood  used  to 
supplement  a  grain  ration  and  green 
food,  was  cheaper  and  resulted  in  a 
larger  egg  production  than  when  either 
ox  liver  or  cut  green  bone  was  fed.  In 
another  experiment  hens  receiving  dried 
blood  in  the  ration  began  laying  earlier 
in  the  season  and  laid  more  eggs  than 
when  it  was  omitted. 

Meat  meal — At  the  New  York  state 
station  a  ration  containing  about  19  per 
cent  of  meat  meal  was  fed  to  laying 
hens  in  comparison  with  a  ration  con- 
taining the  same  amount  of  protein,  but 
derived  solely  from  vegetable  sources. 
About  23  per  cent  more  food  was  re- 
quired to  produce  a  pound  of  eggs  on 
the  ration  wholly  of  vegetable  origin 
than  when  the  meat  was  used.  When, 
however,  bone  ash  was  added  to  the 
vegetable  ration,  so  that  the  ash  con- 
tent of  the  two  rations  was  alike, 
nearly  as  good  results  were  obtained  as 
on  the  animal  meal  ration.  On  the 
whole,  the  results  of  experiments  with 
90  hens  at  the  station  has  been  in  favor 
of  animal  food  in  the  rations. 

Amount  to  feed — In  feeding  either 
dried  blood,  meat  scraps  or  meat  meal, 
these  materials  would  ordinarily  not  be 
made  to  constitute  more  than  10  per 
cent  of  the  total  rations  fed.  They  can 
generally  be  mixed  with  the  mash  given 
the  hens  to  advantage. 

Skim  milk  can  be  substituted,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  for  any  of  the  other 
animal  foods  without  decreasing  egg 
production.  It  may  be  fed  either  sweet 
or  sour,  alone  or  mixed  with  the  mash. 
It  must  never  be  made,  however,  to  take 
the  place  of  fresh  water  and  plenty  of  it. 

At  the  West  Virginia  station,  Stewart 
and  Atwood  mixed  a  mash  for  laying 
hens  with  skim  milk.  The  egg  produc- 
tion was  increased  about  20  per  cent 
thereby,  and  the  milk  had  a  feeding 
value  of  iy2  to  2  cents  a  quart.  This 
is  three  to  five  times  its  value  as  a  food 
for  hogs. 

Stimulating  feeding  stuffs  for    hens 

Feeding  warm  meal  mixtures  in  winter, 
ground  meat,  red  pepper,  etc,  to  stim- 
ulate laying  is  a  common  practice 
among  poultrymen.     Experiments  along 


646 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


this  line  at  the  Central  experimental 
farm  in  Canada,  resulted  in  showing  that 
stimulating  and  fattening  foods,  which 
tend  to  produce  eggs  in  Minorcas,  Leg- 
horns and  Andalusians,  made  Brahmas, 
Cochins  and  Langshans  so  fat  as  to  lay 
soft  shelled  eggs.  Plymouth  Kocks  and 
Wyandottes  should  be  fed  like  the  Asiat- 
ic meat  breeds.  Foods  good  for  late 
hatched  pullets  make  older  hens  too  fat 
for  good  laying  and  such  hens  should, 
therefore,  be  kept  separate. 

Condition  powders  for  hens — A  large 
number  of  condition  powders  or  proprie- 
tary poultry  foods  are  offered  on  the 
market  as  food  to  make  hens  lay.  An- 
alysis of  these  foods  at  the  Connecticut 
station  shows  that  they  are  much  alike 
in  composition,  containing  meat,  bone, 
pepper,  various  seeds,  meals,  sulphur, 
iron  compounds,  salts  and  other  familiar 
substances  and  sell  for  enormous  prices, 
as  compared  with  their  nutritive  value. 
Tests  at  the  Massachusetts  Hatch  station 
during  three  years  indicate  no  advan- 
tage from  feeding  this  material.  It  is 
believed  that  poultry  keepers  throw  away 
money  when  they  purchase  these  arti- 
cles. A  little  care  in  compounding 
suitable  rations  on  the  part  of  the  far- 
mer will  make  it  entirely  unnecessary  to 
purchase  these  feeds. 

Alfalfa  and  clover  meals  for  hens — 
Alfalfa  hay  and  clover  hay  are  ground 
and  put  on  the  market  in  the  form  of 
meal  and  sold  as  feed  for  hens  and 
chicks.  Both  are  rich  in  protein  and  val- 
uable foods,  but  the  cost  in  this  form  is 
double  or  treble  what  it  is  in  the  chaffed 
form  and  is  practically  no  better  for 
hens  than  the  cut  and  moistened  ma- 
terial. 

Green  food  for  laying  hens — Some 
kind  of  green  food  is  essential  for  the 
greatest  egg  production.  Where  the 
hens  are  kept  in  pens  throughout  the 
year,  this  should  be  supplied  to  them 
either  in  the  form  of  cut  grass,  roots, 
or  cabbage.  During  the  winter  and 
early  spring  months,  mangels  are  as  ef- 
ficient as  anything,  and  are  easily 
grown.  They  should  be  fed  cut  in  half 
lengthwise  rather  than  in  slices,  as  when 
cut  small  the  pieces  are  likely  to  become 
soiled  before  eaten  while  large  pieces 
keep  clean  until  eaten. 

During  the  growing  season  clover  or 
alfalfa  either  in  the  form  of  pasture  or 
cut   and   given   to   hens   will   be   found 


exceedingly  useful.  In  experiments  at 
the  Massachusetts  Hatch  station  there 
was  not  much  difference  in  egg  produc- 
tion when  clover  or  cabbage  was  fed  to 
hens  in  winter  time,  though  slightly  the 
more  eggs  were  produced  on  the  cabbage 
ration.  The  flavor  of  the  eggs  on  this 
ration  was  slightly  inferior.  In  one  ex- 
periment hens  receiving  green  feed,  such 
as  cabbage,  rape  and  apples,  averaged 
115  eggs  each  a  year  and  without  green 
food,  90  eggs  each.  Cabbage  should  be 
bung  up  so  that  the  hens  can  easily  get 
at  it.  Alfalfa  or  clover  hay  should  be 
chaffed  into  half-inch  lengths  and  soft- 
ened with  boiling  water  or  steam  before 
feeding.  It  is  usually  fed  mixed  with 
the  mash  given.  Kale  and  beet  leaves 
are  relished  by  chickens,  as  well  as 
pumpkins,  and  in  fact  any  green  food. 

Grit  and  oyster  shells — Hens  must 
have  a  supply  of  grit.  On  gravelly 
farms,  if  they  run  at  large,  they  will 
secure  an  abundance,  but  on  clayey 
farms  it  may  be  necessary  to  supply 
grit  the  year  around,  summer  and  win- 
ter, whether  the  hens  run  out  or  not. 
Small  pieces  of  crushed  stone,  pebbles, 
crockery  ware  or  pounded  glass  will 
prove  satisfactory. 

The  ordinary  grains  and  green  foods 
do  not  contain  enough  lime  to  produce 
egg  shells.  Coarsely  ground  oyster 
shells  furnish  lime  in  a  readily  available 
form  for  egg  production.  A  pound  of 
oyster  shells  is  sufficient  to  furnish 
enough  lime  for  about  seven  dozen  eggs. 
"Fine  gravel  containing  limestone  will 
probably  as  well  supply  the  deficiency  of 
lime  existing  in  most  foods,  but  the  use 
of  some  sharper  grit  with  it  may  be  of 
advantage.  An  unlimited  supply  of 
pounded  glass  has  been  fed  without  any 
bad  results  following  but  it  was  found 
that  the  hens  would  eat  an  abnormal 
amount  unless  grit  or  some  other  mate- 
rial containing  lime  was  available." 
Transparent  glass  contains  about  5  per 
cent  of  lime,  but  is  wholly  unavailable 
for  egg  production,  as  it  is  insoluble  in 
any  of  the  ordinary  acids. 

Salt  for  hens — Very  small  amounts  of 
salt  will  suffice  for  hens.  At  the  New 
York  state  station  it  was  found  that 
about  1  ounce  of  salt  might  be  fed 
daily  to  each  100  hens.  As  much  as  4 
to  6.3  ounces  a  hundred  hens  was  fed 
without  affecting  egg  production  in- 
juriously, though  the  latter  amount  pro- 
duced diarrhoea  in  two  of  the  hens. 


POULTRY 


647 


Water  for  hens — Hens  require  a  rel- 
atively large  amount  of  water.  And  this 
should  be  supplied  to  them  fresh  daily. 
There  are  a  number  of  forms  of  good 
watering  cans  on  the  market,  or  a  cheap 
one  can  be  made  by  making  a  hole  in  a 
two-quart  pail  V2  inch  from  the  rim, 
filling  it  full  of  water,  covering  with  a 
pan  a  little  larger  than  the  pail  and 
inverting  both.  The  water  will  run  out 
in  the  pan  until  it  covers  the  hole. 

Self-feed  for  hens — Where  whole 
grains  are  used  it  is  not  advisable  to 
use  a  self-feed  for  hens,  since  they  will 
fill  up  their  crop  so  soon  that  there  is 
no  inducement  to  exercise,  and  exercise 
is  another  one  of  the  essentials  of  egg 
production.  It  has  been  found,  how- 
ever, that  ground  feed  including  meat 
meal,  or  other  animal  foods  may  be  kept 
before  the  hens  constantly  with  good 
results.  At  the  Maine  station  this  meth- 
od of  feeding  was  used  in  part  in  place 
of  feeding  a  mash,  with  good  results. 
Much  less  labor  is  involved,  the  egg 
production  seems  to  be  fully  as  great 
and  the  hens  are  just  as  healthy.  The 
dry  meal  does  not  appear  to  be  relished 
to  the  same  extent  as  the  mash,  but  is 
eaten  a  mouthful  or  two  at  a  time.  The 
hens  are  always  ready  to  scratch  for 
their  grain  rations  and  finish  out  the 
meal  on  the  ground  feed  in  the  self-feed 
troughs.  The  troughs  should  be  covered 
with  slats,  so  that  the  hens  will  not 
soil  the  feed.  Under  these  conditions, 
sef-feeds  for  hens  seem  to  be  practical. 

Food  consumed  by  laying  hens — One 
hundred  hens  weighing  from  5  to  8 
pounds  each  will  require  about  3V2 
pounds  of  absolute  dry  matter  daily,  and 
smaller  hens  up  to  5.5  pounds  daily. 

At  the  Utah  station,  Leghorns  con- 
sumed on  the  average  a  total  of  75 
pounds  of  feed  a  year,  containing  55 
pounds  of  dry  matter;  Wyandottes  100 
pounds  a  year,  containing  73  pounds 
of  dry  matter;  and  Plymouth  Eocks 
about  110  pounds,  containing  80  pounds 
of  dry  matter. 

At  the  Maine  station,  each  hen  con- 
sumed during  the  year  50  to  55  pounds 
of  ground  grains  made  into  mash  and  in 
addition  about  18  pounds  of  wheat,  6 
pounds  of  cracked  corn,  6  pounds  of 
oats,  6  pounds  of  oyster  shells,  3  pounds 
of  dry  poultry  bone,  3  pounds  of  mica 
grit  and  40  pounds  of  mangels.  The 
straw  for  litter  averaged  36  pounds   a 


bird.  With  this  food,  the  hens  laid 
about  150  eggs  each  a  year. 

Chicken  manure — As  noted  in  another 
chapter,  poultry  manure  is  the  richest 
of  all  farm  manures  in  fertilizing  ele- 
ments. At  the  New  York  state  station 
it  was  found  that  the  amount  of  manure 
produced  by  one  cockerel  was  at  the  rate 
of  43  pounds  a  year.  It  had  a  value  be- 
tween 10  and  14  cents.  It  is  best  pre- 
served under  shelter  mixed  with  either 
acid  phosphate,  kainit,  land  plaster,  dry 
earth,  or  muck.  Sand  and  sawdust  are 
valueless.  Lime  must  be  avoided  as  it 
drives  off  the  nitrogen.  Composting  with 
loam  or  leaf  would  give  good  results. 

Age  of  hens  as  influencing  egg  pro- 
duction— Pullets  generally  produce  more 
eggs  than  older  hens,  especially  during 
the  winter  months.  At  the  Utah  sta- 
tion, the  profits  from  feeding  young 
pullets  for  eggs  was  six  times  as  great 
as  from  hens  three  years  old.  In  Can- 
ada, pullets  from  January  to  March  laid 
about  40  per  cent  more  eggs  than  old 
hens.  In  experiments  in  New  York  with 
5,200  fowls,  pullets  laid  a  considerably 
larger  number  of  eggs  than  old  hens, 
especially  in  the  early  part  of  the  win- 
ter, when  eggs  were  highest  in  price. 

The  records  kept  at  some  of  the  sta- 
tions show  that  in  exceptional  cases 
more  eggs  may  be  laid  the  second  year 
than  the  first.  Por  breeding  purposes, 
of  course,  two-year-old  hens  are  pre- 
ferred to  pullets.  At  the  Utah  station, 
41  hens  representing  five  breeds,  aver- 
aged 178  eggs  a  fowl  the  first  year  and 
125  eggs  the  second  year. 

At  the  West  Virginia  station  on  the 
other  hand,  100  pullets  produced  6,209 
eggs,  while  the  same  number  of  hens 
three  to  four  years  old  laid  6,349  eggs. 
Generally  speaking,  hens  should  be  fat- 
tened and  disposed  of  at  the  end  of 
their  first  year  or  just  before  they  molt. 

Influence  of  cock  on  egg  production 
— A  number  of  experiments  have  been 
made  to  determine  the  effect  of  the  cock 
on  egg  production.  At  the  Massachu- 
setts station  and  Canada  experimental 
farm,  flocks  in  which  cocks  were  main- 
tained produced  no  more  eggs  than  flocks 
without  a  cock.  At  the  New  York  sta- 
tion two  pens  without  males  began  to 
lay  one  to  two  months  earlier  than  pens 
with  males  and  laid  from  22  to  32  per 
cent  more  eggs  during  a  feeding  period 
of  about  eight  months.  On  the  whole, 
eggs  were  produced  about  30  per  cent 


648 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


cheaper  than  where  males  were  allowed 
with  the  hens.  There  is  no  object  in 
keeping  cocks  in  the  laying  pens,  un- 
less, of  course,  the  eggs  are  to  be  in- 
cubated. Otherwise,  cocks  add  to  the 
expense  and  the  eggs  do  not  keep  as 
well  as  when  cocks  are  absent. 

Early  molting  of  hens — When  a  spe- 
cialty is  to  be  made  of  producing  win- 
ter eggs,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  hens 
molt  early  in  the  season.  Normally, 
hens  shed  their  feathers  once  a  year. 
Usually  this  is  at  the  end  of  the  laying 
period  in  the  summer  time  or  early  fall. 
It  is  a  trying  time  and  they  require 
especial  feed  and  care.  If  the  molting 
period  is  delayed  until  cold  weather,  it 
is  such  a  drain  on  the  vitality  of  the 
fowls  that  few  or  no  winter  eggs  are 
produced.     Some  years  ago  a  noted  egg 


could  pick  up  in  their  runs,  which  had 
been  sown  to  oats  in  the  spring,  and 
amounted  to  practically  nothing.  Other 
pens  were  fed  as  usual  in  comparison. 
At  the  end  of  the  13  days  all  the  hens 
were  fed  liberally.  The  hens  stopped 
laying  on  the  seventh  day.  Within 
about  30  days  after  the  test  began,  all 
the  hens  had  a  new  coat  of  feathers  and 
in  about  a  week  from  that  time  half  of 
the  hens  were  laying  regularly.  The 
Leghorns  were  a  trifle  slower  in  molt- 
ing than  the  Rhode  Island  Keds. 

The  hens  which  had  been  fed  regu- 
larly during  this  time  were  just  begin- 
ning to  molt.  The  conclusion  is  drawn 
that  "mature  hens  which  are  fed  very 
sparingly  for  about  two  weeks  and  then 
receive  a  rich  nitrogenous  ration,  molt 
more  rapidly  and  more  uniformly,   and 


Fig  412 — COLONY   HOUSES  AT   THE   WEST  VIRGINIA    EXPERIMENT    STATION 


raisei  in  New  York,  Mr.  Van  Dreser, 
announced  a  method  of  inducing  hens 
to  molt  early.  His  method  consisted  es- 
sentially in  feeding  only  about  one- 
fourth  of  their  usual  ration  for  a  few 
days.  This  tended  to  stop  egg  produc- 
tion and  reduce  the  weight  of  the  fowls, 
after  which  they  were  fed  a  ration  suit- 
able for  the  production  of  feathers  and 
the  building  up  of  the  system.  When 
the  feed  is  reduced,  growth  in  the 
feather  follicles  stops,  resulting  in  a 
loosening  and  rapid  shedding  of  the 
feathers. 

A  study  was  made  of  this  method  of 
inducing  early  molting  by  Stewart  and 
Atwood  at  the  West  Virginia  station. 
On  August  5,  a  pen  each  of  Rhode  Is- 
land Eeds  and  White  Leghorns  was  given 
no  food  for  13  days,  except  such  as  they 


enter  the  cold  weather  of  winter  in  bet- 
ter condition  than  similar  fowls  fed 
continually  during  the  molting  period 
on  an  egg  producing  ration." 

Molting  usually  occurs  earlier  with 
pullets  than  with  old  hens.  Gilbert  in 
Canada  reports  experiments  in  which 
the  rations  of  hens  were  reduced  one- 
half  during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks 
in  July.  The  cocks  were  removed  and 
the  hens  allowed  to  run  in  the  fields. 
The  immediate  effect  of  this  treatment 
was  practically  to  stop  laying.  The 
hens  rapidly  shed  their  old  feathers.  At 
the  end  of  July  full  rations  were  re- 
sumed. By  this  method  of  treatment 
all  of  the  hens  were  through  molting  by 
the  end  of  September  and  in  some  cases 
much  earlier  and  were  ready  for  laying. 
Extra  care  at  the  molting  period  should 


POULTRY 


be  given  the  hens,  and  will  usually  re- 
pay itself  in  increased  egg  production. 
As  winter  approaches,  the  fowls  will 
be  more  closely  confined  to  their  winter 
quarters.  When  70  fowls  were  shut  up 
early  in  November  at  the  Canada  exper- 
imental farm,  they  laid  192  eggs;  while 
147  fowls  allowed  to  run  at  large  in  a 
field  at  this  time  laid  but  133  eggs, 
which  indicates  that  early  penning  may 
hasten  winter  laying. 

BUILDINGS        AND        YARDS        FOR 
POULTRY 

Buildings  are  being  made  much  less 
expensive  for  poultry  than  formerly. 
The  beginner,  especially,  should  build 
cheap    houses.     In   the   north,   however, 


the  roosts,  and  the  roosts  so  arranged 
that  they  can  be  raised  up  out  of  the 
way  when  cleaning  the  dropping  boards. 
The  nests  will  ordinarily  be  arranged 
under  the  dropping  board  and  so  con- 
structed that  they  can  be  easily  removed 
and  cleaned.  No  floor  other  than  the 
bare  earth  is  necessary  and  this  should 
be  covered  with  straw  3  to  6  inches 
deep. 

Floored  vs.  unfloored  coops — At  the 
West  Virginia  station  as  many  eggs 
were  produced  and  the  chickens  were  as 
healthy  in  unfloored  coops  as  in  floored 
coops.  In  a  test  at  the  Canada  experi- 
mental farm  of  straw  litter  vs.  sand 
and  gravel  on  the  floor,  the  results  were 


Fig.   413 — MIDSUMMER  ON   AN  OHIO  POULTRY  AND  TRUCK  FARM 


the  houses  must  be  comfortable  in  win- 
ter in  order  to  secure  egg  production. 
They  should  be  built  in  a  dry  situation 
with  a  front  elevation  of  7  to  9  feet  and 
a  back  elevation  of  about  5  feet.  About 
14  inches  roosting  space  should  be  al- 
lowed a  hen.  A  covered  scratching  shed 
for  use  in  winter  should  be  attached  to 
the  roosting  pen,  with  relatively  long 
running  yards  for  summer.  A  cheap 
roof  is  made  of  rough  boards  covered 
with  tarred  paper.  The  paper  will  last 
longer  if  the  slant  of  the  roof  is  not 
more  than  1  foot  in  8.  The  roosts 
should  be  about  2V2  to  3  feet  from  the 
ground  and  all  on  a  level.  They  should 
be  removable,  so  they  can  be  easily  taken 
out  and  cleaned.  A  dropping  board 
should  be  extended  all  along  underneath 


in  favor  of  the  straw,  which  induced 
the  hens  to  exercise  more  and  when  it 
was  removed,  all  of  the  feces  and  other 
litter  went  with  it. 

Curtain  front  houses—The  Maine  sta- 
tion reports  excellent  result*  in  the  use 
of  a  curtain  front  poultry  house  with 
curtained  roosting  closets.  In  this 
house  the  rear  walls  and  the  4  feet  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  rear  roof  were 
sealed  on  the  inside  and  packed  with 
sawdust,  so  that  there  were  no  slack 
places  around  the  roof  to  admit  cold  air. 
Each  20-foot  section  of  the  house  had 
two  12-light  outside  windows  screwed  on 
the  front,  while  the  8-foot  space  be- 
tween the  windows  3  feet  down  from  the 
plate  was  covered  during  rough  winter 
storms  and  cold  nights  by  a  light  frame 


650 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


covered  with  10-ounce  duck  closely- 
tacked  on.  This  door  or  curtain  was 
hinged  at  the  top  and  could  be  swung 
in  and  up  to  the  roof. 

The  roosting  platform  was  made  3 
feet  above  the  floor  and  the  whole  roost 
closed  in  by  a  light  framework  covered 
with  light  drilling  covered  and  glazed 
with  boiled  linseed  oil.  The  front  of 
this  was  hinged  at  the  top  and  opened 
out  into  the  coop  in  the  daytime.  This 
framework  about  the  roost  was  made  as 
near  air-tight  as  a  carpenter  would  or- 
dinarily make  it.  The  roosts  were  made 
of  2  by  3-inch  stuff,  placed  on  edge 
about  10  inches  above  the  platform. 

The  hens  were  shut  in  this  curtained 


is  now  being  used  extensively  by  poul- 
trymen  who  believe  in  fresh,  cold  air  for 
their  hens. 

In  a  150  days'  test  at  the  West  Vir- 
ginia station,  hens  in  a  warm  house 
laid  52  eggs  each  and  in  a  cold  house 
41  each.  A  test  of  shutting  in  with  cur- 
tains around  the  roosts  at  night  showed 
no  advantages  where  the  average  lowest 
temperature  outside  was  35.5°  F.,  and 
inside  the  curtain  41.5°  F.  "Winter 
poultry  houses  should  be  warm  >and 
comfortable,  but  not  necessarily  much 
above  freezing  point. 

Heating  house— In  a  short  test  at  the 
North  Dakota  station,  in  heating  the 
poultry  house  in  January,  February  and 


Fig  414 — HOUSES   AND   YARDS   OF   AN   UP-TO-DATE   POULTRY  PLANT 


front  roost  at  night-time  and  the  curtain 
raised  in  the  morning.  On  comfortable 
days  the  whole  front  8  feet  of  the  house 
was  also  opened.  In  such  a  coop  as  this 
pullets  began  laying  in  November. 
When  a  number  of  cracks  were  left  to 
give  ventilation,  ice  frequently  formed 
in  the  roosting  closet  and  the  hens  did 
not  begin  to  lay  till  March.  The  fowls 
in  this  coop  laid  as  well  as  their  mates 
in  a  large,  warm  house.  Their  combs 
were  red  and  plumage  bright  and  they 
gave  every  evidence  of  vigor.  "The 
birds  seemed  to  enjoy  coming  out  of  the 
warm  sleeping  closet  down  into  the  cold 
straw,  which  was  never  damp,  but 
always  dry,  because  the  whole  house 
was  open  to  the  outside  air  and  sun 
every   day."    The    curtain    front   house 


March,  the  food  requirements  were  re- 
duced about  one-half  and  the  number 
of  eggs  laid  was  about  doubled.  At  the 
Montana  station,  experiments  indicate 
that  houses  may  profitably  be  heated  to 
an  average  temperature  of  45  to  50°  F., 
but  in  properly  constructed  houses  little 
heat  is  needed  while  the  sun  is  shining. 
Dust  material  and  yards — Plenty  of 
dust  material  should  be  provided  for  the 
use  of  the  hens  in  winter.  This  is  one 
of  the  ways  they  have  of  freeing  them- 
selves from  vermin,  hence  a  good  sup- 
ply of  road  dust  should  be  stored  in 
summer  for  the  use  of  the  hens  in  win- 
ter. Where  hens  have  to  be  penned  dur- 
ing the  summer,  as  well  as  winter,  they 
should  have  running  yards  adjacent. 


POULTRY 


651 


If  the  yards  are  long,  they  can  he 
plowed  when  they  become  befouled. 
Under  the  better  conditions  of  manage- 
ment, each  flock  has  two  running  yards, 
one  of  which  may  be  in  crops,  while  the 
other  is  being  used.  Chickens  and  fruit 
growing  go  well  together  and  it  is  a 
common  practice  to  plant  a  row  of  fruit 
trees  down  the  chicken  yard,  both  for 
shade  and  profit. 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF  EGGS 

Weight — The  weight  of  hen's  eggs 
varies  considerably.  Hens  lay  from  3 
to  4  per  cent  larger  eggs  usually  than 
pullets.     Hens  with  exercise  lay  larger 


Composition — Relative  to  the  compo- 
sition of  eggs  many  analyses  show  that 
a  2-ounce  egg  contains  on  the  average 
10.7  per  cent  shell,  Q6  per  cent  water,  12 
per  cent  protein,  10.5  per  cent  fat  and  8 
per  cent  ash.  The  Michigan  station 
found  there  was  practically  no  difference 
in  the  composition  of  eggs  laid  by  six 
different  breeds  of  hens.  Feeding  wide- 
ly different  rations  did  not  affect  the 
composition  of  the  eggs.  White  and 
brown  shelled  eggs  have  practically  the 
same  composition  and  food  value.  In- 
vestigations at  the  Minnesota  station 
indicate  that  hard  boiled  eggs  are  as 
easily  digested  as  soft  boiled  eggs. 


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Fig.   415 — HOUSES  AND  YARDS  OF  A  RHODE  ISLAND   POULTRYMAN   IN   WINTER 


eggs  than  those  without  exercise.  In  an 
examination  of  hundreds  of  eggs  of  dif- 
ferent breeds  of  poultry  by  the  North 
Carolina  station,  the  following  weights 
were  obtained  in  the  case  of  pullets: 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  24.2  ounces  a 
dozen ;  White  Plymouth  and  White 
Wyandottes,  23.3  ounces;  Silver  Laced 
Wyandottes,  22.1 ;  Brown  Leghorns  ITY2 
ounces;  Black  Minorcas,  26V2  ounces; 
Black  Langshans  and  Buff  Cochins,  24.1 
ounces;  Light  Brahma  pullets,  23.4 
ounces;  Light  Brahma  hens,  28  ounces. 
It  is  thus  seen  that  the  value  by  weight 
of  the  eggs  of  some  breeds  is  from  25 
to  50  per  cent  more  than  those  of  other 
breeds. 


Flavor — While  the  composition  of 
eggs  is  not  easily  changed  by  feeding, 
the  flavor  may  be.  A  half  ounce  of 
onion  tops  was  fed  daily  to  each  of  the 
hens  in  a  laying  pen  at  the  North 
Carolina  station  for  15  days  before  the 
flavor  could  be  distinctly  noted.  When 
an  ounce  was  fed,  the  flavor  was  noticed 
immediately,  being  so  strong  that  the 
eggs  could  not  be  eaten  and  could  be 
detected  for  seven  days  after  the  feed- 
ing stopped. 

The  color  of  the  yolk  is  easily  influ- 
enced by  feeding.  Wheat,  oats  or  white 
corn  fed  alone  or  in  combination  tends 
to  produce  very  light  colored  yolks,  while 
the  feeding  of  yellow  corn  or  cut  green 


652 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


elover  produces  eggs  with  a  rich,  yellow 
yolk. 

Marketing  eggs — Only  clean  eggs 
should  be  marketed.  If  the  eggs  are  to 
be  stored  they  should  be  wiped  clean 
rather  than  washed.  The  normal  egg 
shell  has  a  natural  surface  coating  of 
mucilaginous  matter  which  prevents  the 
entrance  of  micro-organisms  that  cause 
decomposition.  If  they  are  washed  this 
coating  or  "bloom"  is  removed.  They 
should  be  sorted  both  as  to  color  and 
size.  Eggs  which  grade  "extras"  should 
weigh  2  pounds  or  more  a  dozen,  while 
"firsts"  may  weigh  1%  pounds  a  dozen 
and  "ordinary  mixed"  l1/^  pounds  a 
dozen.  For  a  local  market  they  may  be 
packed  in  pasteboard  cartons,  holding 
about  a  dozen  each.  For  shipping,  the 
regular  sized  crate  holding  30  dozen 
should  be  used.  Eggs  should  never  be 
packed  in  material  having  a  disagreeable 
odor,  such  as  musty  straw  or  bran,  since 
they  readily  absorb  these  odors. 

Commission  merchants  usually  charge 
5  per  cent  on  the  gross  receipts  for  the 
eggs.  Eggs  intended  for  cold  storage 
should  be  sound,  full  and  perfectly  fresh 
and  be  packed  in  the  regular  30- 
dozen  cases.  In  cold  storage  they  are 
held  at  a  temperature  of  31  to  34°  F., 
though  the  temperature  may  be  as  low 
as  27°   F.,  without  the  shells  bursting. 

The  lowest  prices  for  eggs  are  in 
March,  April  and  May,  after  which  there 
is  a  rise  in  price  until  the  maximum  is 
reached  in  December  and  January, 
dropping  a  little  in  February  and  March. 

Packing  hatching  eggs — Eggs  for 
hatching  should  be  packed  preferably 
in  a  handle  basket  lined  with  paper  and 
the  bottom  covered  with  excelsior.  Each 
egg  should  be  wrapped  in  excelsior  and 
all  placed  close  together  in  the  basket. 
More  excelsior  is  then  put  on  and  a 
cloth  sewed  over  the  top  to  keep  it  in 
place.  The  basket  should  then  be  plain- 
ly marked  "Eggs  for  hatching."  If 
boxes  are  used,  put  excelsior  in  the  bot- 
tom, then  set  in  a  cardboard  carton  con- 
taining the  eggs  surrounded  with  bran, 
chaff  or  similar  material.  Cover  with 
more  excelsior  and  then  screw  top  on; 
never  nail  the  top  on  if  you  expect  the 
eggs  to  hatch. 

Preserving  eggs — Under  average  con- 
ditions, fresh  eggs  will  keep  about  a 
month  before  spoiling.  Infertile  eggs 
will  keep  longer  than  fertile  ones.  Per- 
haps   100    different    materials,    such    as 


sulphur,  boracic  and  salicylic  acid,  etc, 
have  been  tested  as  preservatives  for 
eggs.  Up  to  the  present,  only  two  cheap 
and  efficient  methods  aside  from  cold 
storage  have  been  found.  These  are 
water  glass  and  lime  water.  Formerly 
salt  was  added  to  the  lime  water,  but  a 
number  of  experiments  have  shown  that 
this  is  not  necessary,  and,  if  anything, 
is  injurious. 

Lime  water  for  preserving  eggs  is 
prepared  as  follows :  Slake  2  to  3  pounds 
of  fresh  stone  lime,  then  stir  into  5 
gallons  of  water  and  keep  agitated  for 
several  hours.  Allow  it  to  settle  and 
pour  off  the  clear  top  liquid.  Pack  the 
eggs  in  this  clear  liquid,  keeping  them 
entirely  submerged.  The  liquid  should 
be  kept  in  a  covered  jar,  as  exposure  to 
the  air  will  cause  the  lime  to  be  precipi- 
tated and  thus  weaken  the  solution.  This 
can  be  prevented  entirely  by  pouring  a 
small  amount  of  sweet  oil  over  the  liquid, 
which  effectually  protects  it  from  the 
air. 

Water  glass  or  soluble  glass  is  a  pop- 
ular term  for  potassium  or  sodium  sili- 
cate and  is  commonly  sold  in  the  form 
of  a  syrupy  liquid.  It  can  be  bought  for 
2  to  10  cents  a  pound.  In  making  a 
water  glass  solution  for  preserving  eggs, 
boil  pure  water  and  allow  it  to  cool, 
then  to  each  10  quarts  of  water  add 
from  1  pint  to  a  quart  of  water  glass. 

By  either  the  lime  water  method  or 
the  use  of  water  glass,  eggs  can  be  kept 
in  good  condition  for  six  months  to  a 
year. 

In  preserving  eggs  in  these  materials 
use  only  fresh  eggs.  Before  treating 
they  should  be  allowed  to  become  thor- 
oughly cooled.  The  solution  in  which 
they  are  kept  should  also  be  cold.  If  the 
eggs  are  kept  at  a  high  temperature,  70 
to  80°  F.,  they  deteriorate  rapidly  in 
spite  of  the  preservative.  They  should 
be  stored  in  a  cool,  dark  place.  The 
nearer  35°  F.  they  can  be  held,  the 
better  the  eggs  will  keep.  A  5-gallon 
solution  of  water  glass  is  sufficient  to 
cover  50  dozen  eggs  and  may  be  used 
over  and  over  again.  Eggs  thus  pre- 
served in  water  glass  at  the  North  Da- 
kota station,  for  3^2  months,  were  fully 
equal  to  fresh  market  eggs  for  cooking 
making  frosting,  etc.  Water  glass  can 
be  bought  in  all  drug  stores 

Desiccated  eggs—About  3,750,000 
dozen  eggs  are  desiccated  each  year  in 
the   United   States.     One  method   is   to 


POULTRY 


653 


break  the  eggs  into  a  vat,  to  which  warm 
water  is  added,  and  mix  into  a  homo- 
geneous fluid,  after  which  they  are 
evaporated  down  into  a  yellow  granular 
meal.  Thus  treated,  they  can  be  pre- 
served indefinitely,  and  1  pound  is  con- 
sidered equal  to  4  dozen  of  fresh  eggs 
for  food  or  manufacturing  purposes. 

Sometimes  the  eggs  are  removed  from 
the  shells  and  stored  in  bulk  in  cans 
containing  about  50  pounds  each.  They 
are  then  kept  in  cold  storage  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  30°  F.  until  needed. 

Factors  affecting  fertility  and  hatch, 
ing  of  eggs— With  hens  that  have  been 
laying  but  a  short  time,  hatches  of  70 
to  80  per  cent  of  the  eggs  incubated  are 
generally  obtained.  There  is  great  va- 
riability of  the  fertility  of  the  egg  yield 
of  different  hens.  Data  have  been  ob- 
tained which  show  that  some  birds  yield 
eggs  that  are  all  highly  fertile.  With 
others  every  egg  is  completely  infertile. 
"Again,  some  hens  are  very  irregular  in 
the  fertility  of  their  eggs,  an  egg  laid 
one  day  yielding  a  chick,  while  that  laid 
on  the  next  is  completely  infertile;  or 
they  are  fertile  for  a  day  or  two  or  more 
and  then  infertile,  becoming  fer- 
tile again  after  one,  two  or  more  eggs 
are  laid.  This  seems  to  be  true  of  some 
individuals,  whether  they  are  laying  reg- 
ularly or  irregularly,  or  whether  they 
have  been  laying  a  long  or  short  time. 
The  eggs  from  other  hens  seem  to  be 
slightly  fertile,  the  embryo  dying  before 
the  tenth  or  twelfth  day.  This  seems 
to  be  regular  with  some  hens  and  irreg- 
ular with  others." 

Influence  of  cock — The  presence  of 
the  cock  is  essential  to  the  production  of 
fertile  eggs.  About  one  cock  should  be 
provided  for  each  12  to  15  hens.  Where 
only  three  or  four  hens  are  kept  with 
the  cock,  the  chances  are  that  the  fer- 
tility of  the  eggs  will  be  much  lower 
than  where  a  larger  number  are  kept. 

In  experiments  at  the  Central  exper- 
imental farm,  30  per  cent  of  the  eggs 
were  fertile  three  days  after  the  cock 
had  been  introduced.  On  the  fourth  day 
42  per  cent  were  fertile ;  fifth  day,  50  per 
cent;  sixth  day,  60  per  cent;  seventh 
day,  70  per  cent,  and  the  tenth  day,  74 
per  cent.  Of  the  eggs  obtained  for  the 
first  four  days  after  the  male  was  re- 
moved from  the  laying  hens,  70  per  cent 
were  fertile,  on  the  fifth  and  sixth  days, 
60  per  cent  were  fertile,  on  the  seventh 
day,  40  per  cent,  while  on  the  tenth  day 


all  were  infertile.  At  the  Maine  sta- 
tion, some  of  the  eggs  laid  13  days  af- 
ter the  male  was  removed  hatched  out 
chicks. 

Age  of  eggs — At  the  Utah  station,  the 
fertility  of  eggs  averaging  five  days  old 
wa^  300  per  cent  greater  than  eggs  aver- 
aging 22  days  old.  Generally,  eggs  for 
hatching  purposes  should  not  be  over  a 
week  old;  and  during  the  time  they  are 
in  storage  they  should  be  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature between  40  and  55°  F. 

At  the  West  Virginia  station,  6Q  pes 
cent  of  eggs  from  hens  fed  a  nitrogen- 
ous ration  were  fertile,  while  only  47 
per  cent  of  those  produced  by  hens  fed 
a  carbonaceous  ration  were  fertile. 

Value  of  exercise — After  hens  have 
been  laying  eggs  all  winter  they  are 
likely  to  show  a  low  percentage  of  fer- 
tility. Free  range  outside  is  of  great 
benefit  at  this  time  in  increasing  the 
fertility  of  the  eggs.  At  the  West  Vir- 
ginia station,  92  per  cent  of  the  eggs 
from  hens  having  unlimited  range  were 
fertile  and  83  per  cent  of  these  eggs 
hatched  out  chicks.  When  the  hens 
were  confined  in  pens  in  the  yard  only 
about  75  per  cent  were  fertile  and  of 
these  only  66  per  cent  hatched  out 
chicks. 

Like  results  were  secured  at  the  Mich- 
igan station.  Eggs  from  hens  allowed 
to  run  in  the  cold,  fresh  air  at  the  Cen- 
tral experimental  farm  produced  strong 
chicks  which  lived,  while  the  chicks 
from  eggs  laid  by  hens  closely  confined 
in  a  warm  house  during  the  winter  prac- 
tically all  died.  The  germ  in  the  eggs 
of  these  hens  became  strong  12  to  15 
days  after  the  hens  were  allowed  to  run 
outside. 

Sex  in  eggs— As  to  the  sex  of  the  eggs, 
it  is  claimed  that  old  hens  mated  with 
cockerels  produce  about  75  per  cent  pul- 
lets, while  if  mated  with  males  of  their 
own  age,  about  equal  numbers  of  each 
sex  are  produced.  Long,  short  or  round 
eggs  all  appear  to  hatch  about  equally 
well.  It  is  claimed  that  when  the  air 
cell  in  eggs  extends  horizontally  across 
the  large  end,  a  male  will  be  produced, 
but  if  it  is  slanting,  a  pullet  will  result. 
The  position  of  the  air  cell  can  be  read- 
ily determined  between  the  fifth  and 
tenth  day  of  incubation. 

Effect  of  cold  and  light — Some 
French  experiments  are  reported  in 
which  eggs  congealed  at  a  temperature 
of  5°   below  zero   still  hatched,  though 


654 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


an  unusually  large  number  of  mon- 
strosities were  produced.  Out  of  81 
eggs  kept  in  closed  egg  cases  in  the 
dark  at  the  Maine  station,  30  produced 
chicks,  while  out  of  79  kept  in  the  light 
but  19  produced  chicks. 

Effect  of  resting  eggs — Poultry- 
breeders  sometimes  instruct  purchasers 
to  rest  the  eggs  24  hours  after  their 
receipt  before  putting  them  in  the  incu- 
bators. In  order  to  test  this  matter  eggs 
were  sent  by  the  Maine  station  614  miles 
by  express  and  a  part  of  them  immedi- 
ately afterwards  put  in  the  incubator 
and  the  remainder  24  hours  later.  Out 
of  50  rested  eggs  15  produced  chicks  and 
out  of  63  not  rested  eggs  23  produced 
chicks,  indicating  that  it  is  advisable  to 
set  the  eggs  as  soon  as  they  are  received. 

Eggs  during  incubation  lose  from  10 
to  15  per  cent  in  weight  from  evapora- 
tion and  moisture.  Eggs  for  hatching 
should  be  clean.  If  not  clean,  they 
should  be  washed  in  tepid  water  and 
carefully  dried  with  a  clean,  soft  cloth. 
Otherwise  evaporation  is  hindered  and 
the  chicks  do  not  hatch  as  well. 

HATCHING  EGGS   UNDER  HENS 

Nests  for  hens  are  preferably  made 
with  earth  covered  with  fine  straw  or 
hay,  and  should  be  properly  shaped  be- 
fore the  eggs  are  put  in.  The  hens 
should  be  tested  for  a  day  or  so  on  a 
nest  of  china  eggs  in  order  to  find  out 
their  intentions.  It  requires  about  21 
days  for  the  eggs  to  hatch.  During  this 
period  the  hen  should  be  kept  thoroughly 
dusted  with  insect  powder.  If  given 
opportunity  she  will  leave  the  nest  from 
time  to  time  for  food.  Corn,  water  and 
a  dust  bath  is  about  all  she  will  require 
during  this  period.  From  nine  to  15 
eggs  may  be  placed  under  hens,  depend- 
ing upon  size.  A  larger  number  can  be 
set  in  warm  weather  than  in  cold. 

Sometimes  the  hen  leaves  the  nest  en- 
tirely and  eggs  are  cold  before  the  fact 
is  discovered.  If  they  have  not  been 
cold  too  long,  they  can  be  put  under 
another  hen  and  most  of  them  will 
hatch  out,  though  they  may  not  appear 
until  a  day  or  so  later  than  normally. 
After  the  chicks  begin  to  hatch  the  hens 
should  not  be  disturbed.  The  chicks  re- 
quire no  feed  and  should  not  be  re- 
moved until  from  24  to  36  hours  after 
hatching. 

Feeding  the  chicks — Cornmeal  cake 
made  thick  and  baked    and  given  to  the 


chicks  crumbled  is  a  good  feed  to  begin 
with.  Generally  speaking,  the  chicks 
need  not  be  fed  much  differently  from 
laying  hens.  They  require  some  soft 
food,  dry,  cracked  grains,  green  food 
and  grit.  A  common  practice  is  to  boil 
the  infertile  eggs  for  about  half  an  hour 
and  grind  them  shell  and  all  with  a  meat 
chopper.  They  are  then  mixed  with 
about  six  times  their  bulk  of  rolled  oats. 
This  mixture  is  fed  sparingly  for  two 
or  three  days  in  the  litter  and  sand  on 
the  floor.  About  the  third  day  a  mix- 
ture of  fine  broken  grains,  such  as  corn, 
wheat,  millet  and  pin  head  oats,  may  be 
fed  in  the  morning.  Grit  and  charcoal 
should  also  be  freely  provided.  At  about 
10  o'clock  the  rolled  oats  and  egg  mix- 
ture may  be  fed  in  tin  plates  with  low 
rims.  This  is  kept  before  them  for 
about  five  minutes  and  then  removed, 
giving  them  a  little  of  the  fine  broken 
grain  in  the  litter  to  scratch  for.  At 
about  1  o'clock  the  hard  grains  may 
again  be  fed  and  at  from  4.30  to  5 
o'clock  the  rolled  oats  and  egg  mixture. 

As  the  chicks  grow  older  the  oats  and 
egg  mixture  may  be  replaced  with  a 
mixture  made  of  two  parts  by  weight  of 
bran,  two  parts  corn  meal,  one  part  mid- 
dlings or  red  dog  flour,  one  part  linseed 
meal,  and  one  part  fine  beef  scraps. 
"This  mixture  is  moistened  just  enough 
with  water  so  that  it  is  not  sticky  but 
will  crumble  when  a  handful  is  squeezed 
and  then  released."  Hard  grains  may 
be  used  entirely  instead  of  the  mash,  but 
chicks  do  not  grow  as  rapidly  as  when 
the  mash  is  given. 

Another  excellent  method  is  to  feed 
stale  bread  soaked  in  milk  and  squeezed 
dry  for  the  first  few  days.  This  should 
be  crumbled  fine  and  placed  where  the 
chicks  have  free  access  to  it.  The  ad- 
dition of  sand  to  the  ration  of  chicks, 
both  with  and  without  animal  food,  at 
the  New  York  state  station  resulted  in 
better  health  of  the  chicks  and  more  ef- 
ficient use  of  the  food.  From  6  to 
8  per  cent  of  the  ration  was  made  up 
of  sand.  When  in  addition  to  the  sand 
a  small  amount  of  raw  ground  Florida 
rock  phosphate  was  used  in  the  ration, 
both  with  and  without  animal  meal,  still 
better  growth  and  more  efficient  use  of 
the  rations  were  made.  The  station 
found  that  the  mixing  of  finely  ground 
oyster  shell  in  the  food  of  chicks,  except 
in  very  small  quantities,  always  resulted 
in  an  unthrifty  condition  and  sometimes 


POULTRY 


655 


disease  and  death,  due  it  is  thought,  to 
a  too  rapid  or  too  nearly  complete  nu- 
tralization  of  necessary  acids  in  some  of 
the  digestive  fluids  of  the  stomach.  The 
feeding  of  ground  rock  phosphate  or 
bone  ash  resulted  also  in  more  rapid 
growth.  Meat  meals  and  scraps  when 
of  good  quality  can  safely  be  fed  to 
young  chicks  in  small  amounts,  say  2 
to  5  per  cent  of  tbe  ration.  Finely 
chopped  green  food  should  be  provided 
daily.  For  the  first  few  days  four  or 
five  feeds  daily  should  be  given.  When 
three  weeks  old  three  feeds  daily  will  be 
sufficient.  They  require  a  supply  of 
clean  water  before  them  all  the  time, 
and  should  be  kept  free  from  insects  by 
the  liberal  use  of  insect  powders.  To 
grow  them  successfully  without  much 
attention,  plenty  of  room  out  of  doors 
should  be  provided.  The  larger  the 
range  the  less  care  will  be  necessary. 
Normally  they  are  weaned  when  four  to 
six  weeks  old.  The  use  of  boxes,  bar- 
rels and  the  making  of  coops  for  hens 
with  chicks  has  been  described  so  often 
as  to  scarce  need  repetition  here.  After 
the  first  10  days  the  chicks  will  thrive 
better  on  free  range  with  the  hen  than 
if  kept  confined  in  pens.  They  should 
not  be  let  out  of  the  yard  mornings  un- 
til the  dew  is  off  the  grass. 

INCUBATORS  FOR  HATCHING  EGGS 

The  poultry  industry  on  a  large  scale 
is  now  carried  on  almost  entirely  by 
means  of  incubators  in  which  the  eggs 
are  hatched  and  brooders  in  which  the 
chicks  are  kept  warm  after  hatching. 
The  advantage  of  the  incubator  is  that 
chicks  can  be  brought  off  early  in  the 
season  before  hens  are  inclined,  to  set, 
and  advantage  thus  taken  of  the  higher 
price  paid  for  early  broilers  and  roast- 
ers. A  large  number  of  eggs  can  be 
hatched  at  one  time,  lice  can  be  en- 
tirely avoided  and  the  work  of  caring 
for  a  large  number  of  chicks  in  brooders 
is  much  less  than  that  required  to  care 
for  an  equal  number  of  chicks  running 
with  hens. 

Under  farm  conditions  where  only  60 
to  80  chicks  are  raised  per  season,  an  in- 
cubator and  brooder  are  more  trouble 
and  expense  than  the  old  method  of  set- 
ting hens,  but  when  100  or  200  chicks  or 
more  are  raised,  an  incubator  will  be  a 
profitable  investment.  A  50  to  100-egg 
incubator  is  as  large  as  the  amateur 
should   start   with   and    one    is    enough. 


There  are  a  great  variety  of  makes  on  the 
market;  nearly  all  are  heated  by  lamps 
burning  kerosene.  Secure  a  machine 
with  double  walls  having  one  or  two 
dead  air  spaces  between. 

Operating  incubator^The  operation 
of  the  machine  is  simple,  requiring  only 
regularity  in  attendance  and  exactness 
in  observation.  The  lamps  should  be 
cleaned  and  filled  regularly  each  day 
and  the  temperature  in  the  egg  chamber 
noted  morning,  noon  and  night.  From 
about  the  second  to  the  nineteenth  day, 
the  eggs  will  require  turning  once  daily. 
At  this  time  those  in  the  center  of  the 
egg  chamber  should  be  changed  to  the 
outside,  since  in  the  best  machines  there 
is  likely  to  be  a  difference  of  at  least  a 
degree  in  temperature  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  chamber. 

The  incubator  may  be  operated  in 
most  any  building,  but  the  more  uni- 
form exterior  temperature  is  likely  to  be 
found  in  cellars  and  hence  this  is  the 
favorite  place  for  the  incubator.  The 
room  should  be  clean,  dry  and  free  from 
dust  and  drafts  of  air.  No  stove  or 
other  artificial  heat  in  the  room  is  de- 
sirable. When  the  incubator  comes, 
study  the  directions  carefully  and  fol- 
low them.  Run  the  machines  24  hours 
at  a  temperature  of  100°  F.  before 
placing  any  eggs  in  them.  Fill  the 
tray  completely,  with  every  egg  lying 
on  its  side.  Place  the  thermometer 
against  and  between  two  fertile  eggs  in 
the  central  part  of  the  egg  chamber.  On 
the  second  day  after  the  eggs  are  put  in, 
the  temperature  should  be  102°  F.  As 
the  germ  in  the  egg  begins  to  develop,  it 
generates  a  small  amount  of  heat.  The 
temperature  from  now  on  should  be 
held  regularly  between  102  and  103°  F. 

Turning  the  eggs_When  the  eggs 
are  turned  each  day  the  tray  should  be 
removed  from  the  machine  and  the  door 
closed.  Three  or  four  minutes  is  suf- 
ficient to  turn  and  rearrange  the  eggs, 
and  this  is  all  the  cooling  they  require. 
In  turning  the  eggs,  man  is  following 
the  practice  of  the  hen,  which  turns  and 
changes  the  position  of  the  eggs  under 
her  daily.  Unless  this  is  done  the  de- 
veloping chick  would  stick  fast  to  one 
side  of  the  egg  and  many  cripple  and 
monstrosities  be  produced. 

Supplying  moisture_During.  incuba- 
tion the  eggs  lose  moisture.  If  they  are 
incubated  in  a  damp  cellar  no  other 
moisture  need  be  supplied,  but  if  in  a 


656 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


dry  room  they  may  be  slightly  mois- 
tened, using  about  one  teaspoonful  of 
water  to  100  eggs  in  damp  weather  and 
an  ounce  in  dry  weather.  Water  can 
be  supplied  by  means  of  a  saturated 
sponge  or  a  saucer  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  egg  chamber,  or  the  eggs  slightly 
moistened  with  the  hand  in  turning. 

Determining  fertility  of  eggs — After 
six  or  seven  days'  incubation,  either  with 
the  hens  or  incubators,  the  eggs  should 
be  examined  to  see  how  many  are  fertile, 
This  is  determined  by  placing  them  at 
one  end  of  a  pasteboard  tube  and  looking 
through  them  toward  the  light.  Fer- 
tile eggs  show  a  dark  movable  spot  with 
several  veins  running  from  it.  Eggs 
with  weak  germs  show  simply  a  cloudy, 
stationary  spot  surrounded  by  a  ring- 
like structure,  while  sterile  eggs  are 
clear  and  the  yolk  is  readily  seen.  Both 
the  eggs  with  weak  germs  and  the  sterile 
eggs  should  be  removed  from  the  incu- 
bator at  once  to  be  used  for  cooking  or 
hard  boiled  and  used  as  food  for  chicks. 

The  chicks  in  eggs  with  weak  germs 
die  before  the  twentieth  day  of  incuba- 
tion. Allowing  the  eggs  to  cool  for  one- 
half  hour  to  an  hour  each  day,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  hen  leaving  the  nest  for 
food,  does  not  appear  to  be  of  any  value, 
as  the  chicks  are  no  hardier  and  do  not 
hatch  out  any  better  than  where  they  are 
not  cooled.  The  eggs  are  usually  tested 
three  times,  on  the  seventh,  tenth, 
and  fourteenth  days  of  incubation,  and 
all  except  the  perfectly  fertile  eggs  re- 
moved, since  the  dead  eggs  absorb  heat 
and  give  off  gases  that  may  injure  the 
chicks  in  the  good  eggs.  The  natural 
temperature  of  the  healthy  hen  is  103° 
F.  A  long  continued  temperature  of 
108°  F.  is  fatal  to  the  egg  germ. 

The  chicks  will  require  little  if  any 
help  in  getting  out  of  the  shell  and  the 
door  of  the  incubator  should  not  be 
opened  during  this  period  unless  abso- 
lutely necessary.  They  should  remain 
in  the  incubator  until  the  last  hatched 
are  all  dried  off. 

Selling  day-old  chicks — A  promising 
industry  has  recently  sprung  up  in  the 
selling  of  day-old  chicks.  The  chicks 
are  shipped  in  shallow  wooden  boxes  6 
inches  deep,  with  small  holes  in  the 
sides  near  the  top  for  ventilation.  The 
top  is  covered  over  with  two  thicknesses 
of  burlap  fastened  with  slats.  The 
chicks  are  taken  from  the  incubators  as 


soon  as  dried,  packed  somewhat  closely 
in  these  boxes  and  can  be  shipped  a 
thousand  miles  with  safety  since  they 
require  no  food  for  48  to  60  hours  after 
hatching. 

Care  of  chicks  and  brooders — During 
the  winter  and  early  spring  months  in 
the  northern  states,  the  brooders  should 
be  set  up  in  some  building.  As  the 
weather  gets  warmer,  they  should  be 
placed  outdoors.  Where  colony  houses 
are  used,  the  brooders  can  be  put  in 
these.  And,  as  the  chicks  outgrow  the 
brooders,  they  will  be  already  established 
in  the  colony  houses.  The  temperature 
in  the  hover  of  the  brooder,  2  inches 
from  the  floor  for  the  first  few  days 
after  the  chicks  are  put  in,  should  be 
maintained  at  90  to  05°  F.,  and  grad- 
ually lowered  until  the  end  of  two  weeks, 
when  it  should  be  about  75°  F.  Chick 
grit,  coarse  sand,  and  fine  gravel  should 
be  thrown  over  the  floor  of  the  brooder 
and  exercising  compartment  and  lightly 
covered  with  chaff  or  finely  cut  clover 
hay. 

Good  ventilation,  plenty  of  pure  air 
and  exercise  must  be  provided  for  the 
chicks  in  the  brooders  at  all  times.  The 
outside  running  ground  of  the  young 
chicks  must  be  protected  from  cold 
drafts  and  any  excessive  lowering  of  the 
temperature.  If  the  chicks  become 
chilled  soon  after  hatching  they  show  a 
mass  of  dry  feces  about  the  anus  and 
usually  die  within  a  few  days.  With- 
out abundant  exercise,  diarrhoea  and  va- 
rious other  troubles  are  also  brought 
on.  In  warm  weather  shade  is  essential 
and  fresh  water  must  be  provided. 

Feeding  of  young  chicks — The  chicks 
should  not  be  fed  until  about  36  hours 
after  they  are  placed  in  the  brooders. 
Stale  bread  soaked  in  milk  and  squeezed 
dry  may  be  given  for  the  first  day  or  so, 
and  rolled  oat  meal,  boiled  rice  or 
wheat  added  on  the  third  day.  For  the 
first  three  or  four  days  they  should  be 
fed  a  small  amount  four  or  five  times 
daily.  Care  should  be  observed  not  to 
overfeed  at  this  time  as  digestive  dis- 
orders are  easily  brought  on  and  large 
numbers  of  the  chicks  will  die.  Johnny- 
cake,  millet  seed,  cracked  wheat  and 
cracked  corn  are  all  excellent  grain  and 
may  be  fed  in  small  amounts  scattered 
in  the  litter  on  the  floor.  Hard  boiled 
eggs,  used  as  noted  on  page  654  are  ex- 
cellent  and   from   about  the  tenth  day 


POULTRY 


657 


they  should  be  regularly  fed  some  form 
of  animal  food. 

Mortality  in  incubator  chicks — All 
the  usual  diseases  of  poultry  are  treated 
in  Chapter  III.  Here  may  be  men- 
tioned the  diseases  peculiar  to  brooder 
chicks.  Many  deaths  may  be  due  to 
mechanical  causes,  such  as  overcrowd- 
ing in  the  brooder,  death  by  suffocation 
and  trampling,  bad  ventilation  and  lack 
of  cleanliness  and  sunlight.  Overfeed- 
ing is  also  responsible  for  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  losses.  For  the  first  two  or 
three  days  chicks  normally  live  on  the 
contents  of  the  yolk  sack,  which  is  ab- 
sorbed into  the  stomach  at  birth,  and  if 
the  chicks  are  fed  too  soon,  or  too  much 
they  may  die  from  non-absorption  of 
this  material. 

For  the  first  three  or  four  days  the 
chicks  may  seem  hearty  and  vigorous, 
after  which  they  may  appear  drowsy 
during  the  day  and  stand  nodding. 
Deaths  are  most  rapid  from  the  sixth 
to  the  tenth  day.  The  abdominal  cavity 
if  examined  at  this  time,  will  be  found 
to  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of 
semifluid  matter  which  has  undergone 
putrefactive  changes,  causing  death. 
Sometimes  death  does  not  occur  for  two 
or  three  weeks,  in  which  case,  the  con- 
tents of  the  yolk  sack  may  be  yellowish 
and  cheesy  in  nature. 

The  most  common  disorder  of  brooder 
chicks  is  bowel  trouble.  The  feces  be- 
come soft  and  sticky  and  the  chicks 
drowsy,  with  a  tendency  to  remain  in 
the  hover.  Either  improper  food,  over- 
feeding, or  chilling,  may  cause  this  trou- 
ble. The  remedy  is  to  change  the  feed 
and  maintain  as  uniform  a  temperature 
as  possible.  If  the  disease  is  caused  by 
non-absorption  of  the  contents  of  the 
yolk  sack,  there  is  no  remedy. 

Any  marked  variation  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  brooder  house  is  likely  to  re- 
sult in  many  deaths  from  inflammation 
of  the  lungs.  Where  little  attention  is 
given  the  sanitary  condition  of  the 
brooder,  deaths  from  tuberculosis  occur 
in  about  15  per  cent  of  the  chickens. 

In  an  examination  of  over  800  brooder 
chicks  which  died  from  various  causes 
at  the  Rhode  Island  station,  about  75 
per  cent  had  abnormal  livers  and  38  per 
cent  various  forms  of  intestinal  dis- 
orders. Diseases  of  the  liver  and  gall 
bladder  can  usually  be  recognized  from 
the  green  stain  which  is  observable  on 
the  right  side  of  the  abdomen  close  to 


the  posterior  end  of  the  breast  bone. 
To  overcome  this  more  animal  food 
must  be  fed  with  the  grain  ration.  Liver 
of  various  animals,  fresh  fish,  refuse 
meat  boiled  and  chopped  fine,  skim  milk 
or  meat  meal,  when  of  good  quality,  are 
recommended,  but  at  most  should  not 
constitute  more  than  about  10  per  cent 
of  the  ration.  In  nature,  chicks  spend 
most  of  the  time  during  the  day  in 
search  of  food;  in  artificial  feeding  this 
habit  should  be  taken  into  account  and 
the  chicks  fed  often  but  in  small 
amounts. 

For  guarding  against  tuberculosis, 
the  interior  of  the  brooders  should  be 
given  all  the  sunlight  and  air  possible 
on  pleasant  days.  An  excess  of  animal 
food  and  chilling  may  also  cause  diar- 
rhoea. The  extensive  use  of  rich  mashes 
may  result  in  leg  weakness.  More  hard 
grain  scattered  in  the  litter  for  exercise 
is  the  remedy. 

Growth  and  classes  of  chicks Chicks 

grow  rather  slowly  for  the  first  two 
weeks.  By  the  end  of  the  fourth  week, 
under  normal  feeding  they  should 
weigh  8  to  10  ounces  each.  From  then 
on,  with  ordinary  good  feeding,  they 
should  gain  on  the  average  close  to  a 
pound  a  month.  A  large  business  is 
done  in  the  vicinity  of  cities  and  towns 
in^  the  production  of  broilers,  roasters, 
fries  and  capons. 

Broilers  are  young  chicks  under  3 
pounds.  The  first  fresh  broilers  of  the 
year  appear  early  in  the  winter  months 
and  weigh  from  1%  to  2  pounds  a  pair. 
Such  birds  are  known  as  squab  or  club- 
house broilers,  and  are  used  largely  in 
hotels,  restaurants  and  clubs. 

Boasters  are  chickens  weighing  about 
4  pounds  each,  while  "Fries"  are  inter- 
mediate in  size  between  broilers  and 
roasters.  Capons  are  castrated  cocks 
and  are  no  better  than  cockerels  unless 
allowed  to  mature  fully,  when  they  are 
tender,  juicy  and  of  very  delicate  flavor. 
What  are  known  as  soft  roasters  are  ex- 
tensively grown  in  the  "South  Shore" 
section  of  Massachusetts.  These  birds 
are  easily  produced.  Cracked  corn,  beef 
scraps  and  water  are  kept  constantly 
before  them.  Green  food  is  supplied 
in  the  form  of  cabbage  or  green  rye  sown 
in  the  fall.  They  are  especially  desired 
in  early  summer  and  reach  the  required 
weight  without  other  forcing  than  this 
simple  diet. 


658 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


The  first  broilers  of  the  season  are 
usually  hatched  in  November  or  Decem- 
ber and  reach  the  market  in  January, 
and  hence  for  the  production  of  these 
an  incubator  is  essential.  The  most 
popular  breeds  for  broilers  are  Wyan- 
dottes,  Plymouth  Kocks  and  Rhode  Is- 
land Reds.  When  nearly  ready  for  mar- 
ket the  broilers  are  put  into  pens  or 
shady  runs  and  given  all  the  fattening 
food,  such  as  cracked  corn,  corn  meal 
mash,  whole  corn,  warm  potatoes,  milk 
and  some  kind  of  beef  scraps  or  meat 
meal,  etc.  Where  the  chicks  are  marketed 
as  squab  broilers  when  eight  to  10  weeks 
old,  they  can  be  safely  raised  in  the 
brooders  without  outside  exercise. 
Sometimes  the  broilers  are  fed  celery  for 
a  few  days  before  marketing  and  sold  as 
celery  fed  broilers.  Philadelphia  broil- 
ers are  simply  well  grown  broilers  raised 
in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia. 

FATTENING   CHICKS 

In  fattening  any  of  the  partly  or  fully 
grown  fowls,  they  should  be  confined 
somewhat  closely,  and  fed  heavily  on  fat- 
tening foods.  Corn  in  its  various  forms 
is  one  of  the  best  grains  for  this  pur- 
pose. Beef  scraps  containing  consider- 
able fat  or  pork  cracklings  are  excellent. 
Much  more  rapid  gains  are  made  on 
ground  than  on  whole  grains.  Chicks 
fed  from  birth  on  ground  grains,  with  a 
supplementary  feed,  at  the  New  York 
state  station  weighed  8.1  pounds  each  at 
five  months  of  age.  Those  fed  cracked 
or  whole  grain  during  the  same  period 
weighed  7%  pounds  each. 

The  advantage  of  finely  ground  over 
coarsely  cracked  and  whole  grains  for 
fattening  chicks  has  been  proved  in  in- 
numerable experiments.  The  various 
grains,  such  as  corn,  wheat,  buckwheat, 
barley  and  oats,  are  practically  inter- 
changeable as  regards  feeding  value  for 
fattening  purposes.  The  best  results  are 
secured  on  mixed  grains  in  which  corn 
predominates,  while  oats  are  of  least 
value,  especially  light  oats.  Mashes  are 
considered  of  especial  value  in  hasten- 
ing gains.  Where  mash  is  fed  and 
milk  eiven,  the  absence  of  green  foods 
for  fattening  chicks  will  not  be  noticed. 

Gluten  meal  was  fed  with  ground 
oats,  wet  with  skim  milk,  at  the  Canada 
experimental  farm  and  produced  15 
per  cent  better  gains  than  when  the 
ground  oats  were  fed  with  ground  clover 
and  meat  meal.     Gluten  meal  is  consid- 


ered a  very  satisfactory  feed  for  poultry. 
The  dressed  fowls  were  better  filled  out, 
better  colored,  juicier  and  more  delicate 
on  gluten  meal  than  on  the  other  ra- 
tions. 

Skim  milk  has  been  found  especially 
valuable  for  chickens  during  the  whole 
period  of  growth,  with  or  without  green 
food.  It  was  particularly  valuable  when 
chicks  were  small  and  confined  to  the 
pen. 

At  the  Indiana  station,  chicks  weigh- 
ing 1  to  2  pounds  each  were  fed  light 
meal  rations  and  one  lot  was  given  all 
the  skim  milk  it  would  eat.  At  the  end 
of  six  weeks  the  chicks  receiving  the 
skim  milk  had  made  double  the  gain  of 
the  other  lot.  When  the  grains  were 
mixed  with  skim  milk,  at  the  Canada 
station,  15  to  30  per  cent  better  gains 
were  made  than  when  the  grains  were 
mixed  with  water.  On  the  milk  ration 
the  chickens  dressed  decidedly  plumper 
and  had  a  much  better  appearance,  the 
flesh  was  plumper,  juicier  and  had  a 
better  flavor. 

Animal  food — The  necessity  for  some 
kind  of  animal  food  in  the  ration  .for 
chicks  is  well  brought  out  in  experi- 
ments reported  by  the  New  York  Cor- 
nell station,  where  chicks  six  weeks  old 
were  fed  for  125  days  on  a  ration  con- 
taining meat  in  comparison  with  others 
to  which  no  animal  food  was  given.  On 
the  meat  ration,  the  chicks  doubled  in 
weight,  were  large,  plump,  healthy.  On 
the  vegetable  ration  they  increased  in 
weight  only  about  one-third,  and  were 
small,  sickly  in  appearance  and  ragged; 
some  of  them  were  almost  destitute  of 
feathers.  So  eagerly  did  they  crave 
meat  that  they  began  eating  one  an- 
other. The  breaking  strength  of  the 
bones  of  chicks  fed  meat  ration  was  46 
as  compared  with  31  on  the  all  vegetable 
ration.  The  flesh  of  both  hens  and 
chicks  fed  the  meat  ration  was  about  40 
per  cent  richer  in  albuminoids  than  on 
the  all  vegetable  ration  and  when  cooked 
was  more  succulent,  tender  and  better 
flavored. 

At  the  New  York  state  station  a  like 
experiment  was  made  except  that  the 
vegetable  ration  contained  the  same 
amount  of  protein  as  the  meat  ration, 
derived  from  such  material  as  pea 
meal,  linseed  meal  and  bran.  The  chicks 
were  less  than  a  week  old  when  the  ex- 
periment began  and  during  the  follow- 
ing 20  weeks  from  36  to  66  per  cent  bet- 


POULTRY 


659 


ter  gains  were  made  on  the  meat  ration 
than  on  the  all  vegetable  ration. 

The  West  Virginia  station  reports  an 
experiment  in  which  grain  and  green 
bone  was  fed  in  comparison  with  grain 
alone  for  broilers.  In  120  days  the  gain 
on  the  green  bone  ration  averaged  3.8 
pounds  per  fowl  and  1.92  pounds  per 
fowl  on  grain  ration  alone. 

Age  affecting  gains — Chicks  three 
months  old  at  the  Michigan  station 
made  a  pound  of  gain  for  each  2V2 
pounds  of  grain  fed.  From  about  four 
and  one-half  months  old  it  requires  5.8 


Fattening  chicks  in  crates — The  Eng- 
lish fatten  chicks  extensively  in  crates 
just  large  enough  to  hold  three  or  four 
birds.  The  bottoms  are  slatted  and 
raised  up  off  the  ground  for  purposes  of 
cleanliness.  In  a  test  of  this  method  at 
the  Maine  station,  the  gains  were  not 
quite  so  rapid  as  when  the  chicks  were 
allowed  more  liberty  in  small  yards  and 
less  labor  was  required  in  feeding  them. 

Sometimes  when  crate  feeding  is 
practiced,  the  chicks  are  removed  from 
the  crate  and  fed  with  a  cramming  ma- 
chine.    The   chickens   will   stand   cram- 


Fig.    416 — CAPONS    DRESSED    FOR    MARKET 


to  6.6  pounds  to  produce  a  pound  of 
gain.  Chicks  at  the  Maine  station  95 
days  old  gained  1.4  pounds  in  21  days, 
1.7  pounds  in  a  month,  and  2.3  pounds 
in  35  days.  With  birds  161  days  old,  at 
the  Michigan  station  it  cost  from  14  to 
15  cents  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain, 
while  birds  100  to  130  days  old  cost  for 
a  pound  of  gain  5  to  8  cents.  Plymouth 
Rocks  made  the  most  rapid  gains  of  a 
number  of  breeds  tested  for  over  seven 
years  at  the  Canada  experimental  farm. 
Under  forced  feeding  pure  breeds  made 
more  rapid  and  cheaper  gains  than 
scrubs  at  this  farm. 


ming  from  10  days  to  two  weeks  and 
under  this  method  will  fatten  very  rapid- 
ly. In  10  days  at  the  Ontario  agricul- 
tural college  25  chickens  in  pens  ate  40 
pounds  of  grain  and  40  pounds  of  milk 
and  gained  5  pounds.  Another  like  lot 
fed  with  a  cramming  machine  consumed 
50  pounds  of  grain  and  10  pounds  of 
milk  and  gained  V-fa  pounds.  The 
crammed  chickens  brought  3  cents  a 
pound  more  on  the  market,  being 
plumper  and     more  attracticve. 

Caponizing — This  method  of  handling 
cockerels  by  castrating  is  not  extensive- 
ly practiced  in  the  United  States.    The 


660 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


increased  value  of  the  meat  of  capons 
makes  the  practice  profitable  in  certain 
markets.  The  practice  is  profitable  only 
with  the  heavy  breeds,  like  the  Brahmas, 
Plymouth  Eocks,  etc.  They  are  killed 
when  11  to  14  months  of  age  and  mar- 
keted with  the  head  on.  This  serves  as 
a  distinguishing  mark  of  capons,  since 
they  fail  to  develop  the  masculine  ap- 
pearance of  the  cocks. 

The  operation  is  not  as  simple  as  is 
often  stated  and  should  not  be  under- 
taken without  previous  practice  on  dead 
fowls.  It  is  performed  by  fastening 
the  bird  upon  its  left  side,  pulling  back 
and  fastening  down  the  wings,  removing 
some  of  the  feathers  and  making  an  in- 
cision between  the  first  and  second  ribs. 
The  work  must  be  done  in  bright  sun- 
light, and  the  bird  should  have  been 
fasted  24  hours  before  the  operation 
is  performed.  The  testes  are  removed 
by  means  of  an  ecraseur.  A  set  of  ca- 
ponizing  instruments  will  cost  from 
$2.50  to  $3,  and  detailed  instructions 
for  their  use  come  with  them.  The 
operation  is  performed  when  the  birds 
are  about  three  months  old. 

Capons  are  fed  in  the  same  manner  as 
other  fattening  birds.  Usually  they 
grow  faster  and  become  a  little  larger 
within  a  given  time  than  cockerels.  The 
South  Carolina  station  found  capons  to 
be  excellent  brooders  and  nurses  for 
young  chicks,  their  long  feathers  ena- 
bling them  to  cover  more  chicks  than 
hens  and  they  took  better  care  of  the 
chicks  than  the  hens  did. 

Feather  eating—Chickens  which  ac- 
quire this  habit  may  be  cured  by  apply- 
ing a  mixture  of  vaseline  or  lard  and 
powdered  aloes  on  the  old  feathers  near 
the  spot  which  has  been  picked  bare  and 
to  the  new  feathers  as  they  come  out. 
With  ordinary  stock,  the  best  remedy 
is  to  kill  the  birds  as  soon  as  they  show 
symptoms  of  the  disease.  They  are  less 
likely  to  develop  feather  eating  tenden- 
cies if  supplied  regularly  with  animal 
food  in  their  rations. 

THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

The  stock  intended  for  breeding  pur- 
poses require  liberal  grain  rations  and 
plenty  of  run  and  grazing.  If  allowed 
the  run  of  cut  clover  and  grain  fields, 
they  require  no  animal  food  other  than 
the  insects  they  pick  up.  In  selecting 
the  stock  in  the  fall,  those  retained  for 
laying  and  breeding  purposes  should  first 


of  all  be  healthy  and  in  prime  condition. 
If  pure  breeds  are  being  grown  for  stock 
purposes,  they  should  be  selected  to  con- 
form as  nearly  to  standard  as  possible, 
The  method  of  feeding  has  been  con- 
sidered  early   in   this   chapter. 

Raising  cross  bred  chickens — Where 
chickens  are  raised  for  either  poultry  or 
eggs,  stronger  and  more  vigorous  birds 
and  birds  which  gain  more  rapidly  and 
lay  more  eggs,  can  usually  be  obtained 
from   first    crosses   between   pure    breds 


Fig. 


417 — BARRED      PLYMOUTH 
DRESSED    FOR    MARKET 


than  from  either  of  the  pure  bred  pa- 
rents. As  the  result  of  many  crosses 
and  exhibitions  at  the  state  fairs,  the 
Khode  Island  station  concludes  that 
raisers  of  poultry  for  table  use  will 
make  no  mistake  in  crossing  Indian 
Game  on  Light  Brahma  or  Wyandotte 
hens,  or  Wyandotte  males  on  Indian 
Games  or  Light  Brahma  hens.  It  was 
found  that  the  Indian  Game  crosses 
were  harder  to  pluck  or  caponize  than 
either  of  the  other  crosses. 

MARKETING  CHICKENS 

Chickens  are  marketed  both  alive  and 
dressed.  In  the  summer  months  the 
larger  part  are  marketed  alive  and  for 
this  purpose  low,  strong,  slatted  crates 
should  be  used,  placing  only  birds  of 
like  size  and  appearance  in  each  crate. 
Different  markets  vary  in  their  methods 
of  handling  birds  and  the  commission 
men  should  be  consulted  before  shipping 
to  market. 

#  When  shipped  alive,  the  only  precau- 
tions necessary   are  to   feed   them  well 


POULTRY 


661 


before  crating,  not  crowd  too  many  into 
the  crate  and  if  shipped  long  distances 
to  provide  some  food  for  them  on  the 
journey.  A  head  of  cabbage '  tied  at 
each  end  of  the  crate  will  be  appreciated 
by  the  birds. 

Dressing — Dressed  chickens  are  usu- 
ally shipped  in  barrels  or  boxes.  Before 
killing,  they  should  be  fasted  for  12  to 
24  hours.  Most  of  the  poultry  marketed 
in  the  large  cities  is  sold  undrawn  and 
with  the  head  and  feet  left  on.  The 
birds  are  killed  by  running  a  sharp 
knife  through  the  roof  of  the  mouth  to 
the  brain,  so  that  they  bleed  freely.  If 
dry  picked,  the  sooner  the  operation  be- 
gins after  killing  the  easier  the  work  is 
done. 

The  birds  are  hung  up  by  the  legs  for 
the  blood  to  escape.  The  easiest  way  of 
dressing  is  to  scald  the  birds,  though 
they  are  not  so  attractive  on  the  market 
as  when  properly  dry  picked.  In  scald- 
ing, the  temperature  of  the  water  should 
be  just  below  boiling.  The  chicken  is 
held  by  the  legs  and  dipped  two  or  three 
times  in  the  water,  care  being  taken 
not  to  dip  the  head,  as  this  discolors  the 
comb,  shrinks  the  eyes  and  gives  the 
head  a  sickly  appearance.  After  scald- 
ing, some  recommend  immediate  plung- 
ing of  the  bird  in  cold  water,  after 
which  it  is  hung  up  by  the  legs  so  that, 
both  hands  may  be  free  to  remove  the 
feathers   and   pin   feathers. 

After  the  feathers  are  removed,  the 
bird  should  be  "plumped."  This  is  done 
by  immersing  in  almost  boiling  water 
for  an  instant  and  then  into  ice  cold 
water.  "If  the  stock  is  iced  when 
shipped,  it  can  remain  in  the  cold  bath 
until  taken  out  for  packing,  otherwise, 
it  should  be  removed  when  thoroughly 
cooled  and  hung  up  to  dry." 

Packing  and  shipping— All  old  and 
heavy  birds  should  be  marketed  before 
January  1,  as  after  that  date  the  de- 
mand is  mostly  for  the  smaller,  round, 
fat  fowls.  "In  packing  chickens,  the 
head  may  be .  put  under  the  wing,  but 
the  body  and  legs  should  be  straightened 
out.  Pack  snugly  in  a  barrel  or  box  to 
avoid  sliding  ,  about  in  transit.  The 
stock  should  be  carefully  graded  in  each 
package  and  all  inferior  stock  kept  sep- 
arate from  the  better  grades.  The  birds 
should  be  clean,  free  from  blood  stains, 
and  any  bad  tears  in  the  skin  should  be 
sewed  up  with  fine,  white  thread. 


"In  shipping  dressed  chickens  in  sum- 
mer, a  layer  of  finely  cracked  ice  should 
be  put  in  the  barrel,  then  chickens,  then 
a  layer  of  ice,  until  the  barrel  is  full;  a 
layer  of  ice  should  cover  the  top  layer 
of  chickens.  This  should  be  covered  over 
with  a  piece  of  burlap  and  a  large  piece 
of  ice  put  on,  with  a  large  piece  of  burlap 
secured  over  the  top  hoop.  Holes  should 
not  be  bored  in  the  bottom  of  the  barrel, 
as  it  is  better  to  have  the  barrel  hold 
water.  Mark  directions  plainly  on  the 
outside  of  the  package  and  state  what 
the  package  contains." 

All  white  chicken  feathers  suitable  for 
cushions  bring  15  to  20  cents  a  pound, 
colored  feathers  4  to  5  cents  a  pound. 

Losses  in  dressing_At  the  Canada 
experiment  farm  dressed  and  drawn 
chicks  exclusive  of  the  giblets  averaged 
66.4  per  cent  of  the  original  weight  of 
the  birds.  The  giblets  constituted  5.5 
per  cent,  head  and  feet  11.2  per  cent, 
feathers  8.3  per  cent  and  entrails  8.5  per 
cent.  The  New  York  state  station  found 
that  the  loss  in  dressing  capons  for 
market,  undrawn,  was  11  per  cent  of  their 
fasted  or  15  per  cent  of  their  unfasted 
weight. 
DUCKS 

The  duck  industry  has  increased  enor- 
mously in  recent  years.  There  are  a 
good  many  duck  farms  at  the  present 
time  which  turn  out  .annually  from 
4,000  to  20,000  birds.  The  larger  part  of 
these  are  marketed  when  they  are  about 
10  weeks  of  age  as  "green"  ducks.  The 
better  breeds  at  this  age  will  average 
4*/2  to  5V2  pounds  each.  Formerly  a 
pond  of  running  water  was  considered 
essential  in  duck  farming,  but  at  pres- 
ent many  of  the  largest  growers  raise 
all  of  their  ducks  on  high,  dry  land  with- 
out any  water  except  for  drinking  pur- 
poses. One  of  the  largest  growers  of 
ducks  in  the  eastern  states,  James  Ran- 
kin, states  that  in  the  strain  of  White 
Pekin,  which  he  has  raised  for  many 
years,  the  desire  for  swimming  and  pud- 
dling in  water  has  been  entirely 
bred  out.  Ducks  grow  three  or  four 
times  as  rapidly  as  chickens,  are  more 
hardy,  less  subject  to  disease,  and  Ran- 
kin states  that  in  40  years'  experience  he 
has  not  found   them  affected  with  lice. 

A  prominent  eastern  duck  grower 
places  the  cost  of  producing  green  ducks 
as  follows: 

Cost  of  one  newly  hatched  duckling, 
10  cents. 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Labor  and  cost  of  brooding,  10  cents. 

Food  for  10  weeks,  20  cents. 

Dressing  for  market,  6  cents. 

Total  cost  when  ready  to  ship,  46 
cents. 

At  an  average  price  of  18  cents  a 
pound,  the  duckling  will  bring  90  cents, 
leaving  a  margin  of  44  cents  profit. 

In  the  above  estimate,  the  cost  of  feed- 
ing for  10  weeks  at  20  cents  may  be  a 
little  low,  while  the  price  of  ducklings 
varies  from  30  cents  a  pound  early  in 
the  season  to  a  minimum  of  about  15 
cents  a  pound  later. 

BREEDS   OF  DUCKS 

There  are  eight  or  nine  general  pur- 
pose and  fancy  breeds  of  ducks  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States.  The  more 
important  are  the  White  Pekin,  White 
Aylesbury,  Colored  Kouen,  Black  Cay- 
uga, Muscovy  and  Blue  Swedish. 

White  Pekin — This  is  the  most  prom- 
inent and  popular  breed  of  ducks  in 
America  and  the  leading  variety  grown 
for  commercial  purposes.  It  is  a  white 
breed,  walks  in  an  upright  position, 
timid  and  noisy  in  disposition,  non-sit- 
ter, but  excellent  layer,  averaging  from 
100  to  150  eggs  a  season,  hardy,  easily 
raised,  early  maturing  and  among  the 
best  for  table  fowls.  The  standard 
weight  of  the  drake  is  8  pounds,  ducks 
7  pounds.  From  four  to  eight  ducks 
may  be  kept  with  each  drake. 

White  Aylesbury_This  duck  is  sec- 
ond in  popularity  only  to  the  Pekin.  It 
is  less  grown  in  this  country  and  not 
generally  considered  as  satisfactory  for 
profit  as  the  Pekin.  The  birds  have  soft, 
white  plumage,  a  wide,  pale,  flesh  colored 
bill,  a  long,  deep  body  and  full,  round 
breast.  They  are  easily  acclimated,  ma- 
ture early,  and  are  very  hardy  and  pro- 
lific. The  standard  weight  of  the  adult 
bird  is  9  pounds  and  the  duck  8  pounds. 
Use  one  drake  to  four  or  eight  females. 

Colored  Rouen  ducks — This  is  a  very 
popular  breed  throughout  the  entire 
country,  but  does  not  mature  as  early 
as  either  the  Pekin  or  Aylesbury.  In 
color  it  resembles  the  wild  Mallard  duck, 
from  which  it  is  believed  to  have  de- 
scended. The  body,  however,  is  longer 
and  heavier  than  that  of  the  Mallard, 
the  flesh  is  delicate  and  excellent  for 
table  purposes  and  the  bird  is  easily 
fattened.  The  distinct  white  ring  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  neck  is  a  distin- 
guishing characteristic.     One  objection 


to  them  aside  from  their  slow  maturing 
is  dark  pin  feathers.  Mature  drakes 
should  weigh  9  pounds,  the  ducks  8 
pounds. 

Black  Cayuga  duck — This  is  an 
American  breed,  originated  in  central 
New  York,  sometimes  called  also  Big 
Black  or  Lake  duck.  By  some  they  are 
considered  second  only  to  the  Pekin  in 
desirable  qualites.  They  are  seldom 
bred,  however,  on  the  larger  duck  farms, 
possibly  owing  to  their  black  plumage, 
on  account  of  which  longer  time  is  re- 
quired in  dressing  for  market.  These 
birds  thrive  well  on  limited  range,  are 
quiet,  docile,  home-loving  and  breed  well 
in  confinement.  The  standard  weight 
of  drakes  is  8  pounds  and  of  ducks  7 
pounds. 

Indian  Runner  ducks — This  is  a  small 
breed,  standing  in  the  same  relation  to 
duck  breeds  as  Leghorns  do  to  breeds  of 
chickens.  Old  birds  lay  from  125  to 
150  eggs  annually,  and  records  of  200 
eggs  are  common.  They  are  very  active, 
good  rangers,  picking  up  a  large  part  of 
their  living,  non-sitters,  hardy  and  easily 
reared,  but  restless  under  confinement. 
The  term  "Runner"  comes  from  the  fact 
that  they  literally  run  instead  of  wad- 
dle. Drakes  of  standard  size  should 
weigh  4lVo  pounds,  ducks,  4  pounds. 

Blue  Swedish  is  a  variety  seldom  seen 
in  the  United  States.  It  belongs  to  the 
standard  breeds,  the  drake  weighing  8 
pounds  and  the  ducks  7  pounds.  The 
general  color  of  the  plumage  is  a  uni- 
form steel  blue,  with  the  exception  of 
the  front  portion  of  the  breast,  which  is 
white,  and  the  main  flight  feathers, 
which  are  also  white. 

Muscovy  ducks_The  Muscovy  duck, 
sometimes  called  Musk  duck,  on  account 
of  the  odor  of  musk  which  pervades  the 
skin,  is  a  native  of  South  America  and 
is  extensively  grown  in  Brazil,  where  it 
is  highly  prized  for  table  purposes.  There 
are  both  colored  and  white  varieties. 
They  are  said  to  be  superior  to  the  best 
strain  of  Pekin  duck,  in  that  they  are 
not  nearly  so  noisy  nor  timid,  lay  their 
eggs  regularly  in  nests  instead  of  drop- 
ping them  anywhere  on  the  ground,  are 
good  sitters,  hardier  than  the  Pekin,  less 
affected  by  heat,  are  ready  for  market 
as  soon  as  the  Pekin  and  just  as  heavy, 
while  in  meat  qualities  they  are  supe- 
rior to  the  Pekin.  The  drake  is  char- 
acterized   by    long,    crest-like    feathers. 


POULTRY 


663 


The  cheeks  are  nakea  and  nave  a  scarlet 
fleshy  space  around  the  eyes ;  the  base  of 
the  bill  is  carunculated  with  scarlet 
folds,  which  makes  them  unattractive 
and  savage  in  appearance.  The  colored 
Muscovy  has  a  glossy  back  and  white 
head,  while  the  White  Muscovy  is  pure 
white  throughout.  Adult  drakes  of 
standard   size   should  weigh   10  pounds, 


Fig.  418 — INDIAN   RUNNER  DUCKS 

ducks  9  pounds.  These  ducks  have  a 
quarrelsome  disposition,  are  a  distinct 
species  and  when  crossed  with  other 
breeds  produce  only  sterile  strains. 

Call  duck — There  are  two  varieties  of 
this  breed,  the  Gray  Call  and  the  White 
Call.  They  are  bantams  and  their  chief 
use  is  for  show  purposes  and  for  decoy 
ducks  in  wild  duck  shooting.  The 
smaller  they  are  bred  the  more  highly 
they  are  valued. 

The  White  Call  is  pure  white  in  color 
throughout,  while  the  Gray  Call  is 
marked  with  green  and  brown.  The 
drake  is  characterized  by  a  ring  around 
the  neck,  the  same  as  found  in  the 
Rouen. 

The  Black  East  India  is  another  ban- 
tam breed,  seldom  exceeding  2x/2  pounds, 
and  grown  primarily  for  show  purposes. 
Plumage  is  rich  black  tinted  with  bril- 
liant green  throughout.  One  male  to 
two    females    is    recommended. 

Crested  White  ducks — These  are  or- 
namental birds  seldom  seen  in  this 
country  outside  of  exhibitions.  They 
are  white  birds  having  a  well-balanced 
crest.  Drakes  will  weigh  7  pounds  and 
ducks  6  pounds.  They  are  but  little 
value  to  the  farmer  in  comparison  to 
the  Pekin  or  Aylesbury. 


Eggs  and  incubation — Duck  eggs  are 
generally  a  little  larger  than  hens'  eggs, 
weighing  about  2V2  pounds  to  the  dozen. 
Under  favorable  conditions  of  manage- 
ment, such  as  is  supplied  on  the  large 
duck  farms,  laying  begins  in  December 
and  January  and  continues  until  early 
summer.  In  order  to  secure  fertile  eggs, 
about  one  drake  to  each  four  to  seven 
ducks  should  be  used.  Most  breeds  lay 
their  eggs  anywhere  on  the  ground  or 
in  the  water,  if  they  have  a  swimming 
pool,  though  occasionally  they  make 
nests.  Generally  they  are  poor  sitters, 
and  on  this  account  the  eggs  are  hatched 
either  with  hens  or  in  incubators.  With 
hens,  the  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Brahmas 
make  the  best  mothers.  About  nine- 
eggs  can  be  placed  under  a  hen  in  win- 
ter and  11  or  12  in  warm  weather.  The 
incubator,  however,  is  depended  upon 
entirely  for  raising  ducklings  on  a  large 
scale. 

The  method  of  operating  the  incuba- 
tor is  exactly  the  same  as  for  chick- 
ens, except  that  it  requires  28  to  30  days 
to  hatch  duck  eggs.  The  eggs  should 
be  examined  on  the  third  day  of  incu- 
bation and  those  that  are  sterile  re- 
moved and  sold  with  the  cull  eggs,  which 
are  excessively  large  or  small  eggs,  and 
sold  to  bakers  or  grocers.  On  the 
seventh  day  the  eggs  should  again  be 
examined  and  all  those  with  weak  germs 


Pig.    419 — COLORED    MUSCOVY 


hard 


removed     and  saved    to  be    used 
boiled  as  food  for  the  ducklings. 

Handling  in  the  brooder — The  duck- 
lings should  not  be  removed  to  the  brood- 
er until  they  are  dried  off  and  should 
not  be  fed  until  they  have  been  hatched 
at  least  36  hours.  In  the  brooder  they 
require  fully  as  high  a  temperature  as 
chicks    for    the   first   three    days,    after 


664 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


which  they  will  stand  a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  chicks. 

Ducks  differ  from  chickens  in  that 
they  have  no  crop  and  the  food  goes 
directly  to  the  stomach.  On  this  account 
ducks  require  a  much  larger  proportion 
of  soft  food  than  chickens.  In  fact, 
dry,  hard  grain  should  be  reserved  al- 
most entirely  for  mature  ducks. 

Feeding  ducklings— Relative  to  the 
feeding  of  ducklings,  Rankin  states  that 
the  first  food  should  consist  of  bread  or 
cracker  crumbs,  slightly  moistened 
mixed  with  about  10  per  cent  of  hard 
boiled  eggs  chopped  fine,  shell  and  all. 
With  this  food  should  be  mixed  about  5 
per  cent  of  very  fine  gravel  or  coarse 
sand.  "Do  not  place  grit  by  them  and 
expect  them  to  eat  it,  but  mix  it  in  their 
food  and  compel  them  to  eat  it,  as  it  is 
the  most  essential  part  of  the  whole 
thing.  Scatter  this  food  on  the  board 
and  place  your  ducklings  on  it  and  they 
will  be  busily  eating  within  10  minutes. 
One  hundred  to  150  little  birds  can  be 
put  in  one  brooder  6  feet  long.  When 
two  to  three  weeks  old  75  to  100  is  a 
plenty  for  one  brooder." 

At  first  the  floor  of  the  brooder  may 
be  covered  with  hay,  chaff,  or  finely  cut 
straw.  After  ten  days  sawdust  may  be 
used.  After  about  the  second  day,  rolled 
oats  and  bran  may  be  given  in  the  form 
of  a  mash.  When  about  10  days  old, 
finely  chopped  rye,  cabbage  or  other 
green  materials  can  be  safely  given. 
When  10  days  old,  the  mash  may  con- 
sist^  of  a  fourth  corn  meal  and  the  re- 
mainder wheat  bran,  mixed  with  a  small 
amount  of  rolled  oats,  grit  and  about 
10  per  cent  of  ground  beef  scraps  or 
other  animal  food,  and  all  of  the  finely 
chopped  green  food  they  will  eat. 

Animal  food  for  ducklings The  use 

of  animal  food  of  some  kind,  either  in 
the  form  of  ground  bone,  meat  meal, 
dried  blood,  milk,  or  fish,  is  absolutely 
essential  to.  the  successful  growth  of 
ducklings.  In  experiments  at  the  New 
York  state  station,  ducklings  fed  a  ration 
made  up  wholly  of  vegetable  origin, 
failed  to  thrive  and  nearly  one-half  the 
flock  died  before  they  were  four  weeks 
old,  and  the  gains  were  very  small.  Sim- 
ilar ducklings  getting  meat  meal  in  the 
ration  all  lived  and  thrived.  When 
meat  meal  was  added  to  the  grain  ration 
in  the  first  instance,  death  in  the  flock 
ceased  and  good  gains  were  made 
Other  extended  experiments  at  the  sta 


tion  showed  60  per  cent  of  the  protein 
in  the  ration  for  the  first  three  weeks 
might  profitably  be  derived  from  animal 
sources.  As  the  birds  grow  older  a  larger 
amount  of  grain  can  be  used. 

Other  experiments  at  the  station,  in 
which  the  relative  value  of  dried  blood, 
bone  meal,  and  milk  albumen  were  in- 
vestigated as  foods  for  ducklings,  showed 
that  while  the  same  gain  was  secured 
with  each  food,  the  most  rapid  gain  was 
made  on  milk  albumen  and  animal  meal, 
due  probably  to  the  greater  palatability 
of  these  two  rations. 

Ducks  vs  chickens — The  much  more 
rapid  gains  of  ducks  than  chickens  is 
well  brought  out  in  experiments  reported 
from  the  Michigan  station,  in  which  39 
ducklings  two  weeks  old,  and  weighing  a 
total  of  13^4  pounds,  were  fed  for  five 
weeks  in  comparison  with  39  chickens 
weighing  a  total  of  7%  pounds.  At  the 
end  of  the  feeding  period,  the  ducks  had 
made  a  total  gain  of  108.75  pounds, 
while  the  chickens  weighed  but  22^2 
pounds.  With  the  ducks  it  cost  1.9 
cents  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain,  while 
with  the  chicks  it  cost  4.84  cents  for  a 
pound  of  gain. 

Amount  and  method  of  feeding — The 
amount  of  feed  to  give  daily  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  age  and  appetite.  For 
the  first  few  days  they  should  be  fed 
four  or  five  times  daily.  Later,  three 
times  will  be  sufficient.  They  should  be 
given  each  meal  all  they  will  eat  up 
clean.  Some  feeders  make  a  practice 
of  giving  them  an  abundance  of  mash 
on  the  feeding  board,  allowing  them  to 
eat  20  or  25  minutes,  and  then  remov- 
ing what  remains.  By  this  method  the 
weaker  birds  get  their  full  share.  In 
any  case,  all  the  food  left  over  should 
be  removed  from  the  troughs  or  feed- 
ing board  after  each  meal  and  the  feed- 
ing utensils  and  feeds  kept  scrupulously 
clean.  Ducks  are  infinitely  more  filthy 
than  chickens  and  much  more  care  is 
required  to  keep  their  quarters  clean. 

When  the  eggs  are  set  under  hens,  it 
is  advisable  to  set  a  number  of  hens  at 
the  same  time  if  possible,  and,  when  the 
ducklings  hatch,  to  give  the  brood  of 
three  or  four  hens  to  one  hen.  Under 
farm  conditions,  they  may  be  kept  in 
small  yards,  well  housed  at  night  for 
five  or  six  days  and  then  turned  loose 
with  the  mother  to  forage. 

Feeding  older  ducklings — When  the 
ducklings  are  from  three  to  six  weeks 


POULTRY 


665 


old,  Rankin  recommends  feed  as  follows : 
two  parts  wheat  bran,  one  part  corn 
meal,  one  part  low  grade  flour,  3  per 
cent  fine  grit,  5  per  cent  of  beef  scraps. 
This  should  be  mixed  with  green  food 
and  fed  four  times  a  day.  When  from 
six  to  eight  weeks  old,  a  mixture  made 
up  of  equal  parts  of  corn  meal,  wheat 
bran  and  low  grade  flour,  to  which  10 
per  cent  of  beef  scraps  and  3  per  cent  of 
grit  is  added  may  be  used,  and  the  duck- 
lings fed  three  times  a  day.  When  eight 
to  10  weeks  old,  or  during  the  fattening 
period,  when  they  are  being  prepared 
for  market,  one-half  the  rations  should 
consist  of  corn  meal  and  the  other  half 
of  equal  parts  wheat  bran,  red  dog  flour, 


is  recommended  that  the  troughs  or 
drinking  fountains  be  deep  enough  so 
that  the  ducklings  can  dip  their  heads 
below  the  eyes.  This  tends  to  prevent 
sore  eyes  and  nose  troubles.  Fresh  water 
will  be  required  two  or  three  times  a  day. 
Ducks  require  much  more  water  than 
hens.  In  feeding  they  frequently  stop 
and  go  to  the  drinking  fountain  for 
water,  repeating  this  process  several 
times  during  the  meal. 

BUILDINGS 

Ducklings  are  usually  kept  in  a  warm 
brooder  house  until  about  three  weeks 
old,  after  which  they  are  removed  to  a 
colder  house.  Where  the  birds  are  grown 


Fig.    420 — BREEDING    AND    LAYING    HOMES   WITH    OUTYARDS     OP     THE    YARDLEY    DUCK 

PLANT 


10  per  cent  beef  scraps  and  3  per  cent 
grit.  Oyster  shells  are  given  at  this 
time  and  less  green  food  than  usual.  In 
all  cases  the  mash  should  be  mixed  with 
cold  water  or  milk  to  a  dry,  crumbly 
state;  milk  is  much  preferable  to  water. 
It  should  not  be  fed  alone  to  ducklings, 
since  they  are  sure  to  besmear  them- 
selves, resulting  in  a  loss  of  down  and 
miserable  looking,  sickly  birds.  Through- 
out the  early  feeding,  green  food  should 
be  given  in  abundance.  Provide  green 
rye,  clover,  cornstalks,  peas  and  oats 
mixed,  etc,  and  all  cut  fine.  Boiled 
turnips  and  potatoes  are  also  excellent. 

Water  for  ducks—Water  for  bathing 
purposes  is  not  at  all  essential  for  ducks, 
but  an  abundance  of  fresh  water  must 
be  provided   for  drinking  purposes.     It 


m  winter,  some  provision  will  be  required 
for  occasional  heating  of  the  colder 
house.  Attached  to  the  cold  brooder 
house  should  be  an  outside  run  for  feed- 
ing and  watering  when  the  weather  mod- 
erates. Ducks  require  an  abundance  of 
fresh  air  and  will  thrive  better  under 
outdoor  conditions  than  under  confine- 
ment. When  about  seven  weeks  old. 
ducks  are  transferred  to  the  growing 
houses,  which  are  not  heated  at  all,  and 
rapidly  fattened  until  10  weeks  old  and 
then  sold. 

Later  in  the  spring,  when  the  weather 
is  warmer,  the  ducks  seldom  go  inside  of 
houses  at  night.  When  the  birds  weigh 
from  4  to  5%  pounds  they  are  mar- 
keted. If  kept  longer,  the  secondary 
feathers   begin   to   grow   and   the   gains 


666 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


are  much  slower.  Growing  houses  need 
not  be  more  than  6  or  7  feet  high  in 
front  and  2  or  3  feet  high  in  the  rear. 
There  are  absolutely  no  interior  arrange- 
ments, the  birds  roosting  on  the  ground, 
which  should  be  covered  with  straw,  dried 
leaves  or  chaff.  The  Muscovy  breed 
prefers  roosts,  and  will  use  them  if  pro- 
vided. 

Feeding  breeding  ducks — Breeding 
ducks  should  be  given  an  abundance  of 
pasture  and,  in  addition,  Rankin  recom- 
mends a  mash  made  up  of  three  parts 
wheat  bran,  one  part  low  grade  flour,  one 
part  corn  meal,  5  per  cent  beef  scraps, 
and  3  per  cent  grit.  In  winter  and  early 
spring  they  should  have  all  the  green 
food  they  will  eat  in  the  shape  of  corn 
fodder,    cut   fine|,    clover)    or    oat    fod- 


alive  in  summer,  excepting  green  ducks, 
and  dressed  in  winter.  Dressed  ducks 
are  either  dry-picked  or  scalded  and 
picked.  When  scalded,  the  water  should 
be  just  under  the  boiling  point,  the 
back  first  dipped  in  and  then  the  breast, 
two  or  three  times.  After  scalding,  the 
birds  are  wiped  dry  with  a  sponge,  and 
the  breast  feathers  first  picked.  The 
feathers  on  the  wing  and  tail,  neck  and 
head  are  left,  and  usually  the  birds  are 
marketed  undrawn.  Markets  differ  in 
this  respect,  and  the  commission  mer- 
chant should  be  consulted.  Like  chick- 
ens, ducks  should  be  fasted  12  to  24 
hours  before  being  killed.  The  birds 
are  killed  by  a  cut  made  across  the  roof 
of  the  mouth  just  below  the  eyes,  after 
which  they  are  stunned  by  striking  the 


gSfcM'Sfi 


MfciS 


Fig.  421 — YARDS  AND  COLD  HOME  OF  A  LARGE  DUCK  PLANT 


der.     The  mash  is  fed  twice  a  day,  giv- 
ing the  birds  all  they  will  ea* 

For  laying  birds,  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  wheat  bran  and  corn  meal,  10  per 
cent  beef  scraps,  20  per  cent  low  grade 
flour,  10  per  cent  boiled  turnips  or  pota- 
toes, 15  per  cent  clover  rowen,  green  rye, 
or  refuse  cabbage  chopped  fine,  and  3 
per  cent  grit  is  recommended.  They 
should  be  fed  this  mash  twice  a  day,  giv- 
ing the  birds  all  they  will  eat,  with  corn 
and  oats  at  noon  in  addition.  Grit  and 
ground  oyster  shells  should  be  constantly 
before  them  and  all  the  mashes  mixed 
with  cold  water  or  skim  milk. 

MARKETING   DUCKS 

If  ducks  are  shipped  alive,  the  direc- 
tions given  for  shipping  chickens  may 
be  followed.  They  are  commonly  shipped 


head  against  a  post  or  with  a  paddle. 

In  picking,  the  body  feathers  and 
down  are  saved  and  sold;  the  amount 
secured  from  each  bird  is  about  2  ounces 
which  is  nearly  sufficient  to  pay  for 
picking,  the  price  varying  from  about 
30  cents  a  pound  for  colored  feathers  to 
45  cents  for  pure  white. 

In  dry  picking,  the  operation  must 
be  done  as  soon  as  the  bird  is  stunned. 
The  feathers  are  removed  more  easily 
while  the  birds  are  warm  than  when  they 
have  become  cold.  The  longer  pin  feath- 
ers are  removed  with  the  thumb  and  a 
dull  knife.  The  down  is  taken  off  by 
rubbing  the  moistened  hand  over  the 
tightly-drawn  skin.  Good  pickers  can 
dress  three  dozen  birds  a  day.  After 
picking,  the  birds  are  thoroughly  washed 
and  plumped  by  dipping  first  in  boiling 


POULTRY 


667 


hot  water  and  then  hardening  them  in 
ice  water,  in  which  they  are  left  until 
ready  for  packing.  By  this  treatment 
they  are  given  a  full,  round  form.  They 
are  packed  either  in  boxes  or  barrels  in 
practically  the  same  manner  as  recom- 
mended for  chickens.  A  satisfactory 
package  for  dressed  ducks  is  a  box  30 
x20  inches,  and  about  10  inches  deep. 
Two  or  three  layers  of  birds  can  be  put 
in  such  a  box;  the  top  layer  is  placed 
with  the  breast  up.     The  prices  received 


Fig.   422 — DRESSED   DUCKS 

will  largely  depend  upon  the  cleanliness 
and  inviting  appearance  of  the  birds 
when  put  on  the  market.  Too  much 
pains,  therefore,  cannot  be  taken  in  pre- 
paring them  for  exhibition  and  sale. 

GEESE 

The  nature  of  geese  limits  the  extent 
to  which  they  may  be  raised  to  a  much 
greater  degree  than  ducks.  They  are 
more  nearly  monogamous  than  any  other 
fowl,  except  pigeons,  the  gander  seldom 
mating  with  more  than  two  or  three,  or 
rarely  four  birds,  and  often  with  only 
one.  They  produce  from  20  to  50  eggs 
a  year.  In  their  feeding  habits  they 
very  much  resemble  ruminants,  since 
they  require  an  abundance  of  pasture 
and  may  be  grazed  without  other  feed 
in  the  same  manner  as  animals.  They 
are  the  hardiest  and  least  subject  to  dis- 
ease of  any  form  of  poultry  and  a  loss 
of  goslings  greater  than  5  per  cent  of 
the  eggs  hatched  seldom  occurs.  There 
is  a  large  industry  in  marketing  green 
geese  or  young  geese,  ranging  from  8 
to  10  pounds  in  weight. 

Geese  require  no  shelter  in  the  coldest 
weather  other  than  a  dry  shed,  which 
may  be  entirely  open  to  the  south.  The 
birds  may  live  40  to  50  years  and  rec- 


ords of  geese  100  years  old  have  been 
reported.  During  all  this  time  they 
remain  productive.  Like  ducks,  geese 
have  practically  no  crop,  and,  conse- 
quently, feed  at  frequent  intervals,  and 
in  warm  weather  often  eat  more  at  night 
than  during  the  day.  Geese  become 
greatly  attached  to  each  other  and  to 
their  home  surroundings. 

BREEDS  OE  GEESE 

There  are  five  common  breeds  of 
geese  in  the  United  States:  the  Tou- 
louse, Embden,  African,  Chinese  and 
Wild  or  Canadian  goose. 

Toulouse_The  Toulouse  is  one  of  the 
most  popular  breeds,  especially  valuable 
for  the  Christmas  trade,  since  they  ma- 
ture at  about  this  time.  They  are  a 
compact  gray  bird,  becoming  white  on 
the  belly.  The  gander  weighs  at  ma- 
turity about  20  pounds  and  the  goose  18 
pounds. 

Embden — These  are  snowwhite  birds, 
fully  as  popular  as  the  Toulouse,  though 
not  so  prolific.  Like  the  Toulouse,  the 
ganders  weigh  about  20  pounds  at  ma- 
turity and  the  goose  about  18  pounds. 
The  carriage  of  the  Embdens  is  rather 
more  erect  than  that  of  the  Toulouse. 

Gray  African — By  many  growers  this 
is  considered  the  most  profitable  of  all 
geese    raised,    since    they    mature   more 


Fig.  423 — toulouse  geese 

rapidly  than  any  of  the  other  breeds. 
At  10  weeks  of  age  they  can  be  marketed 
as  green  geese  at  a  weight  of  8  to  10 
pounds  each.  They  are  good  layers  and 
the  flesh  is  considered  especially  satis- 
factory for  the  table.  Besides  the  gray 
color,  the  geese  are  characterized  by  a 
large   knob   on   the   head   and   a   heavy 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


dewlap  under  the  throat.  The  standard 
weight  of  these  birds  is  also  20  pounds 
for  the  gander  and  18  pounds  for  the 
goose,  though  they  frequently  much  ex- 
ceed this  weight.  At  the  Rhode  Island 
station,  these  were  found  the  quickest 
growing    of  all  the  pure  bred  geese. 

Chinese  geese— These  are  smaller  than 
any  of  the  breeds  mentioned  above,  the 
average  weight  of  the  gander  being  12 


Fig.    424 — EMBDEN    GEESE 

pounds  and  the  goose  10  pounds.  They 
are  much  more  prolific  than  the  other 
breeds,  averaging  from  50  to  60  eggs  a 
year  and  superior  as  table  birds.  There 
are  two  varieties  of  the  Chinese,  the 
Brown  and  White.  Like  the  Gray  Afri- 
can, they  have  a  large  knob  at  the  base 
of  the  upper  mandible,  but  their  smaller 
size  and  color  at  once  distinguishes  them 
from  this  breed. 

Wild  or  Canada — The  Wild  Gray  or 
Canada  goose  is  bred  extensively 
throughout  the  country,  the  ganders  be- 
ing in  especial  demand  for  mating  with 
the  African  or  Toulouse  geese  for  the 
breeding  of  mongrels.  These  mongrels 
are  sterile,  but  are  considered  the  best 
of  all  geese  for  table  purposes  and  bring 
a  much  higher  price  than  any  other 
kind.  The  Wild  Gray  goose  has  a  black 
head  with  a  characteristic  white  stripe 
nearly  covering  the  side  of  the  face. 
The  bill,  legs,  neck  and  feet  are  also 
black,  and  the  back  dark  gray.  The 
standard  weight  of  the  gander  is  12 
pounds  and  the  goose  10  pounds. 

MATING  GEESE 

When  geese  are  grown  for  breeding 
purposes,  pure  breds  only  should  be 
raised,  but  when  they  are  grown  for 
market,  the  cross  bred  birds  are  larger, 
develop   more   rapidly   and   are   hardier 


than  pure  breds.  Geese  do  not  become 
fully  mature  until  at  least  one  year  old. 
Many*  of  the  eggs  the  first  year  will 
prove  infertile.  They  give  their  best 
service  in  egg  laying  from  the  second 
year  on.  Ganders  are  more  useful  about 
the  third  to  the  seventh  year.  After 
this  the  old  birds  should  be  replaced  by 
young  ganders.  In  the  case  of  the  Wild 
or  Canada  goose,  the  gander  must  usu- 
ally be  kept  for  two  or  three  years  be- 
fore he  will  mate.  The  Canada  goose 
is  seldom  crossed  with  the  improved 
breeds,  because  it  lays  too  few  eggs  to 
make  it  worth  while.  For  mating  with 
the  Canada  gander,  African  or  Toulouse 
geese  are  usually  selected. 

In  any  case,  the  birds  should  be 
bought  in  the  fall,  while  still  young,  and 
placed  together  in  order  that  they  may 
become  accustomed  to  each  other  before 
the  breeding  season  begins.  Many  breed- 
ers claim  that  a  larger  percentage  of 
fertile  eggs  is  secured  if  the  birds  have 
access  to  ponds  or  streams  of  water.  In 
crossing  geese,  it  is  desired  to  secure 
birds  which  dress  easily  and  which  have 
white  or  light  colored  plumage.  For 
this  reason  Embden  ganders  crossed  with 
African,  Toulouse  or  Brown  Chinese 
geese  give  good  results. 

Feeding  the  breeding  birds — When 
the  birds  are  purchased  in  the  fall  they 
may  be  turned  onto  pasture  without  any 
other  feed.  Later  in  the  fall,  when  pas- 
ture becomes  scant,  they  may  be  fed  a 
mash  ration  made  up  of  equal  parts  of 
bran,  middlings  and  corn  meal,  with 
about  5  per  cent  of  beef  scraps.  This 
may  be  fed  once  a  day,  either  morning 
or  evening.  In  addition,  they  should 
have  some  grain,  like  cracked  corn,  oats 
and  wheat,  mixed,  and  an  abundance  of 
green  food,  such  as  steamed  clover,  boiled 
potatoes,  windfall  apples,  turnips,  cab- 
bage, etc.  Many  growers  raise  rape  for 
their  geese  in  the  fall.  During  the  win- 
ter at  least  10  per  cent  of  the  ration 
should  be  made  up  of  steamed  clover 
boiled  potatoes,  turnips,  etc. 

Coarsely  cracked  oyster  shells  should 
be  accessible  at  all  times  and  an  abun- 
dance of  water  for  drinking,  unless  the 
birds  have  free  access  to  ponds  and 
streams. 

Number  and  size  of  eggs — At  the 
Rhode  Island  station,  the  average  egg 
yield  for  two  years  of  the  different 
breeds  was  as  follows:  White  Chinese, 
40;   Brown   Chinese,  31;   Toulouse,   26; 


POULTRY 


669 


Embden,  19;  African,  17.  The  eggs  of 
these  breeds  varied  in  weight  from  about 
5V£  ounces  each  for  the  White  and 
Brown  Chinese,  to  6V£  for  the  African, 
Embdens  and  Toulouse  breeds. 

Nesting,  laying  and  hatching — The 
laying  season  begins  usually  about  Feb- 
ruary 1.  Barrels  or  boxes  partially  filled 
with  straw  or  chaif  should  be  provided 
for  the  nests.  The  goose  covers  up  her 
eggs  after  laying.  In  winter  the  eggs 
should  be  gathered  frequently  to  prevent 
chilling  and  be  kept  in  an  even  temper- 
ature of  50  to  60°,  turning  them  each 
day  until  used  for  hatching.  At  the 
Rhode  Island  station,  the  average  per- 
centage of  goslings  obtained  with  eggs 
of  the  different  breeds  was  as  follows : 
African,  38  per  cent;  Toulouse,  32  per 
cent;  Embden,  30  per  cent;  Brown 
Chinas,  29  per  cent;  White  China,  11 
per  cent. 

The  goose  usually  lays  about  15  or  20 
eggs  before  becoming  broody.  If  she  is 
shut  up  at  this  time  for  five  or  six  days 
and  then  released,  she  will  again  begin 
laying,  this  time  producing  12  or  15 
eggs  before  desiring  to  set.  It  is  usual 
to  take  all  of  these  eggs  away  from  her 
and  break  her  up  again,  after  which  she 
will  lay  a  third  batch  of  10  or  12  eggs, 
which  she  is  usually  allowed  to  hatch 
out.  The  eggs  of  the  first  and  second 
batch  may  be  hatched  in  an  incubator 
or  under  hens.  The  use  of  hens  is  most 
common,  using  the  Brahmas  or  other 
large  breeds  for  this  purpose,  and  put- 
ting four  or  five  eggs  under  each  hen. 
If  hatched  in  a  brooder,  the  same  tem- 
perature is  required  as  for  chicks,  name- 
ly, 103°  E. 

It  takes  from  28  to  30  days  for  the 
eggs  to  hatch  and  if  they  are  frequently 
cooled  off,  they  may  be  34  or  even  40 
days  in  hatching.  After  about  the  fifth 
or  sixth  day  of  incubation,  they  should 
be  examined  and  all  the  sterile  eggs  re- 
moved. During  the  last  week  of  incuba- 
tion, the  eggs  should  be  sprinkled  with 
warm  water,  or  may  be  dipped  once  in 
water,  heated  to  104°  F,  for  about  one 
minute. 

If  hens  are  used  to  incubate  the  eggs, 
they  may  get  a  little  nervous  when  the 
goslings  begin  to  hatch  out.  In  such 
cases,  the  goslings  should  be  removed 
and  kept  covered  in  a  warmly  lined  bas- 
ket in  the  kitchen  until  all  the  eggs  are 
hatched,  after  which  the  goslings  may 
be  given  to  a  more  quiet  hen  or  put  in 


the  brooder.  In  the  brooder,  the  temper- 
ature of  the  hover  should  be  kept  at  90 
to  92°  F  for  a  day  or  so,  after  which  it 
should  be  rapidly  reduced,  and  at  the 
end  of  a  week  need  not  be  above  75°  F. 
Feeding  goslings— It  is  usually 
planned  to  have  the  goslings  come  about 
the  time  grass  appears,  as  it  is  much 
less  difficult  to  raise  them  at  such  time 
than  earlier  in  the  season.  If  hatched 
before  grass  comes,  they  should  be  pro- 


IIS 


Fig.    425 — YOUNG    BROWN     CHINA    GEESE 

vided  with  such  green  feed  as  chopped 
cabbage,  or  lettuce.  No  food  should  be 
given  for  the  first  24  to  36  hours,  after 
which  finely  cracked  Indian  corn  mixed 
with  meal  or  bran  and  scalded  with 
water  and  made  into  a  dough  having  a 
crumbly  consistency  may  be  given  in 
small  amounts  with  plenty  of  grazing. 
Water  for  drinking  should  be  provided, 
as  well  as  gravel,  sand  and  pieces  of 
charcoal. 

The  goslings  should  not  be  allowed  in 
the  water  until  well  feathered  out,  be- 
cause they  easily  become  chilled  and 
many  deaths  occur.  They  require  feed- 
ing three  or  four  times  a  day,  but  must 
not  be  overfed.  Pens  made  of  three 
boards  about  12  feet  long  and  a  foot 
wide  may  be  used  to  confine  them  on 
grass  for  the  first  few  days.  After  five 
days  they  will  have  no  further  need  of 
the  hen.  They  must  be  kept  under  cover 
during   storms   and   in   hot   weather   be 


670 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


provided  with  shade.  For  green  fodder, 
geese  prefer  oats  to  either  rye  or  peas. 
Turnips,  beets,  windfall  apples,  rape  and 
cabbage  are  all  eaten  greedily  by  the 
goslings,  and  Dwarf  Essex  rape  is  espe- 
cially valuable  for  summer  and  fall 
pasture. 

The  average  gains  of  a  number  of 
breeds  at  the  Ehode  Island  station  for 
the  first  35  days  varied  from  1.3  to  2.3 
ounces  a  day,  and  for  the  next  20  days 
from  2.9  to  3.8  ounces  a  day.  When  the 
goslings  were  about  10  weeks  old,  those 
of  the  African  Toulouse  cross  weighed 
about  11.2  pounds  and  after  three  weeks 
more  fattening  about  15.3  pounds  each. 

FATTENING  GEESE 

Geese  when  fattened  should  be  con- 
fined in  comparatively  small,  well- 
drained  yards  and  provided  with  shade. 
They  fatten  most  rapidly  in  cool  weather. 
Green  geese  are  ready  for  fattening 
when  the  large  feathers  of  the  wing 
reach  the  tail.  For  the  first  few  days 
they  should  have  a  little  green  food  and 
the  usual  grain,  after  which  they  may 
be  given  a  scalded  mash  made  up  largely 
of  corn  meal  with  about  10  per  cent  beef 
scraps,  mixed  to  a  crumbly  consistency. 
Water  must  be  provided  for  drinking 
purposes   in   abundance,   also   grit. 

Flagg  recommends  that  mornings  they 
be  given  all  they  wi'l  eat  of  this  mix- 
ture in  an  hour.  At  noon,  whole  corn 
may  be  fed  and  at  night  a  considerable 
quantity  of  mash,  since  they  will  eat  it 
a  good  deal  during  the  night,  especially 
in  warm  weather.  About  twice  a  week 
a  little  powdered  charcoal  should  be 
mixed  with  the  dough.  It  is  believed 
that  white  flint  corn  gives  the  flesh  a 
whiter  appearance,  and  it  is  more  desir- 
able than  yellow  corn.  Oats  and  barley 
mixed  with  milk  have  a  similar  effect. 
N"o  green  food  is  given  after  the  first 
day  or  so,  but  gravel  and  ground  oyster 
shells  should  be  provided  in  abundance. 

Killing  and  picking—Geese  should  be 
fasted  about  12  hours  before  killing. 
The  birds  are  killed  by  cutting  across 
the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  mouth 
and  then  stunning  by  a  sharp  blow  on 
the  head.  The  down  and  breast  feath- 
ers are  saved.  The  feathers  on  the  two- 
thirds  of  the  neck  next  to  the  head,  as 
well  as  the  wing  feathers  beyond  the 
first  joint  and  the  tail  feathers  of  mon- 
grel geese,  are  left  unpicked.  Black  pin 
feathers  must  be  removed  entirely,  while 
white  ones  can  often  be  shaved  off.    Dry 


picked  birds  are  preferred  in  most  mar- 
kets. When  dry  picked  they  should  be 
marketed  before  cold  weather  sets  in, 
as  after  that  the  feathers  set  and  are 
difficult  to  pull  without  tearing  the  skin. 
If  scalded,  it  may  be  necessary  to  wrap 
the  birds  in  blankets  after  scalding  to 
keep  the  steam  in  and  make  the  pick- 
ing easier.  Scald  in  the  manner  recom- 
mended for  chickens.  After  picking, 
the  blood  is  rinsed  from  the  mouth  of 
the  bird  and  the  feet  cleaned,  the  wings 
pressed  firmly  against  the  sides  of  the 
body  and  tied  with  a  string.  In  the 
case  of  the  green  geese,  marketed  in 
summer,  they  are  kept  for  an  hour  or 


Fig.    426 GEESE    DRESSED    FOR    MARKET 

two  in  ice  water  until  sent  to  market 
and  shipped  in  barrels  in  alternate  lay- 
ers with  ice,  placing  ice  first  on  the  bot- 
tom and  finally  a  generous  layer  on  top. 
The  top  is  then  covered  over  with  bur- 
lap. Green  goslings  are  not  drawn  for 
market,  nor  are  usually  the  old  birds. 

Feathers — Good,  clean,  white  feath- 
ers sell  for  50  co  60  cents  a  pound,  gray 
feathers  40  to  45,  and  good,  long  quill 
feathers,  for  about  15  cents  a  pound. 
Geese  should  not  be  picked  for  feathers 
during  the  breeding  season,  nor  in  cold 
weather.  They  are  ripe  for  plucking 
when  there  is  no  blood  in  the  ends  of  the 
quills. 

TURKEYS 

The  turkey  is  native  to  America.  It 
is  still  found  wild  in  many  states  and 
the  wild  gobbler  is  frequently  used  for 
infusing  new  blood  and  hardiness  into 
the  domesticated  varieties.  See  Fig.  27. 
page  41  for  illustration  of  a  wild  tur- 


POULTRY 


671 


key  gobbler.  Tradition  and  excellence 
unite  in  placing  tbe  turkey  above  all 
otber  birds  desired  by  tbe  American  peo- 
ple for  dinner  on  Thanksgiving  day. 
On  tbis  account,  the  last  week  in  No- 
vember usually  marks  the  highest  price 
for  this  fowl. 

It  requires  plenty  of  range  to  success- 
fully grow  turkeys.  They  still  have 
many  of  the  instincts  and  habits  of  their 
old  free  life  and  cannot  tolerate  con- 
finement. On  this  account  they  are 
found  only  in  comparatively  small  flocks 
and  do  not  succeed  when  reared  in  large 
numbers  in  the  same  manner  as  is  ob- 
served with  ducks  and  chickens.  A 
ranch  much  less  than  20  acres  is  too 
small  for  anything  but  a  few  turkeys, 
and  flocks  of  50  to  200,  which  are  about 
the  maximum,  should  have  40  to  80 
acres.  Any  close  confinement  is  sure  to 
result  in  disease,  ill  health  and 


BREEDS 

Six  breeds  of  turkeys  are  grown  more 
or  less  extensively  in  the  United  States. 
These  are  the  Bronze,  Narragansett, 
Buff,  Slate,  White  or  Holland  and 
Black.  The  varieties  differ  from  one 
another  chiefly  in  color. 

Bronze  is  the  largest  and  most  popu- 
lai.  A  modern  type  of  this  breed  is  shown 
in  Tig.  28,  page  41.  It  originated  by 
crossing  the  wild  turkey  with  the  do- 
mestic turkey.  Mature  gobblers  reach  a 
weight  of  35  to  40  pounds  and  the  hens 
16  to  20  pounds. 

The  Narragansetts  stand  next  in  size 
to  the  Bronze.  In  color  they  have  a 
black  background,  with  each  feather 
ending  in  a  band  of  steel  gray,  edged 
with  black.  The  standard  weights  for 
males  are  20  to  30  pounds,  and  for 
the  hens  12  to  18  pounds.  They  are  a 
more  compact  bird  than  the  Bronze  and 
have  a  more  contented  nature. 

White  or  Holland — This  breed  is 
also  known  as  Austrian  White  and  is 
characterized,  as  the  name  suggests,  by 
white  plumage.  They  are  smaller  than 
either  the  Bronze  -or  Narragansett,  rang- 
ing in  weight  from  10  pounds  in  young 
hens  to  26  pounds  for  old  gobblers. 
They  are  especially  valued  for  their 
light  pink  and  white  skin,  which  makes 
them  very  attractive  when  dressed  and 
offered  on  the  market. 

Black—Both  the  Black  and  White 
breeds  are  rather  more  contented  about 
the   home    than   other   varieties   of  tur- 


keys. The  skin  of  the  Black  is  yellow, 
and  it  makes  a  very  attractive  table 
bird.  At  Christmas  time  they  are  ex- 
pected to  weigh  10  to  14  pounds  each. 

The  Buff  and  Slate  varieties  of  tur- 
keys are  but  very  little  grown.  Closely 
related  to  the  Buff  in  color  is  the  Bour- 
bon Red  or  Kentucky  Red,  turkey. 
These  breeds  are  all  rather  smaller  than 
the  Bronze. 

SELECTION  OF  BREEDING  FLOCK 

First-class  males  will  cost  $10  to  $15 
each,  and  should  be  at  least  two  years 
old  when  purchased.  The  hens  will  cost 
from  $3  to  $5  each.  Select  medium  sized 
birds   in  fair   condition,  but  not   overly 


Fig.       427 — BROOD      OP       WHITE      HOLLAND 
TURKEYS 

fat  and  which  give  every  indication  of 
being  vigorous  and  hardy.  The  males 
should  be  entirely  unrelated  to  the  fe- 
males. Inbreeding  has  caused  serious 
losses  in  many  flocks,  as  a  result  of 
weakness  in  constitution  and  inherited 
tendency  to  disease.  Once  a  good  male 
is  secured  he  should  be  retained  for  a 
number  of  years  but  must  never  be 
mated  with  his  offspring.  Turkeys 
are  much  more  susceptible  to  diseases, 
especially  under  confinement,  than 
chickens,  and  any  inbreeding  tends  to 
exaggerate  this  defect.  About  one  male 
should  be  kept  for  each  half  dozen  hens. 
Good  results  are  reported  where  one 
male  to  as  many  as  20  hens  are  used, 
but  this  is  unusual.  A  dozen  hens  to 
one  cock  should  be  the  limit. 

Management  of  the  breeding  flock — 
The  breeding  flock   can  be  raised   sue- 


672 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LITE  STOCK 


cessfully  in  yards  if  desirable,  but  the 
yards  should  be  large,  containing  plenty 
of  range,  and  only  a  limited  number 
kept  in  the  flock.  For  the  best  results, 
turkeys  should  be  allowed  a  wide  range. 
During  the  summer  and  fall  months 
they  will  require  but  little  feed  other 
than  what  they  pick  up  in  their  wander- 
ings. Once  a  day  they  may  be  fed  oats 
or  cracked  corn,  but  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  make  them  overfat. 

The  roosting  shed,  if  used  at  all, 
should  be  very  large,  roomy  and  entirely 
open  in  the  front.  A  large  number  of 
growers,  including  the  experiment  sta- 
tion at  Rhode  Island,  report  much  bet- 
ter results  when  the  birds  are  left  to 
roost  outdoors,  both  summer  and  win- 
ter, using  trees  or  poles  erected  on  the 
south  sides  of  barns  or  sheds  for  roosts. 
The  Rhode  Island  station  notes  that 
when  the  turkeys  were  compelled  to 
roost  in  a  large  shed  during  the  winter 
they  were  continually  out  of  condition, 
and  had  colds  with  swelled  faces,  while 
those  in  trees  kept  bright  and  healthy 
throughout  the  winter.  Even  in  the 
northern  part  of  Michigan,  turkeys 
withstand  the  cold  of  winter  when  roost- 
ing out  of  doors  and  keep  in  good  condi- 
tion. 

Nesting  habits— The  turkey  hens  be- 
gin to  lay  usually  in  March  or  April. 
If  given  free  range,  they  will  steal  their 
nests  in  some  secluded  place.  They 
should  be  watched  and  the  eggs  gathered 
to  prevent  them  from  becoming  chilled 
or  molested  by  prowlers.  One  mating 
of  the  hens  with  the  gobbler  is  sufficient 
to  fertilize  an  entire  batch  of  eggs.  Us- 
ually from  15  to  20  eggs  are  laid  before 
the  hens  become  broody.  If  they  are 
broken  up  at  this  time,  they  will  soon 
lay  another  batch.  By  confining  hens 
in  the  medium  sized  enclosure  and  pre- 
paring nests  in  barrels  or  boxes  in  se- 
cluded positions,  they  may  be  induced  to 
lay  near  the  house.  After  2  or  3 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  they  can  be 
given  their  liberty.  Within  a  few  days 
they  will  lay  regularly  in  their  nests 
without  confinement. 

Hatching  the  eggs_Common  hens  or 
turkeys  are  used  primarily  for  hatching 
turkey  eggs.  The  turkey  hens  lay  so 
few  eggs  that  an  incubator  is  hardly 
necessary,  though  they  can  be  hatched 
in  incubators  as  well  as  other  kinds  of 
eggs.  It  requires  on  an  average  28  days 
for  the  eggs  to  hatch.     Turkeys  are  the 


best  of  all  fowls  for  setting,  and  can  be 
made  to  hatch  out  three  or  four  broods 
continuously  if  desired.  As  mothers, 
they  are  no  better  during  the  early 
stages  of  growth,  and  perhaps  not  quite 
as  good  as  chickens.  Later  as  the 
young  turkeys,  or  poults,  as  they  are 
called,  grow  older,  their  roaming  habits 
lead  them  away  from  the  hen. 

It  is  especially  necessary  during  in- 
cubation that  the  mother  birds  be 
thoroughly  dusted  with  insect  powder  to 
kill  all  lice  and  mites.  When  the  poults 
are  hatched  they  should  also  be  kept 
dusted  two  or  three  times  a  week  and  a 
little  lard  or  sweet  oil  placed  on  the  top 
of  the  head,  under  the  wings  and  around 
the  vent,  as  a  further  precaution  against 
lice.  The  eggs  are  usually  all  fertile. 
The  early  hatched  poults  are  most  desir- 
able for  Thanksgiving  and  Christmas 
market.  The  late  hatches  are  consid- 
ered unprofitable  for  this  trade,  but  are 
being  used  extensively  as  broilers. 

Feeding  the  poults — As  with  chick- 
ens, no  food  should  be  given  for  the  first 
36  hours  after  the  poults  are  hatched. 
After  this,  they  should  be  fed  very 
lightly  once  every  two  or  three  hours 
for  the  first  week.  Any  overfeeding  at 
this  time  will  be  sure  to  result  in  indi- 
gestion and  numerous  losses.  After 
hatching  the  mother  turkey  should  be 
confined  in  a  large,  roomy  coop  so  that 
she  can  stand  upright  without  difficulty. 
The  poults  should  have  a  large  yard  of 
closely  cut  grass  to  run  in.  Another 
common  method  is  to  confine  both 
mother  and  poults  in  a  triangular  pen 
made  of  boards  12  inches  wide  by  12  to 
14  feet  long.  One  corner  of  this  yard 
can  be  covered  over  for  shelter  and  the 
mother  given  entire  liberty. 

The  first  food  given  them  may  be 
bread  crumbs,  moistened  in  milk  and 
squeezed  dry.  Scalded  corn  meal  to 
which  about  10  per  cent  of  hard  boiled 
eggs,  finely  chopped,  has  been  added, 
may  also  be  given  and  in  addition,  a  lit- 
tle cracked  corn  or  wheat  scattered  on 
the  ground.  Later,  corn  bread  soaked  in 
milk,  dutch  cheese,  and  such  grains  as 
wheat,  cracked  corn  and  millet  may  be 
fed,  care  being  taken  never  to  feed  more 
than  they  can  eat  clean  in  five  minutes. 

The  Rhode  Island  station  notes  that 
in  their  experiments  one  flock  escaped 
and  was  gone  20  days  before  discovered. 
During  this  time  they  received  no  food 
except    what   they  picked    up     on    the 


POULTRY 


673 


range,  and  when  found  were  looking 
much  better  than  those  that  were  fed 
regularly  at  home.  The  birds  do  better 
if  allowed  range  on  high,  dry  ground 
than  on  low  ground.  After  the  poults 
are  a  week  or  10  days  old,  they  may  be 
allowed  to  range  with  their  mother,  but 
should  not  be  let  out  of  the  pen  until 
after  the  dew  is  off.  When  showers 
come  up  they  should  be  gotten  under 
shelter,  otherwise  a  good  many  will  be 
lost.  At  this  time  three  feedings  a  day 
will  be  sufficient,  and  after  July  15, 
once  a  day  will  suffice. 

While  the  little  turkeys  are  cooped, 
they  should  be  frequently  removed  to 
dry,  fresh  ground.  Food  should  be  given 
them  on  clean  boards  and  they  should 
have  clean  water  to  drink  at  all  times, 
as  well  as  an  abundance  of  gravel,  sand 
and  broken  charcoal.  Cushman  states 
that  if  the  turkeys  become  chilled  from 
rain,  or  otherwise,  black  or  red  pepper, 
or  ginger,  in  the  food  or  drinking  water, 
will  aid  them  in  overcoming  it  and  tend 
to  prevent  bowel  trouble  in  both  young 
and  old  turkeys. 

In  hot  weather  shade  must  be  pro- 
vided. Sloppy  foods  for  the  young  birds 
must  be  avoided.  After  the  third  or 
fourth  day,  cooked  lean  meat  of  any 
kind  may  form  10  per  cent  of  the  ra- 
tion with  advantage.  Where  the  poults 
have  been  hatched  in  incubators,  es- 
pecial care  is  necessary  in  teaching  them 
to  eat,  since  they  look  up  for  their  food 
instead  of  on  the  ground,  and  until  they 
are  taught  they  should  be  fed  individ- 
ually from  the  hand,  placing  the  food 
between  the  thumb  and  finger  and  hold- 
ing it  to  the  beak  of  the  bird. 

Those  who  secure  the  best  results  in 
producing  fine  turkeys  for  Thanksgiving 
are  the  ones  who  allow  them  plenty  of 
range  during  feeding.  Even  during  the 
finishing  period,  it  is  not  advisable  to 
confine  them,  but  rather  feed  them  three 
times  daily  plenty  of  grain,  beginning 
the  first  week  in  November.  White  flint 
corn  is  considered  especially  desirable  by 
Rhode  Island  turkey  raisers,  as  it  is  be- 
lieved that  they  fatten  more  readily  on 
it  and  produce  flesh  of  superior  quality. 
New  corn  should  be  avoided  as  it  is  be- 
lieved to  produce  bowel  trouble.  Some 
growers  mix  the  two  with  good  results. 

Marketing—Turkeys  for  market 
should  be  fasted  from  12  to  24  hours  be- 
fore killing.  It  is  customary  in  this 
country  in  killing,  to  suspend  the  birds 


by  the  shanks  and  kill  by  cutting  across 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  with  a  sharp 
knife,  penetrating  the  brain.  Dry  pick- 
ing is  usually  preferred  and  this  should 
be  begun  as  soon  as  the  bird  is  killed. 
Where  the  birds  are  scalded  the  method 
given  under  chickens  should  be  followed. 
In  cold  weather,  the  birds  can  be  sent  to 
market  without  packing  in  ice.  It  is 
usual  to  pack  them  in  boxes  or  barrels 
lined  with  clean  white  paper  and  packed 
so  closely  that  they  will  not  slip  about  in 
transit.  In  warmer  weather,  ice  must 
be  used,  in  which  case,  a  layer  of  broken 
ice  is  first  placed  on  the   bottom,   fol- 


Fig.    428 — TURKEY    DRESSED    FOR    MARKET 

lowed  by  a  layer  of  poultry  and  then  of 
ice  alternately,  until  the  barrel  is  full, 
after  which  the  top  layer  of  ice  is  cov- 
ered over  with  burlap  and  the  package 
marked  for  shipping. 

Feathers — When  a  large  number  of 
birds  are  killed  there  may  be  some  profit 
in  saving  the  feathers.  The  tail  and 
wing  feathers  are  largely  used  in  making 
feather  dusters,  while  the  quills  from 
the  first  joint  in  the  wing  are  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  featherbone,  a  sub- 
stitute for  whalebone  for  dressmaking, 
and  other  purposes.     The   choicer  body 


674 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


feathers  are  used  in  cheap  pillows  and 
mattresses. 

The  price  for  feathers  varies  from  2 
to  3  cents  a  pound  for  body  feathers  to 
25  cents  a  pound  for  the  wing  and  tail 
feathers.  For  a  complete  account  of 
turkeys,  see  Turkeys  and  How  to  Grow 
Them,  by  H.  Myrick;  also  Ehode  Is- 
land experiment  station  bulletin  25,  on 
Turkeys,  by  S.  Cushman;  and  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  200,  on  Turkeys, 
by  T.  F.  McGrew. 

PIGEONS 

These  birds  are  also  referred  to  as 
doves.  '  Within  the  past  five  or  six  years 
unusual  interest  has  been  awakened  in 
the  growing  of  unfledged  pigeons,  or 
squabs,  as  they  are  termed,  for  market. 


Fig.    429 — YOUNG    HOMER    COCK    PIGEON 

Squabs  are  marketed  when  about  four 
weeks  old,  and  weighing  about  three- 
fourths  pounds  each  at  75  cents  to  $1  a 
pair.  A  pair  of  healthy  pigeons  produce 
ordinarily  five  to  12  pairs  of  squabs  a 
season,  at  a  total  cost  for  feed  of  about 
$1  to  $1.20  a  year  for  each  pair  of 
breeding  birds.  There  is  a  demand  also 
for  fancy  and  carrier  pigeons;  well 
trained  birds  of  the  latter  class  sell  for 
$10  to  $100  each. 

The  squab  business  is  especially  suit- 
able for  people  having  limited  areas  of 
land,  since  they  are  grown  almost  en- 
tirely in  wire  inclosed  areas,  require  no 
pasture  and  but  a  limited  amount  of 
green  feed. 


The  Homer,  0f  all  the  different  breeds 
of  pigeons,  is  considered  by  far  the  best 
for  the  production  of  squabs.  Squabs 
from  pure  bred  Homers  are  ready  for 
market  when  25  to  28  days  old.  The 
birds  of  this  breed  are  all  colors,  blue, 
red,  black,  white,  checked,  etc.,  but  are 
quite  distinct  in  form  and  the  flesh  is 
light  colored,   a  very  desirable  feature. 

The  Dragoon  stands  second  only  to 
the  Homer  for  the  production  of  squabs, 
but  the  squabs  of  the  pure  bred  birds 
usually  require  five  weeks  before  they 
can  be  marketed.  When  pure  Homer 
birds  are  too  expensive,  excellent  results 
may  be  expected  from  crosses  either  way, 
between  these  breeds. 

The  Duchess  [s  considered  a  poorer 
feeder  than  the  Homer  and  has  feathers 
on  the  legs,  which  is  a  disadvantage  in 
dressing  for  market. 

The  Runt  is  the  largest  of  the  pigeon 
breed  and  the  squabs  are  unusually 
large,  but  only  a  few  are  produced  and 
the  flesh  is  dark  colored,  selling  on  this 
account  at   a   discount. 

Buildings  and  fixtures 

The  pigeon  house  should  first  of  all 
be  situated  in  a  dry  location  facing 
the  south  or  east  and  be  built  up  off  the 
ground  and  tightly  floored  to  secure  dry- 
ness. A  building  12  feet  wide,  10  feet 
long  and  9  feet  high  to  the  roof  is  suf- 
ficient to  accommodate  50  pairs  of  birds 
and  is  a  convenient  building  unit  on 
which  to  add  more  sections  as  the  busi- 
ness increases.  In  the  more  northern 
climates  double  walls  may  be  necessary. 

The  nest  boxes  on  the  inside  of  the 
building  are  made  about  12  inches 
square  and  9  inches  high  out  of  boxing 
material  and  preferably  with  a  movable 
bottom  to  facilitate  cleaning.  At  least 
two  nests  are  provided  for  each  pair  of 
birds,  since  before  one  lot  of  squabs  is 
fit  for  market  the  female  often  begins 
laying  again.  No  provision  need  be 
made  for  perches  in  the  house,  the  nest- 
ing boxes  being  sufficient.  A  tin  or 
earthenware  nappy  7  to  9  inches  in 
diameter,  and  2  to  2V2  inches  deep,  is 
placed  in  each  box  for  the  birds  to  nest 
in. 

Attached  to  the  building,  a  flying  pen, 
inclosed  with  2-inch  mesh  wire  netting, 
about  the  height  of  the  building  and  30 
to  40  feet  long,  is  built  for  exercise  and 
the  confinement  of  the  birds.  A  roomy 
window    that    can    be    closed    nights    in 


POULTRY 


675 


stormy  weather  opens  into  the  flying 
pen.  The  whole  building  should  be  white- 
washed inside  twice  yearly  and  the  nest 
boxes  cleaned  and  disinfected  once  every 
two  or  three  months,  as  a  protection  from 
lice.  Straw  should  be  left  in  the  house 
for  the  use  of  the  birds  in  building  their 
nests.  A  bath  pan  about  20  inches  in 
diameter  and  4  or  5  inches  deep  should 
be  kept  in  the  far  end  of  the  flying  pen 
and  be  filled  with  fresh  water  daily.  In 
addition,  water  jugs  or  other  drinking 
vessels  should  be  provided,  since  the 
bathing  water  soon  becomes  filthy.  Clean 
sand  should  be  kept  on  the  floor  of  the 
house  all  the  time  and  small  boxes  pro- 
vided, in  one  of  which  coarse  salt  is  kept 
all  the  time,  in  another  ground  oyster 
shells  and  in  a  third  ground  charcoal. 
The  feeding  trough  is  made  about  4 
feet  long,  10  inches  wide  and  IV2  inches 
deep,  and  should  be  under  cover,  to  pro- 
tect the  feed  from  rain  and  consequent 
souring,  mold,   etc. 

Hatching  and  feeding 

The  male  bird  mates  with  but  one 
female.  The  female  lays  but  two  eggs 
at  a  batch.  These  are  incubated  in  16 
to  18  days,  the  male  and  female  tak- 
ing turns  in  sitting  on  the  nest.  For 
the  first  five  or  six  days  after  hatching 
the  squabs  are  fed  by  the  parent  birds 
with  a  kind  of  milk  called  pigeon  milk, 
prepared  in  the  crop  of  each  bird. 
Gradually,  harder  grain  is  given  to  the 
birds  until  at  the  end  of  10  days  the 
squabs  receive  only  hard  grain. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  no  work  is  re- 
quired on  the  part  of  the  grower  in  feed- 
ing squabs,  as  they  remain  in  the  nests 
until  ready  for  market,  being  fed  during 
this  time  entirely  by  the  parent  birds. 
Should  one  of  the  squabs  not  get  his 
share  of  the  feed  and  not  make  satis- 
factory growth,  it  should  be  given  to 
another  pair  of  birds  having  only  one 
squab,  or  may  be  fed  by  hand  with 
soaked  bread  or  grain. 

Feeding  breeding  birds — The  usual 
feeds  for  the  breeding  birds  are  cracked 
corn  and  wheat,  supplemented  by  an  oc- 
casional feeding  of  Canada  peas,  millet 
kafir  corn  and  hemp. 

One  noted  squab  grower  uses  wheat 
one  part  and  corn  two  parts  in  the  win- 
ter, and  in  the  summer  corn  one  part 
and  wheat  two  parts.  W.  E.  Eice,  writ- 
ing on  this  subject,  recommends  equal 
parts  cracked  corn,  wheat  and  peas,  giv- 
ing about  6  pints  of  this  mixture  to  a 


pen  of  50  birds  in  the  morning,  while 
in  the  afternoon  a  ration  composed  of 
cracked  corn,  kafir  corn,  millet  and  peas 
in  equal  parts  is  fed. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  feed  before  the 
birds  all  the  time,  but  if  any  large  quan- 
tity is  left  over  after  each  feed,  the 
amount  of  the  ration  should  be  reduced. 
With  a  large  number  of  squabs  in  the 
nest,  the  birds  will  feed  more  freely, 
but  will  never  gorge  themselves  or  over- 
feed. 

About  twice  a  week  hemp  may  be  used 
in   the   ration    instead    of   millet.     This 


Fig.    430 — WHITE    DUCHESS    PIGEON 

feed  apparently  exercises  a  medicinal 
effect  on  the  pigeons,  keeping  them  in 
good  health,  but  if  fed  in  excessive 
quantities,  it  appears  to  have  a  ten- 
dency to  give  the  birds  vertigo.  Cau- 
tion must  be  used  in  feeding  millet  for 
a  like  reason.  It  is  advisable  to  sift 
the  cracked  corn,  as  the  birds  cannot 
pick  up  the  fine  meal,  and  in  damp, 
muggy  weather  it  frequently  sours  in 
the  trough  over  night  and  requires  extra 
trouble  to  clean  it  out.  Only  clean, 
wholesome  grains  should  be  used.  Both 
new  wheat  and  corn  should  be  thorough- 
ly dried  before  feeding  to  pigeons. 


676 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Marketing — Squabs  are  killed  before 
tbey  get  large  enough  to  leave  the  nest, 
or  when  they  weigh  about  8  pounds  to 
the  dozen.  They  should  be  taken  in 
the  morning,  before  feeding,  when_  the 
crop  is  empty.  In  killing,  some  writers 
recommend  that  the  squab  be  taken  in 
the  left  hand,  and  the  head  in  the  right 
hand,  with  the  thumb  at  the  base  of  the 
bill.  A  slight  pull  is  then  given  with  a 
push  upward  and  back  with  the  thumb, 
which  dislocates  the  neck.  A  small  cav- 
ity is  formed  by  the  break  in  the  spinal 
column  sufficiently  large  to  drain  the 
body  of  blood.  If  the  squabs  are  not 
picked  they  must  be  thoroughly  cooled 
by  hanging  them  up  by  the  legs  and 
allowing  them  to  remain  over  night,  so 
that  all  the  animal  heat  is  entirely  gone 
from  the  body.  If  laid  on  boards  packed 
together  before  this,  the  flesh  will  be 
discolored.     Generally,     the     birds     are 


Fig.    431 — RUNT   PIGEON 

plucked,  in  which  case  the  feathers 
should  be  removed  while  they  are  still 
warm,  and  the  birds  thrown  into  ice 
cold  water,  leaving  them  there  over 
night  to  plump  out  and  harden.  Good 
pickers  dress  from  12  to  15  squabs  in 
an  hour.  If  shipped  to  distant  markets, 
the  squabs  should  be  packed  in  boxes  in 
layers,  alternating  with  ice  and  finish- 
ing with  a  layer  of  ice  on  top. 

Training  flyers — The  pigeon  raiser  is 
usually  interested  also  in  growing  fancy 
birds  or  in  training  flyers,  since  cham- 
pion birds  of  these  kinds  bring  good 
prices.  Young  birds  raised  at  home  may 
be  given  their  liberty  and  will  always 
return.  So,  if  old  birds  are  bought,  it 
is  always  necessary  to  confine  them  or 
they  will  return  to  their  original  home. 
The  training  of  young  Homers  begins 
when  they  are  about  five  months  old.  At 


first  they  may  be  taken  in  a  basket  and 
carried  a  mile  or  two  away  from  home 
and  liberated.  Some  special  feed  should 
be  provided  for  them  at  home  as  a  re- 
ward for  their  prompt  return.  Gradu- 
ally the  distance  taken  can  be  length- 
ened, until  they  may  be  shipped  some 
miles  from  home,  then  liberated,  either 
by  the  expressman  or  friends  at  a  defi- 
nite hour,  and  the  time  of  their  arrival 
home  noted.  Special  cages  have  been 
provided,  upon  their  entrance  to  which 
an  electric  bell  is  rung  in  the  house  to 
notify  the  owner  of  the  bird's  return. 

In  carrying  messages,  light  aluminum 
tubes  may  be  attached  to  the  legs,  in 
which  the  message  is  contained. 

Mating     and      determining     sex — In 

growing  breeding  stock,  a  mating  pen 
is  maintained  in  which  new  birds  do 
their  courting  and  become  acquainted 
with  each  other.  They  are  not  allowed 
in  the  breeding  pen  until  they  have 
mated  in  the  mating  pen.  The  male  and 
female  birds  very  closely  resemble  each 
other  and  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  de- 
termine the  sex  by  any  of  the  usual 
methods.  It  is  claimed  that  if  the  beak 
of  a  pigeon  is  held  in  one  hand  and  the 
feet  in  the  other,  stretching  them  out, 
the  male  bird  will  usually  hug  his  tail 
close  to  the  body,  while  the  female  will 
throw  her  tail.  The  male  does  more  coo- 
ing than  the  female  and  usually  turns 
around  several  times,  while  the  female 
turns  but  part  way  around.  If  a  pigeon 
loses  its  mate  by  death,  it  must  be  re- 
turned to  the  mating  pen,  otherwise  it 
might  seek  to  win  a  mate  already  mated 
and  thus  cause  trouble  in  the  breeding 
pen.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
inbreeding  if  large  sized  squabs  are  to 
be  secured. 
GUINEAS 

The  guinea,  also  known  as  keets,  is 
but  little  grown  commercially,  but  small 
flocks  of  two  to  six  or  seven  birds  are 
found  on  farms  all  over  the  country 
principally  in  the  southern  states.  Ke- 
cently  there  has  been  considerable  de- 
mand in  the  larger  cities  for  guineas  as 
table  birds  at  hotels  and  clubs,  because 
of  the  gamy  flavor  of  the  flesh,  which  is 
especially  marked  when  the  birds  are 
allowed  free  range.  They  are  noisy 
birds  and  it  is  claimed  that  they  are 
thus  a  protection  to  other  poultry  from 
attacks  of  hawks  and  other  enemies. 
They  lay  from  50  to  100  well-flavored, 
hard-shelled,  speckled  eggs  annually, 
slightly  smaller  than  hens'  eggs. 


POULTRY 


677 


In  starting  a  flock,  it  is  best  to  com- 
mence with  eggs,  since  if  old  birds  are 
bought  they  are  likely  to  abandon  the 
new  home.  The  eggs  require  from  26 
to  30  days  for  hatching,  the  average  be- 
ing 28.  Common  hens  make  good 
mothers. 

Feeding  the  chicks — The  young  birds 
are  unusually  lively  and  require  feeding 
about  as  soon  as  they  are  dry  and  much 
oftener  than  chicks.  A  ration  of  stale 
bread  soaked  in  skim  milk  and  squeezed 
dry  is  excellent  for  the  first  day  or  two, 
after  which  about  10  per  cent  of  hard- 
boiled  eggs,  chopped  fine,  or  cooked  lean 
meat  may  be  added.  Rolled  oats,  millet 
seed,  cracked  wheat  or  corn  may  be 
given  and  plenty  of  green  food,  like 
onion  tops,  chopped  fine,  lettuce,  etc. 

Feed  five  or  six  times  a  day  for  the 
first  week  or  two,  after  which  more 
range  may  be  given  and  longer  inter- 
vals made  between  feeding.  Like  all 
other  fowls,  they  require  grit  in  abun- 
dance and  the  ration  should  be  mixed 
with  5  to  8  per  cent  of  clean,  sharp 
sand.  Guineas  are  normally  great 
rangers,  and  will  pick  up  a  large  share 
of  their  living,  but  should  be  fed  at  least 
once  or  twice  a  day  in  the  poultry  yard 
to  accustom  them  to  home  surround- 
ings. 

Until  the  chicks  are  well  feathered 
out  they  are  delicate  and  should  be  kept 
confined  until  the  dew  is  off  the  grass 
each  day.  In  northern  climates  they 
should  be  hatched  by  July.  Late  hatches 
do  not  give  as  good  results  as  earlier 
grown  fowls  and  are  sold  chiefly  as 
broilers. 

If  the  cocks  are  as  numerous  as  the 
hens,  they  will  pair  off,  but  if  less,  one 
cock  will  mate  with  several  hens.  The 
cocks  are  distinguished  by  larger  combs 
and  wattles  and  coarser  head  than  the 


hens,  and  their  cry  is  also  more  of  a 
shriek  than  the  usual  "buckwheat"  of 
the  hens.  The  hens  usually  steal  their 
nests  and  will  leave  it  if  all  the  eggs  are 
removed.  At  least  five  or  six  should  be 
left  as  nest  eggs. 

The  guinea  hen  is  a  rather  poor  sitter 
and  inclined  to  leave  the  nest  as  soon 
as  the  first  three  or  four  eggs  are 
hatched.  On  this  account,  common  hens 
make  better  mothers.  Guineas  may  be 
fattened  for  market  on  any  of  the  usual 
grains,  but  should  not  be  overfat. 

Marketing—Extra  feeding  for  10  days 
to  two  weeks  before  marketing  is  suffi- 
cient. They  are  usually  marketed  as 
adult  birds  when  five  to  eight  months 
old,  at  a  weight  of  3  to  4  pounds  each. 
The  young  chicks  are  also  marketed  at 
a  weight  of  one-half  pound  to  1  pound 
each  as  broilers.  The  meat  is  dark  col- 
ored, tender,  and  gamy  in  flavor,  re- 
sembling that  of  quail  or  pheasants,. 

The  birds  are  killed  for  market  by 
cutting  the  artery  across  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  and  bled  in  the  same  manner  as 
chickens,  but  the  feathers  are  usually 
left  on  or  removed  only  from  the 
breast.  Guineas  are  regarded  in  the 
market  as  game  rather  than  domestic 
fowls  and  the  feathers  add  to  their  at- 
tractiveness. The  prices  range  from  90 
cents  to  $1.25  a  pair  in  the  larger  mar- 
kets. 

The  most  common  variety  of  guineas 
is  the  Pearl,  characterized  by  steely, 
purplish  gray  plumage  dotted  with 
white.  There  is  also  a  pure  white  va- 
riety and  a  bronze  variety,  all  of  which 
are  about  equally  valuable,  though  the 
common  Pearl  guinea  is  by  all  odds  the 
variety  most  commonly  grown.  See 
also  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  234, 
on  The  Guinea  Fowl  and  Its  Use  for 
Food,  by  C.  F.  Langworthy. 


PART   XII 


Other  Useful  Animals 


FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


The  common  farm  animals  include 
horses,  cattle,  swine,  sheep,  mules,  goats 
chickens,  ducks,  geese,  turkeys,  guinea 
fowls  and  pigeons.  All  of  these  have 
been  treated  in  their  places  in  previous 
chapters.  There  remain  for  considera- 
tion several  other  animals  which  are 
useful  for  food,  fur,  milk,  work,  pets, 
and  various  other  purposes.  It  seems 
desirable  to  refer  to  these  animals  in  so 
far  as  is  necessary  in  a  chapter  by  them- 
selves. The  bison  is  admitted  on  ac- 
count of  its  transcendent  importance  in 
the  early  history  of  the  country  and  on 
account  of  its  being  one  parent  of  the 
very  interesting  hybrid,  the  catalo.  The 
deer,  elk,  moose,  antelope,  mountain 
goat  and  mountain  sheep  are  such  con- 
spicuous game  animals  and  their  meat 
is  eaten  so  extensively  that  they  deserve 
at  least  a  short  notice  in  a  work  of  this 
kind.  An  experiment  was  once  made  in 
introducing  the  camel  into  this  country 
and  this  experiment  is  worthy  of  men- 
tion. 

The  zebu  has  been  introduced  into  the 
Philippines  and  some  of  its  blood  is  in 
the  native  Porto  Bican  cattle.  Again, 
the  carabao  is  the  animal  upon  which 
the  natives  depend  in  the  Philippines 
for  milk,  work  and  meat.  The  reindeer 
and  caribou  are  of  great  value  in  the 
development  of  the  more  northern  parts 
of  Alaska.  Some  interest  also  attaches 
to  the  musk  ox.  Inquiry  is  often  made 
regarding  fox  farms,  skunk  farms,  and 
frog  farms.  The  essential  points  in  these 
lines  of  the  work  are,  therefore,  included 
in  the  chapter.  Moreover,  rabbits  fur- 
nish enough  meat  to  deserve  a  brief  dis- 
cussion. Eecently  much  interest  has 
been  taken  by  farmers  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  game  birds.  The  main  points  in 
the  artificial  rearing  and  feeding  of 
game  birds  are,  therefore,  included.  Os- 
trich farming  is  carried  on  in  a  number 
of  places  in  this  country  and  has  at- 
tracted     considerable      attention.     Pea- 


fowls and  swans  have  their  place  as  or- 
namental birds  and  are  also  good  for 
meat.  Many  farmers  take  a  lively  in- 
terest in  the  preservation  of  trout  and 
other  fish,  in  stocking  streams  and  pro- 
tecting them  against  contamination. 
Some  information  is,  therefore,  given 
regarding  the  agencies  which  assist  the 
farmer  in  this  laudable  endeavor.  Fi- 
nally the  dog  and  the  cat  stand  in  a 
peculiar  relation  with  man  and  were  the 
first  animal  associates  which  man 
formed    by    domestication. 

Short  accounts  are,  therefore,  given 
of  all  these  animals  in  the  following 
paragraphs,  calling  attention  especially 
to  the  uses  to  which  they  may  be  put 
and  the  best  practical  methods  of  caring 
for  them  and  feeding  them.  Not  only 
the  individual  farmer  is  interested  in 
the  rearing  of  some  of  the  less  impor- 
tant animals,  but  the  state  legislatures 
and  federal  congress  have  taken  cog- 
nizance of  the  matter  and  provided  for 
the  inspection  of  imported  animals  by 
the  officials  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry and  the  Bureau  of  Biological 
Survey.  The  general  care  and  protec- 
tion of  game  birds  and  animals  has  been 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Bureau  of 
Biological  Survey. 

A  part  of  the  work  of  this  bureau  is 
the  supervision  of  the  importation  of 
foreign  birds  and  mammals,  co-opera- 
tion in  restricting  interstate  shipments 
of  game  contrary  to  law,  supervision  of 
bird  reservations,  protection  of  game  in 
Alaska,  and  publication  of  matter  re- 
lating to  game  protection.  The  impor- 
tance of  this  work  may  be  seen  from  the 
fact  that  during  the  year  1905,  390  per- 
mits were  issued  for  the  importation  of 
200  mammals,  250,000  canary  birds,  37,- 
000  miscellaneous  birds,  and  five  permits 
for  the  importation  of  2,270  pheasant 
eggs.  In  this  list  were  1,000  pheasants, 
300  quail,  450  partridges,  300  ducks  and 
600    miscellaneous    birds.     Pigeons    and 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


doves  were  also  imported  to  the  extent 
of  20,000.  More  than  100  capercailzies, 
a  European  game  bird,  were  imported 
for  liberation  on  Grand  Island,  Michi- 
gan. The  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey 
also  gives  much  attention  to  interstate 
commerce  in  game,  assisting  state  courts 
and  the  Department  of  Justice  in  prose- 
cuting cases  of  illegal  shipment  of  game. 
Reservations  are  being  established  for 
the  protection  of  game  birds  and  mam- 
mals, and  experiments  are  in  progress 
in  methods  of  feeding  game. 

We  are  always  interested  in  the  utili- 
zation of  animals  other  than  our  com- 
mon farm  stock,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the 
following  brief  accounts  of  these  ani- 
mals contain  answers  to  most  of  the 
questions  which  the  farmer  would  nat- 
urally ask  concerning  them.  Most  of  us 
take  a  keen  enjoyment  in  seeing  game 
birds  and  mammals  about  the  place,  and 
in  having  the  streams  on  the  farm  well 
stocked  with  trout  or  other  suitable  fish. 
The  farmer  needs  recreation  as  well  as 
other  busy  men  and  by  giving  a  little 
heed  to  the  matter  he  may  have  all  the 
joys  and  luxuries  of  nature  on  his  ow 
place. 

AMERICAN  BISON  AND  CATALO 

The  Buffalo  or  American  Bison  once 
extended  from  Pennsylvania  to  the 
Rocky  mountains  and  was  by  all  odds 
the  most  conspicuous  animal  on  our  con- 
tinent. This  monarch  of  the  plains  i3 
now  extinct  except  for  a  few  thousand 
animals  kept  in  zoological  gardens, 
parks,  and  on  private  estates.  Accord- 
ing to  estimates  prepared  by  Col.  C.  J. 
Jones,  there  were  15,000,000  in  1865, 
1,000,000  in  1875,  20,000  in  1885,  and 
150  in  1889.  The  cause  of  the  extermi- 
nation of  the  buffalo  is  not  far  to  seek. 
In  1871,  4,500,000  were  killed,  all  but 
1,000,000  being  killed  for  the  hide  alone. 
The  history  of  the  buffalo  reads  like  a 
romance  and  a  great  mass  of  literature 
has  grown  up  around  this  animal.  In 
the  pioneer  days  he  was  seen  in  herds  of 
thousands  and  in  some  cases  millions, 
one  continuous  herd  of  4,000,000  being 
reported  by  Mr.  R.  I.  Dodge.  The  buf- 
falo made  annual  migrations  from  the 
south  to  the  north  and  back  again  in 
search  of  good  grazing. 

The  buffalo  in  domestication  loses 
much  of  its  keen  sense  of  smell,  but  its 
eyesight  appears  to  improve.  In  close 
confinement  it  becomes  almost  sterile 
but  breeds  readily  when  allowed  suitable 


range.  The  buffalo  has  been  success- 
fully trained  and  driven  in  harness.  It 
is  valuable  for  its  head  and  skin  for  or- 
namental purposes,  robes,  overcoats,  etc. 
Not  many  years  ago  scarcely  a  farmer 
was  so  poor  that  he  could  not  afford  a 
buffalo  robe.  Now  the  possession  of  a 
buffalo  robe  is  a  great  luxury.  Buffaloes 
are  not  alone  valuable  for  their  skin; 
the  tallow  is  yellow  and  the  meat  tender 
and  of  good  flavor.  The  opportunity  is 
seldom  had  at  present  to  taste  the  meat 
of  the  buffalo  except  when  one  is  killed 
for  food  in  private  herds. 

The  Catalo  as  described  by  Jones  is 
produced  by  crossing  the  buffalo  bull  on 
the  domestic  cow.  A  surer  and  better 
method  consists  in  crossing  the  domes- 
tic bull  on  the  buffalo  cow.  The  hybrid 
or  catalo  calf  has  a  slight  hump  on  the 
shoulders   which   may   occasionally  give 


Fig.    433 — FALLOW    DEER 

trouble  in  parturition  for  the  domestic 
cow.  The  catalo  is  perfectly  fertile  and 
breeds  readily  with  either  parent.  Cat- 
alo bulls  are  much  harder  to  raise  than 
catalo  cows.  The  half  breeds  are  usually 
larger  than  either  parent,  the  catalo  cow 
often  weighing  1,200  to  1,500  pounds. 
One  five-year  old  catalo  steer  dressed 
1,280  pounds.  "The  quarter  and  three- 
quarter  buffaloes  are  not  so  large  as  the 
half-blood;  they  are  about  the  same  size 
as  ordinary  good  cattle.  The  seven 
eighths  and  fifteen-sixteenths  buffaloes 
are  of  the  size  of  the  buffalo,  and  resem- 
ble them  in  shape  and  color.  The  fur  of 
the  three-quarter  and  seven-eighths  bxif- 
faloes     makes    the     finest     robes."     The 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


more  buffalo  blood  in  the  catalo  the 
richer  the  milk  and  the  more  bovine 
blood  the  more  milk.  The  catalo  always 
has  solid  colors;  he  is  black,  brown, 
brindle  or  white.  The  buffalo  has  been 
crossed  with  all  breeds  of  cattle,  but  the 
Galloway  is  the  best  and  produces  the 
finest  robes  in  the  catalo.  The  catalo  is 
reported  to  be  a  good  feeder  and  to  make 
excellent  returns  for  the  feed  consumed. 


Fig.   434 — ELK   IN   OREGON 

They  have  been  produced  in  Kansas, 
Montana  and  elsewhere,  but  only  in 
small  numbers,  and  there  is  little  likeli- 
hood of  their  ever  becoming  very  num- 
erous. 

The  catalo  resembles  the  buffalo  more 
than  domestic  cattle  in  habits.  Thus  he 
faces  the  wind  in  bad  storms  instead  of 
drifting  with  the  storm  like  cattle.  He 
prefers  to  graze  upon  the  range  and  suc- 
ceeds in  keeping  himself  fat  continually. 
As  might  be  expected  the  catalo  excels 
domestic  cattle  in  grazing  power.  If  it 
is  desired  to  feed  them  in  confinement, 
the  same  feeds  may  be  used  as  for  cattle, 
and  in  the  same  rations. 

DEER,   ELK    ANTELOPE,   AND 
MOOSE 

The  preservation  of  game  animals  has 
not  long  engaged  the  serious  thought  of 
many  men.  The  pioneer  found  game 
abundant  and  killed  it  according  to  his 
needs  for  food  and  clothing.  As  popu- 
lation increased  the  forests  were  cut 
down  and  the  natural  range  of  game  be- 
came occupied  for  farm  land.  Then, 
too,  the  hunters  became  more  numerous, 
and  hunting  developed  into  a  business, 
or  animals  were  hunted  for  commercial 
purposes.  Thus  it  rapidly  came  about 
that  game  animals  were  killed  much 
faster  than  their  natural  rate  of  repro- 
duction, and  they  were  simultaneously 
deprived  of  their  breeding  grounds. 
This  is  in  brief  the  history  of  the  disap- 
pearance of  our  game  animals  through- 
out   the    greater    part    of   the    country. 


First  the  buffalo  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
wild  animal  and  the  former  range  of 
deer,  antelope,  elk  and  moose  has  been 
greatly  curtailed. 

Preservation  of  game — A  few  men 
have  long  been  active  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  game  and  their  cry  has  been 
heard  on  all  occasions.  Their  propa- 
ganda and  the  rapid  disappearance  of 
our  indigenous  animals  finally  brought 
the  matter  prominently  before  the  atten- 
tion of  the  public.  Laws  were  passed  in 
nearly  all  states  making  close  seasons 
for  game  and  limiting  the  size  of  the 
yearly  bag  for  each  man.  These  meas- 
ures alone  have  served  to  prevent  the  ex- 
termination of  the  deer  family  in  many 
localities.  In  some  places,  however,  the 
problem  was  even  more  serious  and  re- 
quired a  different  solution.  In  order  to 
prevent  the  total  extermination  of  a 
species  of  animal  it  is  not  enough  that 
we  merely  refrain  from  killing  it  faster 
than  it  can  multiply,  but  we  must  also 
give  it  natural  conditions  in  which  to 
live  and  multiply.  This  demand  was  met 
by  setting  aside  state  and  federal  parks 
and  forest  reserves  which  now  aggregate 


Fig.     435 — PRONGHORN     ANTELOPE 

more  than  100,000,000  acres  in  area. 
These  reserves  were  primarily  intended 
to  preserve  the  forests,  but  later  it  ap- 
peared that  they  might  serve  the  second- 
ary purpose  of  protecting  the  game. 
Hunting  and  other  operations  of  pri- 
vate individuals  may  be  easily  regulated 
in  state  and  federal  parks. 


684 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


It  has  been  found  that  even  with  very- 
short  open  seasons,  antelopes,  mountain 
goats,  and  mountain  sheep  were  fast 
nearing  extermination,  consequently  the 
killing  of  these  animals  had  to  be  pro- 
hibited indefinitely.  As  soon  as  they 
multiply  to  an  extent  which  will  justify 
the  removal  of  the  prohibition  an  open 
season  may  again  be  proclaimed.  Some 
of  these  animals  make  regular  seasonal 
migrations  in  search  of  food  and  better 
climatic  condition.  In  these  migrations 
they  usually  take  the  same  course  year 
after  year.  Hunters  took  advantage  of 
this  to  kill  them  in  large  numbers. 
Thus  near  Gardiner,  Montana,  antelopes 
were  formerly  slaughtered  as  they  en- 
tered and  left  the  Yellowstone  Park. 
Finally  the  Montana  legislature  entirely 
prohibited  the  killing  of  antelopes  for  an 
indefinite  period.  Many  other  instances 
of  this  sort  have  occurred  and  the  game 
has  increased  quite  satisfactorily  as  a 
result. 

Economic  value— Aside  from  mere 
considerations  of  sentiment  the  deer 
family  is  worthy  of  some  thought  from 
an  economic  standpoint.  Thus  the 
number  of  elks  in  the  Yellowstone  Park 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  Jackson's  Hole 
has  been  estimated  at  50,000.  These 
are  worth  at  least  $50  a  head,  so  that  the 
total  sum  is  no  mean  figure.  The  meat 
of  all  the  deer  family  is  of  excellent 
quality  and  much  relished.  Then  the 
skins,  horns,  heads  and  in  some  cases 
the  teeth  are  of  value.  In  fact,  many 
elks  have  been  killed  simply  for  the 
teeth.  In  order  to  furnish  the  greatest 
possible  protection  to  the  members  of 
the  deer  family,  certain  parts  of  the  re- 
serves have  been  set  aside  as  game  ref- 
uges, where  no  hunting  is  allowed. 
Furthermore,  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
cattle  and  sheep  in  many  instances  now 
occupy  what  was  the  winter  range  of 
deer  and  elks  the  latter  are  forced  to 
remain  higher  up  in  the  mountains  in 
winter,  and  therefore  take  greater  risks 
of  being  caught  in  deep  snow  and  starv- 
ing to  death.  This  fatality  happens 
quite  often,  for  we  have  several  times 
found  the  carcasses  of  deer  and  elks  un- 
der circumstances  such  that  nothing  else 
could  account  for  their  death.  Elks  of- 
ten come  to  the  ranch  buildings  and  eat 
hay  from  the  stack  and  some  of  the 
more  considerate  ranchmen  feed  them 
hay.     Kecently   the   federal    authorities 


have  bought  hay   for  this  purpose  and 
thus  saved  the  lives  of  many  elks. 

Antelopes,  elks,  and  deer  if  caught 
when  young  are  easily  tamed  and  make 
excellent  and  interesting  pets.  Young 
animals  of  this  sort  may  be  brought  up 
on  the  bottle  by  using  cow's  milk. 

REINDEER  AND   CARIBOU 

While  some  scientists  recognize  seven 
or  more  species  of  reindeer  and  caribou 
they  are  for  practical  purposes  all  one 
and  the  same  thing,  the  scientific  name 
being  Rangifer  tarandus.  Their  natural 
habitat  is  the  northern  regions  of  both 
continents,  Alaska,  British  America, 
Greenland,  Iceland,  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Russia.  Considering  reindeer  and 
caribou  as  varieties  of  the  same  species 
it  may  be  said  that  their  natural  food  is 
mosses  and  lichens,  particularly  the 
reindeer  moss  which  is  a  lichen  (Clado- 


Fig.  436 — YOUNG  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  SHEEP 

nia  rangiferina).  Two  varieties  of  cari- 
bou are  recognized,  the  woodland  or 
southern  variety,  and  the  barren  ground 
or  northern  caribou.  The  woodland  car- 
ibou feeds  more  on  grass,  is  smaller  and 
has  less  flattened  horns. 

In  size,  reindeer  vary  greatly,  depend- 
ing on  the  character  of  the  vegetation 
and  other  factors.  In  some  cases  they 
reach  a  larger  size  wild  than  in  domes- 
tication, but  on  an  average  the  domesti- 
cated reindeer  are  larger.  A  peculiar 
character  of  reindeer  and  caribou  is 
that  both  males  and  females  have  horns 
which  are  shed  in  March  and  April. 
Reindeer  have  been  most  extensively 
domesticated  in  Siberia,  some  individ- 
ual owners  holding  herds  as  large  as 
15,000.      About    250    of    the    Tunguse 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


685 


reindeer,  the  largest  breed,  were  intro- 
duced into  Alaska  in  1901.  The  reindeer 
is  a  very  important  animal  in  the  far 
north.  He  furnishes  meat  for  food, 
milk  which  may  be  drunk  as  such  or 
made  into  butter  or  cheese,  skins  for 
robes  and  clothes,  and  is  an  excellent 
beast  of  burden. 

Sheldon  Jackson  is  the  most  conspic- 
uous figure  in  connection  with  the  in- 
troduction of  reindeer  into  Alaska. 
The  work  began  in  1891  and  has  been 
carried  on  so  successfully  that  at  present 
there  are  more  than  8000  reindeer  in 
Alaska,  and  at  the  same  time  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  reindeer  will  thrive 
in  Alaska  and  that  they  are  very  serv- 
iceable. With  the  aid  of  reindeer, 
overland  trips  may  be  made  in  winter 
under  conditions  which  no  other  animal 
could  endure.  Even  the  dogs  must 
carry  their  food  with  them,  but  the 
reindeer  digs  under  the  snow  and  finds 
sustenance  in  the  severest  winter  and 
during  blizzards.  Reindeer  may  be 
used  to  haul  loads  on  sleds  or  as  pack 
animals,  a  good  load  on  the  sled  being 
350  pounds  and  on  the  back  150  pounds. 

Breaking  and  training  0f  reindeer 
requires  considerable  patience.  Break- 
ing takes  place  at  three  years  of  age ;  the 
animals  should  not  be  worked  before 
that  age.  At  the  age  of  six  or  seven 
they  reach  their  prime  and  thereafter 
gradually  decline  in  usefulness.  George- 
son  suggests  that  some  improvement  is 
possible  in  the  reindeer  by  a  systematic 
line  of  breeding.  In  this  way  the  size 
might  be  increased  and  perhaps  the 
horns  bred  off. 

Reindeer  are  susceptible  to  anthrax, 
rinderpest,  foot  and  mouth  disease  and 
a  peculiar  form  of  foot  rot,  which  may 
be  partly  due  to  a  lack  of  lime  salts  in 
the  food.  The  reindeer  will  not  thrive 
in  regions  warm  enough  for  the  practice 
of  ordinary  agriculture  and  does  not 
relish  the  forage  commonly  fed  to 
horses  and  cattle.  North  of  the  agri- 
cultural belt,  however,  it  is  the  most 
useful  known  animal. 

MUSK  OX 

The  musk  ox  (Ovibos  moschatus)  has 
its  natural  habitat  in  Alaska  and  east 
of  the  Mackenzie  river,  north  of  the 
sixtieth  parallel.  The  animal  prefers 
rocky,  barren  ground  where  moss  and 
some  grass  may  be  found.  The  length 
of  the  musk  ox  is  5y2  to  8  feet  and  the 
hight   about   W2   feet   at   the   shoulder. 


The  bulls  weigh  300  to  500  pounds  and 
the  cows  about  75  pounds  less.  The 
bones  are  strong,  the  hair  very  long  and 
the  animals  are  possessed  of  great  vigor. 
The  horns  are  comparatively  long  and 
grow  downward  and  outward.  The 
musk  ox  seems  to  vary  considerably  in 
color,  being  black,  brown  or  gray.  The 
length  and  quality  of  the  hair  renders 
the  skin  very  valuable  for  rugs  and  sim- 
ilar purposes.  The  meat  of  the  musk 
ox  is  also  of  excellent  flavor.  Practi- 
cally no  attempt  has  been  made  in  this 
country  to  domesticate  the  musk  ox,  but 
recently  a  few  of  them  have  been  intro- 
duced   into    Norway,    where    they    have 


Fig.        437 — BACTRIAN        OR       TWO-HUMPED 
CAMEL 

been  kept  in  ordinary  inclosures  and 
fed  like  the  common  farm  animals.  It 
is  possible,  therefore,  that  the  musk  ox 
may  thrive  in  domestication.  It  has 
little  to  recommend  it.  however,  except 
its  hardiness  and  fine  coat. 

CAMEL 

The  great  value  of  the  camel  as  a 
beast  of  burden  is  well  known  to  every 
reader.  This  animal  is  not  only  capable 
of  carrying  heavy  loads  and  of  making 
considerable  speed,  but  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  performance  of  long  jour- 
neys through  arid  regions.  In  oriental 
countries  the  camel  has  long  been  the 
chief  animal  used  for  this  purpose.  He 
is  readily  domesticated,  fairly  tractable 
but  not  particularly  intelligent.  The 
camel  was  early  introduced  into  South 
America  and  in  1701  a  few  were  brought 
to  Virginia,  but  did  not  maintain  them- 
selves. In  1836,  and  again  in  1848  the 
idea  was  seriously  entertained  by  the  war 
department  of  importing  camels  for  use 
in  transporting  supplies  across  the  arid 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


plains  of  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
country.  Finally  in  1856  nine  dromeda- 
ries, 23  camels  of  burden  and  one  calf 
were  purchased  near  Smyrna  at  prices 
ranging  from  $15  to  $1,000.  Among  these 
animals  was  one  cross  between  the  Bac- 
trian  and  Arabian  camel  which  stood 
10  feet  5  inches,  measured  10  feet  long 
and  9  feet  9  inches  in  girth.  lie  weighed 
2,000  pounds  when  in  condition.  Dur- 
ing transportation  a  good  daily  ration 
was  found  in  four  quarts  of  oats,  10 
pounds  of  hay  and  a  gallon  of  water, 
with  an  occasional  variation  of  crushed 
neas   or   barley   and   salt   once   a   week. 


travels  20  to  40  miles  a  day,  but  under 
stress  a  much  larger  load,  up  to  1,000 
pounds,  may  be  carried,  and  the  camel 
may  be  made  to  cover  75  to  80  miles  in 
a  day. 

All  of  the  camels  were  safely  landed 
in  Texas,  one  calf  having  been  born  on 
the  way  and  safely  carried  through.  A 
test  of  the  camels  was  made  immediately, 
and  it  was  found  that  three  camels  could 
carry  more  than  six  mules  could  haul 
and  do  it  in  much  less  time.  In  one 
test,  a  camel  easily  rose  from  the  ground 
and  walked  away  with  1,256  pounds  of 
hay  on  its  back.    The  camels  also  proved 


Tig.     438 — WATER     BUFFALO     OR     CARABAO 
(From  Photo  by  D.  Griffiths) 


The  fact  that  the  natural  diet  of  camels 
consists  of  the  leaves  and  branches  of 
various  trees,  including  bitter  and  as- 
tringent thorny  bushes,  seemed  to  mark 
them  as  peculiarly  fitted  to  thrive  under 
the  conditions  which  prevail  in  our  west- 
ern deserts. 

It  was  found  during  the  trip  that,  con- 
trary to  the  general  belief,  the  camel 
really  needs  water  every  day.  In  an 
emergency  the  camel  can  go  5  to  8  days 
without  water,  but  this  is  partly  due  to 
the  fact  that  he  perspires  very  little. 
At  any  rate,  his  water  stomach  holds 
only  about  two  gallons.  The  camel  ordi- 
narily  carries    250   to   400   pounds   and 


capable  of  traveling  over  muddy,  slip- 
pery roads  and  over  steep  mountain 
passes  without  any  difficulty.  In  1857, 
41  other  camels  were  imported,  a  few 
of  which  died,  so  that  the  whole  herd 
now  numbered  70.  Although  the  mili- 
tary authorities  reported  that  the  camel 
had  proved  his  great  usefulness  and 
complete  adaptability  to  our  western 
arid  conditions,  little  work  was  found 
for  them  to  do  and  idleness  and  lack  of 
care  caused  the  appearance  of  disease 
which  soon  carried  off  many  of  them. 
The  herd  was  scattered,  some  of  them 
being  taken  to  Nevada,  some  to  Califor- 
nia, and  others  to  Arizona.     Some  ob- 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


687 


jection  was  made  to  the  use  of  camels, 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  they  fright- 
ened horses. 

Why  experiment  failed — During  the 
civil  war,  the  camels  became  still  more 
scattered,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war 
only  44  remained.  They  were  then  sold 
for  $31  a  head  for  use  in  menageries. 
A  few  escaped  and  became  wild,  being 
seen  from  time  to  time  until  within  the 
past  15  years. 

According  to  Carroll,  "the  most  potent 
cause  of  the  failure  of  the  camel  exper- 


Fig.  439 — BULL  YAK 

iment  was  its  interruption  by  the  civil 
war.  Had  Major  Wayne  been  left  in 
control  of  the  camels,  which  were  im- 
ported under  his  supervision,  and  sup- 
plied with  sufficient  money  to  breed  and 
increase  them,  as  he  so  well  knew  was 
necessary,  and  had  he  been  free  to  fa- 
miliarize the  teamsters  and  drivers  with 
their  management,  there  appears  to  be 
no  particular  reason  why  they  should 
not  have  been  of  as  much  use  in  parts 
of  this  country  as  they  were  and  are  in 
the  countries  of  the  east.  They  were 
easily  and  quickly  acclimated  and  they 
performed  with  success  their  tasks  in 
the  initial  experiments."  In  many  re- 
spects, therefore,  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  an  apparently  successful  experi- 
ment was  allowed  to  lapse. 

CARABAO 

The  carabao  or  water  buffalo  is  really 
identical  with  the  Indian  buffalo  (Bos 
oubalis),  which  is  distributed  from 
Europe  to  the  Philippines.  It  is  by 
far  the  most  important  domestic  and 
farm  animal  in  the  Philippine  islands. 
The  carabao  is  not  only  the  mainstay  of 
agriculture,  but  is  also  extensively  used 
as  a  draft  and  pack  animal.  It  gives  a 
fairly  good  quantity  of  milk  with  a  high 
fat  content.     There  is  no  animal  more 


useful  or  more  able  to  withstand  the  cli- 
mate of  the  Philippines  than  the  car- 
abao. The  color  is  black  or  brown,  the 
hair  very  sparse,  the  horns  very  large, 
arched,  rough  and  heavy.  The  head  is 
small  as  compared  with  the  horns. 

Its  strength  is  immense  and  it  can 
haul  very  heavy  loads,  although  with  a 
slow  and  awkward  gait.  It  swims  the 
wildest  rivers  with  ease.  The  carabao 
needs  water  at  frequent  intervals  and  is 
fond  of  lying  down  in  the  mud.  In 
fact,  this  tendency  sometimes  leads  to 
trouble,  for  when  the  carabao  becomes 
dry  or  hot,  he  makes  for  the  nearest  mud 
or  water  hole  for  the  purpose  of  cooling 
himself  off.  In  so  doing,  he  may  upset 
the  cart  and  injure  the  load.  The  meat 
is  of  fairly  good  flavor  and  the  hide  and 
horns  are  of  great  commercial  value. 
The  carabao  matures  at  the  age  of  five  or 
six  years,  and  may  then  be  put  to  work. 
It  usually  lives  to  the  age  of  30  years. 

During  the  outbreak  of  rinderpest  in 
1902,  in  the  Philippines,  about  492,000 
carabao  died.  The  total  number  then  in 
the  islands  was  1,773,000,  so  that  the 
death  rate  was  42  per  cent.  This  de- 
struction of  the  carabao  affected  the  is- 
lands more  disastrously  than  any  other 
catastrophe  which  has  befallen  them. 
The  practice  of  farming  was  brought  al- 
most to  a  standstill,  because  many  lines 
of  farming  are  wholly  dependent  upon 
the  carabao.  In  the  rinderpest  outbreak 
of  1902,  the  highest  death  rate  was  noted 
among  the  carabao  bulls  and  the  lowest 
unohg  the  carabao  steers.  The  Igorrotes 


Fig.  440 — zebu  cow 

(From  Photo  by  F.  G.  Favorite) 

were  the  least  affected  by  the  epidemic  of 
rinderpest  since  this  race  of  natives  do 
not  depend  upon  the  carabao  except  for 
food.  The  government  veterinarians 
have  worked  out  a  system  of  vaccination 
and  other  methods  of  control  by  which 
it  is  hoped  that  future  outbreaks  of  rin- 
derpest may  be  checked. 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


ZEBU 

The  Zebu  (Bos  indicus),  also  known 
as  the  humped  ox  or  humped  cattle  of 
India,  includes  not  only  the  various  do- 
mestic cattle  of  India,  but  also  a  num- 
ber of  races  which  have  run  wild.  At 
present  the  wild  form  of  zebu  is  prac- 
tically extinct  in  India.  The  finest 
zebus  are  found  in  India,  but  they  ex- 
tend eastward  to  Japan  and  westward 
into  Africa.  Many  breeds  of  Indian 
cattle  or  domesticated  zebu  have  been 
recognized,  viz:  Mysore,  Nellore,  Gu- 
jarat, Sind,  Gir,  Aden,  Hill,  Village  and 


Thus,  the  milk  yield  in  the  hybrids 
varied  from  1  to  5  quarts  a  day.  More- 
over, the  temper  of  the  hybrids  entirely 
unsuited  them  for  any  work  as  draft  an- 
imals. The  meat  was  of  excellent  flavor. 
Recently  Mares  has  experimented  with 
hybrid  zebus  in  Algeria.  He  found  that 
not  only  the  pure  zebu,  but  also  mixtures 
with  common  cattle  containing  the 
slightest  trace  of  zebu  blood,  were  im- 
mune to  Texas  fever.  This  is  of  con- 
siderable importance  in  countries  badly 
infected  with  this  disease.  It  appears 
that  not  all  zebus  are  equally  good  for 


"Fig.  441 — ZEBU  BULL  AND  COW  IN  DOMESTICATION 
(From  Photo  by  D.  Grfflths) 


Burmese  breeds.  The  introduction  of 
the  common  breeds  of  cattle,  such  as  we 
are  familiar  with,  has  not  been  very  suc- 
cessful, for  the  reason  that  our  cattle 
are  more  susceptible  to  rinderpest  than 
are  the  zebus.  Consequently,  India  de- 
pends on  her  zebu  and  buffalo,  which 
latter  is  the  same  as  the  carabao  of  the 
Philippines.  Hybrids  between  zebus 
and  common  cattle  in  India  have  proved 
rather  delicate  and  hard  to  rear. 

Crosses  and  hybrids — Nathusius 
crossed  a  zebu  bull  on  Shorthorn  and 
Holland  cows,  but  found  that  the  hy- 
brids were  too  small  and  gave  too  little 
milk     to     be     of  economic     importance. 


crossing.  The  Madagascar  zebus  have 
poor  meat  qualities  and  those  from 
Cochin  China  are  too  small  for  produc- 
ing hybrids.  Mares  found  the  Brah- 
min zebu  best.  Its  average  weight  is 
about  790  pounds,  with  a  dressed  weight 
of  495  pounds,  or  62  per  cent.  These 
hybrids  give  about  16  quarts  of  rich 
milk  a  day.  The  meat  is  of  excellent 
quality  and  the  animals  are  of  beef 
form.  The  zebu  have  been  imported  in 
small  numbers  into  the  Philippines, 
where  they  are  being  tested  to  determine 
their  value. 

In  Porto  Pico  some  of  the  native  cat- 
tle, especially  the  bulls,  show  a  hump. 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


The  origin  of  these  cattle  is  not  known, 
but  it  is  probable  that  they  have  a  slight 
admixture  of  zebu  blood.  According  to 
Pearson,  a  few  animals,  commonly  re- 
ferred to  as  buffalo,  were  imported  from 
Africa  about  100  years  ago.  These  ani- 
mals carried  humps  and  were  probably 
zebus.  The  blood  still  persists  in  the 
native  cattle  of  the  island.  This  may 
help  to  explain  why  the  native  cattle 
seem  to  be  immune  to  Texas  fever.  Herds 
of  cattle  containing  zebu  blood  have 
been  kept  in  Texas  for  years  and  in  1906 
some  pure  zebus  were  brought  to  the 
state. 

RABBITS 

At  first  thought,  it  may  appear  doubt- 
ful to  some  whether  rabbits  should  be 
regarded   as  useful   animals.     Consider- 


Fig.    442 — CATTLE    WITH     ONE-EIGHTH    OR 

MORE    OF    ZEBU    BLOOD 

(Courtesy  of  T.  V.  Hayes) 

able  interest  attaches  to  rabbits  and  hares, 
however,  on  account  of  the  great  damage 
which  they  may  do  to  various  cultivated 
crops  and  on  account  of  the  use  of  their 
meat  under  certain  circumstances.  A 
few  years  ago  considerable  interest  was 
stirred  up  in  the  Belgian  hare  as  a  pos- 
sible source  of  profit.  This  rapidly  died 
out  and  at  present  little  is  heard  of  the 
Belgian  hare.  Babbits  and  hares  are 
universally  hunted  as  game  and  their 
meat  is  considered  by  many  as  a  delicacy. 
In  some  localities  these  animals  have 
bred  to  an  enormous  extent  and  have 
become  serious  agricultural  pests.  They 
have  then  been  killed  and  their  meat 
used  for  canning  and  other  purposes. 
Thus,  Australia  annually  exports  7,000, 
000  rabbits  as  frozen  meat. 

As  is  well  known  the  rabbit  pest  has 
long  been  so  serious  in  Australia  that 
various  rewards,  at  times  as  high  as 
$50,000,  have  been  offered  for  a  really 
effective  remedy  in  exterminating  them. 


As  a  result  of  these  offers  several 
hundred  different  remedies  have  been 
proposed  to  receive  the  reward,  but 
none  of  them  has  been  found  to  answer 
fully  the  requirements  of  the  case.  The 
best  success  has  been  obtained  by  trap- 
ping in  various  ways  and  by  the  use  of 
poisons  such  as  phosphorus,  strychnine, 
etc.  Similarly  in  California,  Colorado 
and  other  western  states  where  rabbits, 
particularly  the  various  species  of  jack 
rabbits,  have  multiplied  greatly,  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  adopt  repressive 
measures.  The  methods  employed  for 
this  purpose  include  hunting  with  fire- 
arms or  ferrets,  trapping,  asphyxiation 
with  gases  in  their  burrows,  and  driving 
into  corrals  by  means  of  regularly  or- 
ganized parties  of  hunters.  The  last 
named  method  has  proved  most  effective 
in  California,  Oregon,  Utah,  Idaho,  Col- 
orado and  elsewhere.  By  this  means 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  jack  rabbits 
have  been  captured  and  used  for  food. 
As  many  as  20,000  have  been  captured 
in  a  single  drive.  In  this  account  we 
cannot  go  into  the  extermination  of 
rabbits,  except  in  so  far  as  such  methods 
lead  to  the  production  of  marketable 
material,  as  for  example  meat  and  skins. 
The  Belgian  hare  has  been  claimed 
by  some  authorities  to  be  a  cross  between 
the  hare  and  the  rabbit,  but  Harting 
maintains  that  the  Belgian  hare  or  lep- 
orine is  simply  a  large  domesticated  va- 
riety of  the  common  European  rabbit.  It 
resembles  the  brown  hare  in  form  and 
color.  The  race  of  animals  originated 
about  50  years  ago  in  Belgium,  as  a 
variety  of  the  rabbit,  and  has  since  been 
reared  extensively  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
creasing its  size  and  of  producing  the 
form,  color  and  fur  of  the  wild  hare. 
The  fur  of  the  back  next  to  the  skin  is 
dark  colored  instead  of  being  light,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  common  brown  hare. 
The  fore  legs  are  much  shorter  than  in 
the  wild  species.  The  standard  of 
points  for  the  Belgian  hare  as  adopted 
at  present  requires  that  the  color  should 
be  a  rich  reddish  brown,  with  as  little 
white  as  possible  under  the  jaws.  The 
body  is  long  with  well  tucked  up  flanks. 
The  tail  should  be  straight,  the  ears 
about  5  inches  long  and  thin,  the  eye 
large  and  of  a  hazel  color,  the  fore  feet 
and  legs  long  and  slender,  and  free  from 
white  hairs.  The  weight  should  be  about 
8  pounds  and  the  short,  arched  appear- 
ance of  the  back  common  in  the  rabbit  is 
considered  a  defect  in  the  Belgian  hare. 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


For  a  few  years  a  lively  interest  was 
felt  in  the  breeding  of  the  Belgian  hare 
and  large  prices  were  obtained  for  fine 
breeding  animals.  There  is  no  large 
natural  demand  for  the  meat  of  these 
animals,  however,  and  profitable  returns 
cannot  be  expected  from  them  except  in 
a  few  localities.  The  meat  of  the  Bel- 
gian hare  makes  a  savory  dish  when 
properly  prepared,  ^but  the  demand  for 
it  is  not  sufficiently  great  to  warrant  the 
unlimited  production  of  these  animals. 
In  Europe  these  animals  are  in  great 
favor  and  the  industry  of  raising  them 
for  the  market  is  an  important  one. 


includes  a  constant  supply  of  hay  and 
oats  with  green  food  twice  a  day.  The 
feeds  which  are  in  use  for  rabbits  by 
different  raisers  include  cereal  hays, 
clover,  alfalfa,  corn,  oats,  wheat,  peas, 
barley,  carrots,  turnips,  beets,  cabbage, 
plantain,  milkweed,  onions,  green  corn, 
bread,  etc. 

Rabbits  are  subject  to  many  diseases 
which  cannot  be  considered  here  in  de- 
tail. Loss  of  appetite  may  usually  be 
corrected  by  adding  a  little  tea  or  dan- 
delion to  the  ration.  Sores  and  insect 
pests  may  be  controlled  by  cleanliness 
and  proper  sanitation.     Mange  is  corn- 


Fig.    443 — "ox    guard''' 

(From  Photo  by  W.  G.  Johnson) 


The  Lop-eared  rabbit  has  ears  20 
inches  or  more  from  tip  to  tip.  The 
color  is  black,  white,  gray,  blue,  etc., 
and  they  weigh  up  to  16  pounds  or  more. 
The  Dutch  rabbit  has  short  erect  ears, 
various  colors  and  make  good  nurse 
does.  They  seldom  weigh  more  than  6 
pounds.  Other  breeds  in  favor  as  pets 
or  for  meat  are  the  Siberian,  Himalayan, 
Egyptian,  Japanese,  Angora,  Polish, 
English,  Silver,  Gray,  Flemish,  Giant, 
Patagonian,  Ram,  Swan,  St.  Hubert, 
etc. 

Rabbits  will  eat  almost  anything  in- 
cluding all  kinds  of  grains,  hays,  espe- 
cially the  leguminous  ones,  green  food 
and  roots.      One   good   feeding   scheme 


monly  cured  by  the  use  of  a  sulphur  and 
lard  ointment  or  carbolized  vaseline. 
For  snuffles  most  breeders  use  a  wash  of 
carbolic  soap  for  the  nose  and  mouth. 

DOGS 

The  dog  bears  the  great  distinction 
of  being  the  first  animal  ever  domesti- 
cated by  man.  In  fact,  there  are  wild 
tribes  which  have  no  other  domesticated 
animal.  The  family  to  which  the  dog 
belongs  contains  many  wild  genera  and 
species,  and  crosses  are  known  between 
some  of  these  and  the  domestic  dog. 
Thus  on  good  authority  fertile  hybrids 
are  reported  between  the  dog  and  wolf, 
coyote,  jackal,  and  fox.     It  is  a  striking 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


691 


fact  that  there  are  certain  distinctive 
peculiarities  in  the  dogs  of  different 
countries  and  in  general  the  dogs  of  sav- 
age races  most  closely  resemble  the  wild 
species   of   the  particular   locality. 

It  appears  probable,  therefore,  that 
dogs  originated  from  wolves,  coyotes, 
and  jackals,  all  of  which  cross  freely 
with  dogs,  and  as  just  indicated,  pro- 
duce fertile  hybrids.  The  Esquimaux 
dog  resembles  the  gray  northern  wolf, 
and  the  Indian  dog  looks  and  frequently 
howls  like  a  coyote.  It  is  highly  prob- 
able, therefore,  that  a  number  of  wild 
species  were  domesticated  in  different 
countries  and  that  the  present  great 
variation  among  dogs  is  due  to  the  dif- 
ferences in  the  wild  species  from  which 
they  developed  and  the  numerous  cross- 
ings which  have  subsequently  taken 
place.  Dogs  readily  adapt  themselves 
to  changed  conditions  and  to  the  wants 
of  man.  It  has  thus  been  possible  for 
man  to  utilize  dogs  for  a  great  variety 
of  purposes. 

Our  dogs  vary  in  weight  from  2  to 
150  pounds  or  more.  There  are  long 
haired,  short  haired  and  hairless  breeds. 
Dogs  show  all  the  colors  known  in  do- 
mestic animals,  and  the  greatest  possi- 
ble variation  prevails  in  the  length,  size 
and  conformation  of  every  part  of  the 
body.  The  uses  to  which  dogs  have  been 
put  are  too  numerous  to  permit  a 
thorough  discussion  in  this  account. 
Dogs  serve  as  pets,  companions,  curiosi- 
tieSj  assistants  in  the  management  of 
sheep,  cattle,  swine,  goats,  horses  and 
other  domestic  animals.  They  are  ex- 
tensively used  in  hunting  all  kinds  of 
game  birds  and  mammals.  Many  breeds 
of  dogs  have  been  originated  expressly 
for  hunting  certain  kinds  of  game. 

Dogs  are  also  used  in  hunting  down 
criminals  and  in  helping  the  police  in 
large  cities.  In  the  place  of  watchmen 
trained  dogs  render  excellent  service. 
As  draft  animals  dogs  are  in  much  fav- 
or in  Europe,  Asia  and  Alaska.  Heavy 
sledges  are  drawn  by  large  teams  of 
dogs  over  rough  ground  in  the  severest 
weather.  Their  teeth  are  used  as  orna- 
ments, their  skins  as  coats,  rugs,  robes 
and  for  leather.  Occasionally  dogs  fur- 
nish motive  power  on  the  tread  mill,  run 
errands,  carry  packages  and  do  other 
odd  jobs  about  the  farm. 

Dogs  as  food—The  use  of  dogs  as 
food  is  not  very  familiar  to  most  of  us, 
yet  Langkavel  gives  a  list  of  more  than 
200   savage   races   which  eat  dog  meat. 


The  Incas  and  Aztecs  raised  special 
breeds  of  dogs  for  food,  and  kept  them 
on  a  vegetable  diet.  Some  of  the  Asia- 
tic races  have  regular  meat  breeds  of 
dogs  which  fatten  readily  and  produce  a 
tender  meat.  These  dogs  have  the  hab- 
its of  swine  rather  than  of  the  breeds 
of  dogs  with  which  we  are  most  fa- 
miliar. The  Australian  natives  eat  both 
wild  and  tame  dingo,  and  the  dogeating 
habits  of  the  Igorrotes  from  the  Phil- 
ippines have  become  familiar  to  us  from 
their  colonies  at  recent  expositions.  The 
American  Indian  fattened  young  dogs 
for  food,  and  ate  them  on  gala  occasions 
or  dog-feasts.  Many  of  the  pioneer 
western  explorers  and  settlers  sometimes 
ate  dog  meat  and  report  that  it  was  not 
unpalatable.  Ostertag  states  that  dog 
meat  is  sometimes  fraudulently  substi- 
tuted for  pork   in   Germany.     The   dog 


Eig.    444 HARLEQUIN,    GREAT    DANE 

(Photo  by  W.  G.  Johnson) 

is  a  highly  esteemed  animal  among  the 
Chinese  as  well  as  among  the  Tartars 
and  the  inhabitants  of  Kamchatka.  In 
Senegal  and  in  the  Society  islands  dog 
meat  is  preferred  to  pork.  • 

In  Munich  "the  slaughter  of  dogs  ap- 
pears to  have  become  so  extensive  that 
the  authorities  wish  to  establish  meas- 
ures which  will  regulate  the  traffic  in 
dog  meat  and  protect  the  owners  of  dogs 
from  the  thieving  tendencies  of  com- 
mercial dog  butchers.  It  is  believed 
that  dog  meat  is  not  only  used  for  the 
adulteration  of  sausage  but  is  eaten  as 
a  delicacy  by  the  thousands  of  Italian 
workmen   in   Munich.     Dogs   are  regu- 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


larly  slaughtered  in  certain  abattoirs  in 
Saxony."  The  consumption  of  large  ra- 
tions of  dog  meat  sometimes  causes  di- 
arrhea. Among  savage  races  "in  those 
places  where  dog-eating  is  the  custom, 
and  where  young  and  fat  dogs  are  con- 
sidered great  delicacies,  much  care  is 
bestowed  on  the  young  puppies,  and 
only  too  frequently  have  travelers  seen 
young  mothers  give  them  the  breast." 

Sundry  uses  of  the  dog — In  Alaska, 
Siberia  and  elsewhere,  large  numbers  of 
sledge  dogs  are  used,  and  for  this  work, 
dogs  seem  to  have  great  endurance. 
While  on  a  trip  they  are  fed  chiefly  on 
fish.  A  team  of  nine  dogs  is  expected  to 
pull  a  load  of  600  to  1,800  pounds,  de- 


bringing  them  back  at  night  without 
the  assistance  of  man.  It  is  impossible 
to  enumerate  all  the  uses  which  may  be 
made  of  dogs.  It  is  likewise  quite  out 
of  the  question  that  we  should  describe 
or  even  enumerate  the  breeds  of  dogs 
of  which  about  320  have  been  recog- 
nized. 

Dogs  are  capable  of  becoming  more 
intimate  companions,  and  of  under- 
standing our  desires  better  than  any 
other  of  our  domestic  animals.  In  fact 
the  idea  of  companionship  is  frequently 
first,  and  that  of  utility  second  in  the 
mind  of  the  dog  owner.  While  dogs 
may  be  of  the  greatest  use  and  value  on 
the  farm,  they  may  also  become  a  source 


Fig.    445 OSTRICHES    REARED    IN"    CONFINEMENT 


pending  on  the  grade  and  character  of 
the  country.  Sheep  could  not  be  man- 
aged under  present  conditions  on  the 
western  ranges  without  the  help  of  the 
trained  sheep  dog.  The  breed  best  suit- 
ed for  this  work  is  the  Collie,  the  Scotch 
Collie  being  preferred.  These  dogs  show 
great  intelligence  at  their  work  and  are 
of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  man- 
agement and  protection  of  the  sheep. 
Dogs  are  also  employed  in  herding  goats 
and  according  to  Carrington  a  distinc- 
tive type  of  goat  dog  has  already  been 
developed  in  Texas.  This  dog  is  a  cross 
between  the  Collie  and  the  hound.  They 
sometimes  do  all  the  herding,  taking  the 
goats  out  to  range  in  the  morning  and 


of  nuisance  and  trouble.  Thus  dogs 
have  proved  the  greatest  curse  of  the 
sheep  business  over  large  areas  in  many 
of  the  central  states.  They  may  also 
become  a  nuisance  in  destroying  poul- 
try. In  general  it  is  not  advisable  to 
keep  any  but  healthy,  vigorous  dogs 
which  are  distinctly  useful  in  some  di- 
rection or  at  least  show  no  bad  habits. 
From  their  well  known  habit  of  eating 
carrion,  dogs  may  be  instrumental  in 
carrying  such  diseases  as  glanders,  an- 
thrax, tuberculosis,  etc.  Then  they  may 
carry  tapeworms  which  later  infest 
sheep,  and  for  this  reason  all  dogs  which 
are  allowed  about  sheep  pastures  should 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


693 


be  periodically  treated  for  worms.  Per- 
haps the  best  remedy  for  this  purpose  is 
areca  nut  given  in  doses  of  2  grains  for 
each  pound  of  the  dog's  weight.  After 
a  few  hours  this  treatment  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  tablespoonful  doses  of  castor 
oil. 

(The  diseases  of  dogs  are  discussed  in 
Chapter  III.) 

CATS 

The  various  members  of  the  cat  tribe 
may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
genus  Felis  of  which  about  50  species 
are  known  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  The  domestic  breeds  of  cats 
have  originated  from  the  European, 
Egyptian,  American,  Indian  and  Ben- 
galese  wild  cats.  The  short  haired 
house  cat  seems  to  trace  its  origin  to 
the  European  wild  cat  (Felis  cat  us).  In 
this  stock  the  Egyptian  wild  cat  (Felis 
caligata)  is  also  concerned.  This  cat 
was  domesticated  by  the  Egyptians  more 
than  15  centuries  before  Christ.  It  is 
yellow,  darker  on  the  back  with  a  ringed 
tail.  The  American  wild  cat  (F.  lyncus 
rufus)  has  also  contributed  slightly  to 
the  blood  of  the  common  house  cat. 
The  long  haired  or  Asiatic  cats  have  de- 
scended from  various  wild  species  of 
Asia.  The  number  of  breeds  of  cats  is 
quite  limited  and  many  of  them  are 
useless  except  for  pets.  In  this  connec- 
tion we  have  space  only  for  the  brief 
mention  of  the  more  important  of  them. 

The  Angora  cat  has  long  hair  which 
is  of  black,  slate  or  blue  color  and  finer 
and  more  silky  than  that  of  the  Persian 
cat.  The  preferred  color  of  the  Persian 
cat  is  black,  the  head  is  larger  than  in 
the  Angora,  the  tail  longer  and  the  ears 
less  pointed.  These  are  the  two  chief 
breeds  of  long  haired  cats.  Many  breeds 
of  short  haired  cats  are  known  but  they 
are  not  very  firmly  fixed.  The  Tortoise- 
shell  cat  is  black,  red  and  yellow  with 
the  three  colors  in  well  defined  patches. 
The  body  is  long  and  slender  with  a 
long  tail.  It  is  a  fine  mouser  but  ill- 
tempered.  The  Tortoise-shell  and  White 
eat  carries  considerable  white  on  face 
and  under  parts.  Tabbies  are  banded 
or  spotted  and  a  number  of  breeds  are 
distinguished,  including  the  Brown, 
Spotted,  Blue  or  Silver,  and  Red,  named 
according  to  the  prevailing  ground  color. 
The  "White  cat  has  a  short,  even  white 
coat  with  blue  eyes  and  slender  head  and 
body.  The  Blue  cat,  also  called  Maltese, 
and  Self  Colored  cats,  are  blue,  black, 


gray  or  red,  and  the  color  should  be 
solid  all  over  the  body.  The  Black  and 
White  cat  is  jet  black  with  white  nose, 
breast,  and  feet.  The  coat  of  the  Royal 
cat  of  Siam  is  short  and  woolly  and  dun 
or  fawn  color,  while  the  face,  ears,  legs, 
and  tail  are  black.  The  Manx  cat  is 
tailless,  of  various  colors  and  with  long 
hind  legs,  giving  it  the  gait  of  a  rabbit. 

We  cannot  enter  into  the  care  and 
treatment  of  pet  cats.  If  cats  are  al- 
lowed the  freedom  of  the  yard  they  need 
little  attention  in  these  respects.  They 
are  naturally  cleanly  animals  if  given  a 
chance.  Milk,  bread,  and  oatmeal  por- 
ridge are  good  foods  with  raw  meat 
(preferably  mutton  or  fish)  occasionally 
or  even  twice  a  day.  The  period  of  preg- 
nancy in  the  cat  varies  from  56  to  63 
days,  and  the  number  of  kittens  in  a  lit- 
ter varies  from  two  to  six.  Kittens  are 
blind  and  helpless  till  the  ninth  day. 
The  practice  of  castrating  toms  to  make 
them  more  docile  is  very  common. 

The  economic  importance  of  the  cat  is 
very  slight.  They  destroy  mice  and 
other  vermin,  but  are  equally  fond  of 
birds  and  chickens.  Their  chief  value 
is  as  pets.  In  Germany  and  elsewhere 
cat  meat  is  sometimes  fraudulently  sub- 
stituted for  that  of  rabbits  and  the  folk 
name  "roof  rabbits"  is  therefore  some- 
times used  in  referring  to  cats.  Cat 
skins  are  somewhat  used  for  making 
robes,  for   coats  and  other  fur   articles. 

Diseases — Cats  are  subject  to  many 
diseases  some  of  which  are  here  briefly 
referred  to.  Catarrh  and  bronchitis  are 
characterized  by  the  same  symptoms  as 
in  other  animals.  If  these  diseases  are 
accompanied  with  much  fever,  doses  of 
one  or  two  drops  of  aconite  or  one  grain 
of  quinine  may  be  given.  Eor  pneu- 
monia the  same  treatment  may  be 
adopted  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
whiskey  as  a  stimulant.  Gastritis  and 
other  digestive  troubles  may  be  treated 
by  doses  of  five  to  10  drops  of  paregoric 
or  a  teaspoonful  of  strong  solution  of 
Glauber's  salts.  Calomel  in  one-tenth  or 
one-twelfth  grain  doses  is  good  for  jaun- 
dice. Distemper  is  a  highly  contagious 
disease  with  fever,  inflammation  of  va- 
rious organs  and  discharges  from  the 
nose  and  eyes.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  young 
kittens  and  unless  they  are  particularly 
valuable  they  may  as  well  be  killed,  since 
treatment  is  tedious  and  the  death  rate 
high.  The  usual  treatment  consists  in 
the  use  of  a  laxative  and  whiskey  in  20 


694 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


to  30  drop  doses.  Cats  may  take  glan- 
ders by  eating  the  meat  of  glanderous 
horses.  They  should  be  killed,  since 
they  may  spread  the  disease.  Eczema 
and  canker  of  the  ear  may  best  be 
treated  with  five-grain  doses  of  Rochelle 
salts  and  one-grain  doses  of  iodide  of 
potash.  Tor  fits  and  epilepsy  give  ten- 
grain  doses  of  chloral  hydrate  or  ten- 
drop  doses  of  laudanum,  if  any  treat- 
ment seems  desirable.  In  warm  cli- 
mates cats  are  commonly  infested  with 
fleas  which  may  be  removed  by  use  of 
insect  powder.  For  mange  perhaps  the 
best  treatment  is  thorough  washing  and 
the  use  of  sulphur  ointment.  Ringworm 
may  be  checked  by  rubbing  the  affected 
part  with  mercurial  ointment.  Tape- 
worms and  stomach  worms  may  be  ex- 
pelled by  giving  10  to  20  grains  of 
powdered  areca  nut.  Cats  are  often  in- 
fested with  trichina  and  in  general 
badly  diseased  cats  are  a  dangerous 
nuisance  and  should  be  put  out  of  the 
way  by  chloroforming  or  some  other 
method. 

FOXES 

The  familiar  red  fox  of  the  eastern 
states  is  not  looked  on  with  much  favor 
for  the  reason  that  he  depredates  too  ex- 
tensively on  poultry  yards.  His  fur, 
however,  has  always  been  recognized  as 
valuable  and  he  has  been  hunted  and 
trapped  for  this.  He  is  frequently  cap- 
tured and  kept  chained  about  the  farm 
house.  Occasional  attempts  are  made  to 
breed  foxes  in  captivity  but  without 
much  success  except  in  zoological  gar- 
dens. The  arctic  fox  (Vulpes  lagopus) 
inhabits  the  whole  arctic  zone  of  both 
continents.  He  has  not  the  same  fear 
of  man  as  the  red  fox  and  may  easily 
be  trapped  and  domesticated.  In  do- 
mestication he  is  not  malicious  but 
rather  confiding.  The  common  fox 
odor  is  absent  and  he  is  cleanly  in  hab- 
its. The  fur  of  the  arctic  fox  is  abun- 
dant, covering  even  the  \mder  side  of 
the  paws.  The  color  is  white  in  winter 
and  grayish  brown  or  bluish  in  summer. 
In  some  individuals  the  fur  remains 
blue  the  year  around  and  the  name  blue 
fox  has  thus  arisen.  Blue  foxes  are 
worth  $20  apiece,  while  white  ones  are 
worth  little  or  nothing.  The  Alaska 
Commercial  Company  has  therefore  es- 
tablished several  blue  fox  farms  on 
islands  over  which  they  have  control. 
The  methods  of  fox  farming  are  very 
simple.    Wild  blue  foxes  are  trapped  and 


placed  on  islands  from  which  they  can- 
not escape.  They  are  then  protected 
from  their  enemies  and  fed  in  abun- 
dance, mainly  on  fresh  or  dried  fish. 
The  young  litters  come  in  May,  June, 
and  July  and  the  foxes  receive  most  food 
during  these  months.  The  food  is  placed 
in  traps  and  the  animals  are  thus  ac- 
customed to  entering  the  traps  and  are 
the  more  easily  caught  whenever  de- 
sired. After  capture  the  females  and 
some  of  the  finest  males  are  set  free  for 
breeding  purposes,  while  the  other  males 
are  killed  for  their  fur.  Attempts  are 
being  made  to  introduce  rabbits  and 
other   rodents   as   food   for   the   foxes. 

The  arctic  fox  is  naturally  monog- 
amous, but  is  becoming  somewhat  polyg- 
amous in  its  state  of  semi-domestica- 
tion. This  will  make  it  possible  to  use 
fewer  males,  but  of  better  quality  for 
breeding  purposes. 

On  account  of  the  very  high  price  of 
the  silver  fox  skin  ($150  to  $200)  some 
attention  has  been  given  to  raising  these 
animals  in  Maine,  Minnesota  and  else- 
where. The  fur  is  in  best  condition  in 
December.  The  silver  fox  breeds  read- 
ily in  confinement  and  the  period  of 
gestation  is  51  days.  The  foxes  should 
be  fed  like  dogs  on  dog  biscuit,  milk 
and  corn  meal  bread,  table  scraps,  and 
meat  about  once  a  week.  A  little  skim 
milk  to  drink  daily  is  good.  Over-fat 
foxes  do  not  breed  readily  or  are  entirely 
sterile.  For  this  reason  they  should  not 
be  allowed  to  reach  a  size  greater  than 
10  pounds. 

SKUNKS 

Skunks  have  been  hunted  and  trapped 
for  their  fur  since  the  advent  of  the 
European  races  in  this  country.  During 
the  years  1850  to  1890,  the  Hudson  Bay 
company  sent  250,000  skunk  skins  to 
England.  Skunks  feed  on  small  mam- 
mals, reptiles,  frogs,  birds'  eggs,  poul- 
try, and  insects.  They  seem  to  be  par- 
ticularly fond  of  grasshoppers  a'nd  white 
grubs.  On  account  of  the  value  of  the 
fur  attempts  have  been  made  in  several 
states  to  establish  skunk  fa,rms.  Thus 
far,  however,  little  success  has  attended 
these  efforts.  The  skunk  breeds  rapidly 
and  may  easily  be  supplied  with  suitable 
food,  but  the  disgusting  odor  makes  a 
skunk  farm  a  nuisance  to  the  whole 
neighborhood.  The  scent  glands  may  be 
easily  removed  from  the  young  animal 
but  this  is  after  all  a  rather  tedious  mat- 
ter, especially  when  it  has  to  be  done 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


695 


on  a  large  scale.  It  would  doubtless  re- 
quire too  much  time  and  expense  to 
eliminate  the  scent  gland  by  breeding. 

OSTRICHES 

Previous  to  1867  ostrich  feathers  were 
obtained  by  killing  wild  ostriches.  This 
method  was  recognized  as  tending  to 
their  rapid  extermination,  and  in  that 
year  ostriches  were  first  domesticated  in 
South  Africa.  At  present  ostrich  rais- 
ing is  largely  confined  to  Cape  Colony, 
but  is  also  carried  on  to  some  extent  in 
Egypt,  New  Zealand,  South  America 
and  this  country.  At  first,  on  account 
of  the  scarcity  of  domesticated  birds, 
artificial  incubation  was  practiced,  but 
now,  at  least  in  Cape  Colony,  the  eggs 
are  incubated  by  the  parent  birds. 
Lately  ostrich  farms  have  been  estab- 
lished in  Arizona,  Arkansas,  California 
and  Florida.  There  is  a  large  ostrich 
farm  at  Pasadena,  California.  The  fe- 
male lays  in  February  and  again  in 
July.  Each  batch  contains  about  15 
eggs  and  it  requires  the  female  a  month 
to  lay  them. 

About  95  per  cent  of  the  eggs  are 
fertile  and  in  this  country  artificial  in- 
cubation is  used  almost  exclusively.  The 
incubation  period  lasts  six  weeks.  In 
Cape  Colony  the  hen  sits  on  the  eggs  by 
day  and  the  cock  by  night.  The  young 
chicks  are  at  once  put  on  alfalfa  pas- 
ture in  the  daytime  and  kept  in  the 
brooder  at  night.  In  Rhodesia  it  has 
been  found  that  alfalfa  improves  the 
quality  of  the  feathers.  In  Cape  Colony 
it  is  recommended  that  the  chicks  be 
taken  away  from  the  hen  at  two  days 
of  age  and  put  on  an  alfalfa  pasture, 
where  they  are  kept  till  four  months  old. 

In  order  to  prevent  infestation  with 
parasitic  worms  it  is  desirable  to  give 
the  chicks  once  a  month  a  teaspoonful 
of  turpentine  mixed  with  flour.  The 
birds  must  be  confined  within  certain 
limits  and  therefore  good  fences  are  nec- 
essary in  ostrich  farming.  In  South 
Africa  ostriches  are  kept  on  irrigated 
alfalfa  as  much  as  possible  at  the  rate 
of  five  birds  to  the  acre,  or  on  large 
ranges  of  uncultivated  grass  where  10 
to  20  acres   are  required  for  each  bird. 

The  feathers  0f  chicks  are  pulled  at 
eight  months  of  age,  again  six  and  one- 
half  months  afterward  the  primary 
feathers  are  cut,  and  two  months  later 
the  quills  of  the  cut  feathers  are  pulled. 
This  gives  three  pluckings  in  two  years, 
with  an  average  of  V/2  pounds  of  feath- 


ers a  year,  or  in  Cape  Colony  $15  to  $18 
annually  a  bird. 

In  1904,  Cape  Colony  exported  470,- 
381  pounds  of  ostrich  feathers  worth 
$4,750,000.  The  feathers  are  usually 
clipped  at  the  end  of  six  months'  growth 
from  the  quill  and  25  birds  are  consid- 
ered a  good  day's  work  for  one  man.  In 
general  ostriches  thrive  best  where  the 
rainfall  is  not  over  20  inches  a  year, 
where  no  great  extremes  of  temperature 
prevail  and  where  they  can  easily  secure 
protection  from  the  wind.  The  ostrich 
breeds  at  four  years  of  age  and  lives  to 
the  age  of  50  to  60  years.  The  birds 
sell  in  this  country  when  one  year  old 
at  $25  a  head.  In  Cape  Colony  common 
birds  sell  for  $25  to  $50  apiece.  Re- 
cently, however,  much  attention  has 
been  given  to  breeding  birds  and  great 
improvement  has  been  secured  in  the 
quality  of  the  feathers.  Fine  breeding 
ostriches  now  bring  as  much  as  $1,500 
to  $5,000  a  pair.  The  ostrich  industry 
is  being  fostered  to  the  fullest  extent  by 
the  government  of  Cape  Colony  and  an 
export  duty  of  $125  is  imposed  on  each 
egg. 

While  ostriches  will  thrive  quite  well 
on  ordinary  grass  or  brush,  alfalfa  is 
far  better  and  as  already  stated  will 
carry  five  birds  to  the  acre.  Ostriches 
may  be  kept  in  fine  condition  on  3 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  a  day.  Corn  or 
barley  may  be  fed  in  rations  of  5 
pounds  a  day.  In  California  it  has  been 
found  that  ostriches  are  fond  of  olive 
skins  from  oil  factories,  grape  skins 
from  wineries,  cull  oranges,  chopped 
beets,  chopped  alfalfa  and  gravel  stones. 
There  are  at  present  about  2,500  os- 
triches  in   Arizona   and   California. 

Ostriches  are  subject  to  stomach 
worms  (Strongylus  douglasi),  yellow 
liver,  tapeworms,  ostrich  fly  and  lice. 
For  controlling  stomach  worms  Hutch- 
eon  recommends  12  ounces  of  kerosene 
in  an  equal  quantity  of  milk  after  fast- 
ing 18  hours.  The  birds  are  allowed  to 
fast  again  after  two  or  three  days  and 
are  given  4  drams  carbolic  acid  and  12 
drams  turpentine  in  10  ounces  of  water. 
Yellow  liver  is  usually  avoided  by  the 
use  of  a  properly  balanced  ration.  Tape- 
worms yield  to  the  treatment  recom- 
mended for  stomach  worms,  and  the  os- 
trich fly  and  lice  may  be  controlled  by 
cleanly  quarters  and  the  use  of  powder 
insecticides. 


096 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


RUFFED  GROUSE 

Considerable  interest  attaches  to  the 
preservation  of  our  native  game  birds 
and  in  this  list  the  ruffed  grouse  is  a 
favorite  with  many  farmers.  This  bird 
is  often  considered  untamable,  but  ac- 


Fig.   446 — THE  BOB  WHITE  QUAIL 

cording  to  Hodge  "a  grouse  chick 
hatched  in  an  incubator  or  under  a  hen, 
from  an  egg  taken  from  a  nest  in  the 
woods  is  every  whit  as  tame  as  a  chick 
of  the  domestic  fowl."  The  eggs  are 
laid  so  that  hatching  takes  place  about 
the  first  of  June.  The  young  grouse 
chicks  eat  all  kinds  of  insects  including 
flies,  gnats,  spiders,  mosquitoes,  but  es- 
pecially fly  maggots.  The  maggots  re- 
main an  important  part  of  the  ration 
until  about  August,  but  all  kinds  of 
native  small  fruits,  berries,  grass  seeds, 
and  weed  seeds  are  readily  eaten.  In 
winter  grouse  may  be  fed  corn,  kafir 
corn,  sunflower  seeds,  wheat,  buckwheat, 
rye,  barley,  oats,  etc.  Eggs  in  any  form 
should  always  be  omitted  and  grated 
carrot  and  green  feed  supplied.  The 
semi-domesticated  grouse  thus  obtained 
may  be  allowed  to  range  about  the 
premises  or  may  be  used  to  restock 
native  covers  in  which  the  birds  have  all 
been  destroyed. 

QUAIL 

Several  species  of  quail  or  partridges 
occur  in  various  parts  of  the   country, 


and  are  everywhere  known  as  excellent 
game  birds.  Eecently  a  more  general 
interest  than  was  seen  in  former  years 
has  been  awakened  in  the  preservation 
of  game  birds  and  among  them  quail 
are  great  favorites.  In  the  eastern  states; 
the  common  quail  is  the  bob-white.. 
This  species  occurs  everywhere  east  of 
the  Rockies,  a  distinct  variety  being 
found  in  Florida  and  another  in  Texas. 
In  addition  to  this  species  we  have  the 
Plumed  partridge  in  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia, the  Scaled  partridge  extending 
from  New  Mexico  to  Texas,  a  variety 
of  the  same  form  along  the  Rio  Grande, 
the  California  partridge  in  California 
and  Oregon,  the  Valley  partridge  in  the 
same  region,  Gambel's  partridge  extend- 
ing from  Utah  to  Texas,  and  the  Mes- 
sena  partridge  from  New  Mexico  to 
Texas.  In  the  present  brief  account  we 
cannot  describe  the  different  quail.  All 
of  them  are  eaten  in  the  regions  where 
they  occur  and  nearly  all  species  have 
greatly  diminished  in  numbers  of  late 
years  on  account  of  destruction  by  hunt- 
ers and  the  lack  of  favorable  conditions 
in  which  to  breed.  This  has  led  to  the 
adoption  of  various  schemes  for  their 
preservation    and    artificial   propagation. 

The  simplest  way  in  which  this  may 
be  accomplished  consists  in  colonizing 
coveys  of  quail  in  localities  in  which 
farmers  simply  assert  their  evident 
rights  in  the  matter  and  prohibit  hunt- 
ing on  their  premises.  Quail  may  be 
further  protected  by  preventing  surface 
fires  in  their  favorite  hiding  places. 

Raising  quail — Quail  may  easily  be 
reared  in  an  aviary.  For  this  purpose 
the  house  need  not  be  over  5  feet  high 
but  should  be  on  dry  ground.  Gardiner 
recommends  that  as  soon  as  a  quail  has 
laid  her  eggs  they  should  be  removed 
and  put  under  a  bantam  or  in  an  incu- 
bator. In  this  way  we  avoid  allowing 
the  young  quail  to  be  taught  to  fear  us. 
The  incubator  should  be  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature of  102°  to  104°  F.  and  in  the 
brooder  the  young  quail  require  the  same 
attention  as  young  chicks.  They  need 
no  food  for  48  hours,  after  which  they 
may  be  fed  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
bran,  corn  meal,  and  middlings  with 
about  5  per  cent  of  fine  sand  added,  the 
whole  being  mixed  with  the  yolk  of  a 
raw  egg.  After  four  or  five  days  a  little 
finely  chopped  beef  scraps  and  green 
grass  or  some  garden  stuff  may  be  add- 
ed. The  feed  dishes  must  be  kept  sweet 
and  water  always  accessible. 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


697 


Young  quail  should  be  fed  four  times 
a  day  until  they  are  one  month  old,  after 
which  three  meals  are  enough.  By  this 
time  they  will  eat  whole  or  cracked 
wheat,  millet  or  other  grain  food.  An 
excellent  food  for  all  of  the  birds  after 
the  nesting  season  is  over  may  be  ob- 
tained by  exposing  a  piece  of  liver  or 
fresh  meat  to  the  flies.  The  maggots 
soon  become  so  numerous  that  they  may 
be  collected  in  large  quantities  by  let- 
ting them  fall  into  a  box  containing 
bran  or  sawdust.  The  farmer  boy  who 
is  interested  in  such  matters  may  stock 
the  farm  nicely  with  quail  or  may  even 
make  a  little  pin  money  if  he  is  so  in- 


Eig.  447 THE  SAGE  GROUSE  OF  THE  WEST- 
ERN  PLAINS 

clincd.  The  quail  may  be  induced  to 
lay  40  to  60  eggs  per  year  in  two 
clutches.  They  may  become  infested 
with  lice  and  one  infectious  disease  ap- 
peared in  captivity.  Quail  for  breeding 
purposes  cost  $2  to  $12  a  pair.  The 
crested  species  of  the  Pacific  coast  are 
the  most  beautiful,  but  bob-white  is  by 
no   means   an  unpleasant   sight. 

PRAIRIE  CHICKENS 

The  prairie  chicken  has  become  one 
of  the  favorite  game  birds  of  the  central 
states,  but  has  become  greatly  reduced 
in  numbers  in  late  years.  It  has  been 
found  desirable,  therefore,  to  raise  them 
artificially  and  those  who  have  engaged 
in  the  business  have  found  it  profitable. 
Live  prairie  chickens  sell  for  about  $4 
a  pair  and  may  be  raised  for  $1  a  pair. 
The  prairie  chicken  lays  about  25  eggs 
a  year  and  the  fertility  of  the  eggs  is 
good.  The  eggs  may  be  hatched  under 
bantam  hens  and  the  young  kept  with 
the  foster  mothers  for  about  a  month. 
The  older  birds   are  commonly  kept  in 


enclosures  sown  to  alfalfa,  wheat,  bar- 
ley, and  oats.  The  feed  most  strongly 
recommended  by  Darlington  is  maggots 
and  flies  with  the  addition  of  a  handful 
of  grain  from  time  to  time.  This  sys- 
tem of  feeding  may  be  continued  for 
three  months,  after  which  the  maggots 
may  be  fed,  mixed  in  mash  containing 
several  grains.  From  this  time  on  the 
maggots  in  the  ration  may  be  gradually 
reduced.  The  experience  of  Audubon 
and  others  shows  clearly  that  the  prairie 
chicken  may  be  easily  domesticated.  If 
caught  when  young  the  wings  may  be 
clipped,  after  which  the  birds  may  be 
fed  corn  and  other  grains.  When  this 
is  done  the  birds  frequently  remain  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  house  and  are  thus 
a  source  of  considerable  pleasure  and 
profit. 

PHEASANTS 

About  25  foreign  species  of  pheasants 
have  been  imported  and  reared  in  the 
United  States  and  at  least  three  species 
have  been  reared  for  game  purposes. 
There  are  the  English,  Ringneck,  and 
Golden  pheasants.  The  Chinese  or 
Ringneck  pheasant  (Phasianus  torqua- 
tus)  was  introduced  into  Oregon  about 
30  years  ago,  where  it  was  cared  for  un- 
der confinement  and  finally  turned  loose 
as  a  game  bird.  They  have  multiplied 
until  they  now  are  an  important  game 
bird  in  the  state.  They  have  also  been 
introduced  successfully  along  the  At- 
lantic coast  where  they  have  mixed  with 
English  and  other  varieties  of  pheasants. 
They  are  smaller  than  the  English 
pheasant,  lay  more  eggs  and  wander 
more.  The  last  named  habit  renders 
them  better  adapted  to  use  as  game  birds 
than  for  domestication.  The  males  of 
the  common  English  pheasant  weigh 
about  3  pounds,  and  this  species  is  there- 
fore a  valuable  bird  for  meat.  It  is 
also  easily  reared  in  domestication.  The 
Golden,  Silver,  Eeeves'  and  Lady  Am- 
herst pheasants  are  far  more  conspicu- 
ous for  their  beautiful  plumage,  and  are 
not   difficult   to   raise. 

All  pheasants  require  about  the  same 
care  and  attention.  A  site  for  a  house 
should  be  selected  on  a  southern  expos- 
ure. There  should  be  both  inside  and 
outside  pens,  the  inside  pens  with  board 
floors  and  the  outside  ones  with  a  high, 
strong  wire  screen  to  confine  the  birds 
and  to  keep  out  dogs,  cats  and  other 
pests.    The  pheasant  hens  will  lay  from 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


the  last  of  March  till  August  and  dur- 
ing this  time  no  visitors  or  strangers 
should  be  allowed  near  the  hens,  for  if 
disturbed  they  will  lay  few  eggs.  Pheas- 
ants endure  the  cold  weather  without 
trouble,  but  must  be  protected  from  cold 
rains.  Pheasants  may  be  fed  cracked 
corn,  wheat,  buckwheat,  millet,  hemp,  a 
mash  of  bran,  corn  meal  and  middlings, 
and  plenty  of  green  food,  together  with 
pure  water.  As  a  rule,  pheasant  eggs 
hatch  better  under  hens  than  in  incuba- 


Pig.     448 — WHITE    SWAN 

tors.  The  eggs  of  all  species  hatch  in 
24  days  except  those  of  the  Golden 
pheasant  which  sometimes  hatch  in  21 
days.  The  Cochin  Bantam  is  perhaps 
the  best  fowl  for  hatching  the  eggs. 
Prom  the  day  of  hatching  till  they  are 
four  months  old  young  pheasants  may 
be  fed  maggots,  ant  eggs,  a  little  wheat 
once  a  day  and  green  food  such  as  on- 
ions, lettuce,  etc.  After  this  age,  more 
grain  may  be  fed  and  a  greater  variety 
introduced  into  the  ration.  At  the  age 
of  six  weeks  they  may  be  turned  into  a 
good  grass  run.  According  to  Darling- 
ton the  cost  of  raising  500  pheasants  to 
the  age  of  one  month  is  about  $5.  Be- 
tween the  ages  of  one  and  six  months 
the  cost  of  each  bird  is  about  6  cents. 

PEAFOWLS 

The  peafowl  is  native  to  eastern  Asia 
being  found  throughout  China,  India 
and  the  adjacent  islands.  The  male  of 
the  common  peafowl  (Pavo  cristatus) 
has  a  purple  head,  neck,  and  breast  with 
blue  reflections.  The  true  tail  feathers 
are  of  a  chestnut  color,  while  the  tail 
coverts  are  green  with  brilliant  eye  spots 
at  the  tips.  The  peahen  is  of  a  much 
more  modest  color  but  with  the  head 
crest  as  in  the  male.  The  Japanese  pea- 
fowl (P.  muticus)  has  a  much  longer 
head  crest,  glossy  green  neck,  and  cop- 
per bronze  back.  The  tail  coverts  are 
green  with  gold  reflections.  This  spe- 
cies occurs  in  Siam,  Java,  Burmah,  etc. 


The  black-winged  peafowl  (P.  nigripen- 
nis)  is  really  nothing  but  a  sport  of  the 
common  species  and  is  occasionally  seen 
in  flocks  of  the  common  peafowl. 

The  peafowl,  especially  the  young 
birds,  are  fine  eating,  but  there  are  few 
farms  where  they  are  raised  except  for 
ornament.  Little  attention  is  commonly 
given  to  their  management,  in  fact  they 
are  usually  left  to  manage  themselves. 
Four  hens  may  be  allowed  with  each 
cock.  The  hens  secrete  their  nests  and 
the  period  of  incubation  is  28  days. 
The  chicks  may  be  fed  like  turkeys  but 
are  not  so  delicate.  A  little  more  ani- 
mal food  may  be  given  at  first  but  they 
need  little  attention  after  two  weeks. 
The  peahen  keeps  with  her  chicks  for 
about  six  months  and  they  seem  to  need 
this  guidance,  so  that  it  is  useless  to 
hatch  the  eggs  under  common  hens. 
Quite  commonly  white  and  pied  varie- 
ties of  peafowl  are  seen  but  they  are  not 
so  beautiful  as  the  ordinary  form. 

SWANS 

Swans  are  familiar  birds  on  ponds  in 
zoological  gardens  and  occasionally  on 
farms.  Wild  species  occur  throughout 
the  world  except  in  the  hottest  part  of 
the  tropics.  They  are  easily  domesti- 
cated and  have  undergone  little  change 
in  domestication.  Swans  are  strictly 
monogamous,  each  pair  remaining  to- 
gether for  life.     The  mute  swan   (Cyg- 


Pig.    449 — WILD    GEESE    FORAGING 

nus  olor)  is  the  one  most  frequently 
seen  on  ponds  and  lakes.  It  is  the  larg- 
est species,  pure  white  in  color,  with 
long  neck  and  red  bill.  The  color  of 
the  cygnets  when  hatched  is  gray.  The 
meat  of  the  swan  is  excellent  eating 
but  the  birds  are  usually  too  rare  for 
this  purpose.  The  whistling  swan  (C. 
musicus)  is  also  white  but  the  bill  is 
yellow    and    the   neck    is   much    snorter. 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


This  is  the  bird  which,  has  caused  so 
many  references  to  the  song  of  the  dy- 
ing swan.  It  is  rarely  kept  in  confine- 
ment. Bewick's  swan  is  a  smaller,  white 
bird  with  slender  neck  and  is  seldom 
domesticated.  The  black  swan  comes 
from  Australia  and  is  most  common 
next  to  the  mute  swan.  The  color  is 
black  and  it  has  scarlet  eyes  and  red 
bill  tipped  with  white.  It  breeds  freely 
in  domestication  and  the  cygnets  are 
very  hardy.  The  black-necked  swan 
(C.  nigricollis)  comes  from  South  Amer- 
ica. It  is  pure  white  except  the  black 
head  and  neck.  The  legs  are  orange 
and  the  bill  lead  color. 

Swan  eggs  are  sometimes  hatched  un- 
der geese  but  as  a  rule  swans  do  not  al- 


all.  The  bull  frog  and  the  California 
frog  are  most  in  demand  and  it  is 
claimed  that  the  latter  is  of  superior 
quality.  All  frogs  have  an  acrid  secre- 
tion in  the  skin  which  protects  them  to 
some  extent  from  dogs,  cats  and  other 
enemies.  The  leopard  frog  (Rana  vi- 
rescens)  with  its  several  varieties  has^ 
the  widest  range  of  any  of  our  frogs, 
occurring  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to 
the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  The 
length  is  about  3  inches  and  the  color 
olive  green  with  dark  brown  spots.  It 
is  often  seen  far  from  water  in  wet 
meadows.  One  variety  of  the  leopard 
frog  is  commonly  eaten  in  the  southwest. 
The  swamp  frog  (R.  palustris)  is  of 
about  the  same  size,  and  the  color  above 


Fig.  450 — WILD  OR  CANADA  GOOSE  ON  NEST 


low  much  interference  with  their  pri- 
vate affairs.  If  the  old  birds  are  very 
tame  the  cygnets  may  be  fed  by  throw- 
ing oatmeal  bread,  or  other  food  on  the 
water  or  better  still  by  placing  it  in 
troughs  in  the  water.  There  is  a  good 
market  demand  for  the  meat  of  swans 
and  if  they  were  a  little  better  domes- 
ticated the  business  of  raising  them 
might  be  profitable. 

FROGS 

Frogs  furnish  an  article  of  food  which 
is  in  considerable  demand  throughout 
the  country.  There  are  many  species 
in  the  United  States  and  all  are  edible, 
but  most  of  them  are  too  small  to  pay 
for  catching  them.  We  have  eaten  all 
the  common  species  and  the  flavor  of  the 
meat  seems  to  be  very  much  the  same  in 


is  a  pale  brown  with  two  rows  of  spots 
on  the  back  and  yellowish  white  beneath. 
It  is  found  from  the  gulf  of  Mexico  to 
Hudson  bay  and  westward  to  the  Great 
Plains.  A  closely  related  species  (R. 
areolata)  with  a  light  ground  color  and 
numerous  round  spots  occurs  in  the 
southwest  where  it  is  often  eaten.  The 
mink  frog  (R.  septentrionalis)  occurs  in 
the  northern  states  and  Canada,  reaches 
only  2  inches  in  length,  is  of  a  light 
olive  green  color  with  blotches  and  is 
of  little  value  on  account  of  its  small 
size.  It  is  strictly  aquatic.  The  green 
frog  (R.  clamata)  is  common  every- 
where in  the  eastern  states  in  or  near 
the  water.  It  reaches  the  size  of  3 
inches  and  is  a  uniform  dull  green  color. 
It  is  essentially  aquatic  and  does  not 
venture  far  from  water.     The  meat  is 


700 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


of  good  flavor.  The  bull  frog  (R.  cat- 
esbiana)  is  the  largest  of  all  our  frogs 
and  is  the  one  commonly  seen  on  the 
market.  It  reaches  a  length  of  7  to  8 
inches.  The  color  is  olive  brown  above 
and  silvery  white  below.  It  is  found 
everywhere  in  the  country,  from  Cali- 
fornia eastward,  and  may  be  recognized 
by  its  bass  song:  jug  o'  rum.  In  Cali- 
fornia we  have  Drayton's  frog  which 
grows  to  a  length  of  Sy2  inches  and  is  of 
a  yellowish  olive  color.  It  is  highly 
spoken  of  for  its  meat.  The  wood  frog 
(R.  silvatica)  is  about  2  inches  in  length, 
yellowish  gray  in  color  with  black  stripes 
on  either  side  of  the  head. 

Minneapolis  is  one  of  the  large  dis- 
tributing centers  for  frogs,  of  which 
about  1,000,000  are  handled  in  the  city 
annually.  New  Orleans  is  also  a  large 
frog  market,  and  an  active  demand  ex- 
ists for  frogs  in  all  large  cities.  Most 
of  the  frogs  offered  on  the  market  are 
caught  in  a  wild  state;  but  a  few  men 
are  engaged  in  frog  farming.  In  raising 
frogs  it  is  necessary  to  utilize  natural 
ponds  or  to  construct  artificial  ones.  It 
is  best  to  have  several  ponds  connected 
together.  The  eggs  may  be  collected 
and  placed  on  netting  in  a  pond  to 
which  the  frogs  are  not  allowed  access. 
By  the  use  of  a  netting  the  eggs  are  pre- 
vented from  sinking  to  the  bottom 
where  they  do  not  hatch  as  well  as  on  the 
surface  where  they  get  air  and  sunshine. 
If  several  ponds  are  maintained,  the 
frogs  may  be  grouped  according  to  their 
size  and  thus  prevented  from  eating  one 
another.  The  pond  should  be  fenced  to 
protect  the  frogs  from  rats,  snakes  rac- 
coons and  other  enemies.  A  shady  grass 
covered  area  should  be  provided  along 
the  edge  of  the  pond  where  the  frogs 
may  hide  and  catch  insects.  Flies  and 
other  insects  are  the  chief  food  of  frogs. 
Sacks  soaked  in  molasses  are,  according 
to  Coombes,  valuable  for  attracting  flies. 
Sow  bugs  are  also  much  relished  by 
frogs.  The  female  frog  lays  about  1,000 
eggs  in  early  spring.  These  hatch  with- 
in six  weeks.  The  tadpole  stage  lasts 
four  to  six  months  and  the  frog  does  not 
reach  a  good  marketable  size  until  he 
is  five  years  of  age  or  older.  Cold  stor- 
age has  been  tried  with  frogs  but  it  is 
not  satisfactory.  The  market  demands 
live,  healthy  frogs. 

FISH 

On   many   farms   there   are   ponds   or 


streams  more  or  less  suitable  for  fish. 
Such  waterways  may  be  fairly  well 
stocked  with  fish  or  they  may  have  been 
fished  out.  Fresh  fish  of  various  kinds 
constitute  a  delicate  article  of  diet,  and 
the  farmer  often  wishes  to  know  where 
he  can  get  eggs  or  fry  to  stock  his 
waters.^  The  United  States  Bureau  of 
Fisheries  is  doing  more  every  year  along 
the  line  of  propagation  and  distribution 
of  food  fishes.  In  1904  this  bureau  dis- 
tributed more  than  1,250,000,000  fish 
eggs  and  fry.  This  work  was  conducted 
in  26  states  and  at  49  stations  and  sub- 
stations. The  kinds  of  fish  chiefly  con- 
cerned were  various  species  of  salmon, 
white  fish,  lake  trout,  shad,  pike,  perch, 
cod,  flat  fish,  striped  bass,  white  perch, 
yellow  perch.  The  bureau  has  stocked 
the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  coast  with 
shad,  salmon,  striped  bass,  white  perch, 
and  yellow  perch ;  the  streams  of  the  Pa- 
cific coast  with  quinnat  salmon,  as  well 
as  with  blueback,  silver,  humpback  sal- 
mon and  steelheads;  the  great  lakes 
with  white  fish,  lake  herring,  lake  trout, 
and  pike  perch ;  the  interior  lakes,  ponds 
and  streams  with  landlocked  salmon, 
rainbow  trout,  black-spotted  trout,  brook 
trout,  grayling,  black  bass,  calico  bass, 
crappit?  rock  bass,  sunfish,  etc;  and  the 
waters  of  the  northeast  coast  with  cod, 
pollock,  flat  fish  and  lobster.  The  im- 
provement of  salt  water  fishing  imme- 
diately benefits  the  maritime  farmer. 

More  than  50  species  of  fish  are  now 
regularly  cultivated  and  distributed  by 
the  Bureau  of  Fisheries.  These  include, 
in  addition  to  the  fish  already  men- 
tioned, four  kinds  of  cat  fish,  suckers, 
tench,  ide,  ten  kinds  of  trout  and  sal- 
mon, etc. 

The  bureau  keeps  in  close  touch  with 
the  fishery  authorities  of  the  states  and 
co-operates  with  them  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent. Donations  of  eggs  and  fish  are 
made  to  the  fish  commissions  of  the 
different  states,  under  whose  direction 
the  fry  is  distributed.  In  Michigan  the 
bureau  operates  the  state  hatcheries  at 
Detroit  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  The 
brook  trout  has  been  acclimated  in 
many  of  the  streams  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, the  waters  of  the  Black  Hills 
which  were  originally  devoid  of  trout 
have  been  well  stocked,  the  rainbow 
trout  has  been  brought  to  New  England, 
and  many  other  important  pieces  of 
work  of  a  similar  nature  have  been 
done.  The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Fisher- 
ies is,  therefore,  of  great  importance  to 


OTHER  USEFUL  ANIMALS 


701 


the  farmer  since  fish  is  such  a  desirable 
addition  to  the  farm  ration.  In  order 
that  the  farmer  may  get  in  communi- 
cation with  this  bureau,  the  following 
list  of  stations  and  substations  is  given: 

Green  Lake,  Me., 
Craig  Brook,  East 

Orland,  Me., 
Nashua,  N.  H, 
St.  Johnsbury,   Vt., 
Gloucester,  Mass., 
Woods  Hole,  Mass., 
Cape  Vincent,  N.  Y., 
Battery,  Havre  de 

Grace,  Md., 
Bryan  Point,  Md., 
Wytheville,  Va., 
White  Sulphur 

Springs,  W.  Va., 
Erwin,  Tenn., 
Cold  Springs,  Bul- 

lochville,  Ga., 
Bozeman,  Mont., 
Baird,  Cal., 
Battle  Creek,  Cal., 
Mill  Creek,  Cal., 
Tupelo,  Miss., 
Edenton,  N.  C, 
Put-in-Bay,  Ohio, 
-Northville,  Mich., 
Detroit,  Mich., 
Alpena,  Mich., 
Duluth,  Minn., 
Quincy,  111., 
Manchester,  Iowa, 
Neosho,  Mo., 


San  Marcos,  Tex., 
Leadville,  Col., 
Spearfish,  S.  D., 
Clackamas,  Ore., 
Rogue  River,  Ore., 
Baker  Lake,  Wash., 
Birdsview,  Wash. 

Naturally  the  more  important  the 
waterway  and  the  more  persons  affected, 
the  more  willing  the  United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Fisheries  and  the  state  fish  com- 
missions are  to  render  assistance  in  fur- 
nishing eggs  and  fry.  If  a  description 
of  the  local  conditions  is  sent  to  the 
nearest  fish  expert  he  will  furnish  in- 
formation regarding  the  best  kind  of 
fish  to  raise  in  any  particular  stream 
and  the  proper  treatment  of  the  fry  af- 
ter they  have  been  received.  The  tem- 
perature and  other  features  of  the  water 
as  well  as  the  possible  sources  of  con- 
tamination are  very  important  factors 
in  determining  the  kind  of  fish  which 
will  thrive  best  in  the  water  in  question. 
These  matters  are  better  understood  by 
the  fish  expert  than  by  the  average 
farmer.  If  one  contemplates  stocking 
a  stream,  therefore,  it  is  always  desir- 
able to  get  the  advice  of  the  nearest  ex- 
pert. A  request  addressed  to  the  "su- 
perintendent of  the  fish  hatchery,"  with 
the  postoffice  address  of  the  hatchery 
from  which  help  is  wanted,  will  bring 
the  desired  information.  The  various 
state  fish  commissions  carry  on  similar 
lines  of  work  and  also  stand  ready  to 
help  in  stocking  streams. 


702 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Stock  Breeders'  Associations 

Names  and  Addresses  of  Stock  Associations,  Secretaries  with  Breeds 
and  Books  of  Record. 


CATTLE 


Name  of  breed. 
Aberdeen    Angus . 


Book    of    record. 


American     Aberdeen      Angus 
Herdbook. 


Ayrshire     Ayrshire    Record    

Devon    American   Devon    Record  .... 

Galloway    American       Galloway      Herd- 
book. 

Guernsey    Herd  Register   of   the  Ameri- 
can   Guernsey    Cattle    Club. 

Hereford     American   Hereford   Record.  . 

Holstein    Priesian.    Holstein    Friesian    Herdbook. 

Jersey    Herd   Register  of  the   Ameri- 
can  Jersey   Cattle   Club. 

Red   Polled    Red    Polled    Herdbook 

Shorthorn     American      Shorthorn      Herd- 
book. 

Sussex     American    Sussex    Register.  . 

Brown    Swiss  Swiss  Record    

(Schwytz)    

Dutch    Belted Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Herdbook 


Polled    Durham. 


American       Polled       Durham 
Herdbook. 


By   whom   published. 

American  Aberdeen  Angus  Breeders' 
Association,  Thomas  McFarlane, 
secretary,  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chi- 
cago,   111. 

Ayrshire  Breeders'  Association,  C.  M. 
Winslow,    secretary,    Brandon,   Vt. 

American  Devon  Cattle  Club,  L.  P. 
Sisson,    secretary,    Newark,   Ohio. 

American  Galloway  Breeders'  Associ- 
ation, Charles  Gray,  secretary,  Un- 
ion Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  111. 

American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  Wil- 
liam H.  Caldwell,  secretary,  Peter- 
boro,   N.   H. 

American  Hereford  Cattle  Breeders' 
Association,  C.  R.  Thomas,  secre- 
tary, 225  West  Twelfth  street,  Kan- 
sas City,   Mo. 

Holstein  Friesian  Association  of 
America,  Frederick  L.  Houghton, 
secretary,    Brattleboro,    Vt. 

American  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  J.  J. 
Hemingway,  secretary,  8  West  Sev- 
enteenth  street,   New   York,   N.  Y. 

Red  Polled  Cattle  Club  of  America 
(incorporated),  H.  A.  Martin,  secre- 
tary,  Gotham,  Wis. 

American  Shorthorn  Breeders'  Associ- 
ation, John  W.  Groves,  secretary, 
Union    Stock    Yards,    Chicago,    111. 

American  Sussex  Association,  Over- 
ton Lea,  secretary,   Nashville,  Tenn. 

Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Associa- 
tion, C.  D.  Nixon,  secretary,  Owego, 
N.  Y. 

Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Association  of 
America,  H.  B.  Richards,  secretary, 
Easton,    Pa. 

Polled  Durham  Breeders'  Association, 
Fletcher  S.  Hines>  secretary,  P.  O. 
Box   445,   Indianapolis,  Ind. 


HORSES 


Belgian    Draft... 

Cleveland   Bay. . . 

Clydesdale      

French  Coach  . . . 


American      Register    of    Bel- 
gian   Draft   Horses. 


American        Cleveland        Bay 
Studbook. 


American      Clydesdale      Stud- 
book. 


French    Coach    Studbook. 


Do    French  Coach  Horse  Register 


French  Draft      . . 


National   Register    of   French 
Draft  Horses. 


American  Association  of  Importers 
and  Breeders  of  Belgian  Draft 
Horses.  J.  D.  Conner,  Jr.,  secretary, 
Wabash,    Ind. 

Cleveland  Bay  Society  of  America,  R. 
P.  Stericker,  secretary,  80  Chestnut 
avenue,    West    Orange,    N.    J. 

American  Clydesdale  Association,  R. 
B.  Ogilvie,  secretary,  Union  Stock 
Yards,    Chicago,    111. 

French  Coach  Horse  Society  of  Amer- 
ica, Duncan  E.  Willett,  secretary. 
Maple  avenue  and  Harrison  street, 
Oak    Park,    Chicago,    111. 

French  Coach  Horse  Registry  Com- 
pany, Charles  C.  Glenn,  secretary, 
1319  Wesley  avenue,  Columbus, 
Ohio. 

National  French  Draft  Horse  Associa- 
tion of  America,  C.  E.  Stubbs,  sec- 
retary,   Fairfield,    Iowa. 


STOCK  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATIONS 


703 


Name    of    breed. 
German  Coach   . . 


Book    of    record. 

German,  Hanoverian,  and 
Oldenburg  Coach  Horse 
Studbook. 


Hackney American  Hackney   Studbook. 

Oldenburg    Oldenburg  Coach  Horse  Reg- 
ister. 

Percheron    Percheron  Studbook  of  Amer- 
ica. 

Do    Percheron    Register    

Do    The  American   Breeders'    and 

Importers'    Percheron    Reg- 
ister. 


Shetland     Pony. . . 

Shire    

Suffolk    

Thoroughbred   .... 
American   Trotter. 

Morgan 

Saddle  Horse    


By   whom   published. 

German,  Hanoverian  and  Oldenburg 
Coach  Horse  Association  of  Ameri- 
ca, J.  Crouch,  secretary,  Lafayette, 
Ind. 

American  Hackney  Horse  Society,  A. 
H.  Godfrey,  secretary,  61st  and 
Broadway,    New   York,   N.   Y. 

Oldenburg  Coach  Horse  Association 
of  America,  C.  E.  Stubbs,  secretary, 
Fairfield,   Iowa. 

Percheron  Society  of  America,  George 
W.  Stubblefield,  secretary,  Union 
Stock   Yards,   Chicago,    111. 

The  Percheron  Registry  Company, 
Chas.  C.  Glenn,  secretary,  1319 
Wesley    avenue,     Columbus,    Ohio. 

The  American  Breeders'  and  Import- 
ers' Percheron  Registry  Company, 
John  A.  Forney,  secretary,  Plain- 
field,    Ohio. 

American  Shetland  Pony  Club,  Morti- 
mer Levering,  secretary,  Lafayette, 
Ind. 

American  Shire  Horse  Association, 
Chas.  Burgess,  Sr.,  secretary,  We- 
nona,    111. 

American  Suffolk  Horse  Association, 
Alex.  Galbraith,  secretary,  Janes- 
ville,    Wis. 

American  Studbook  The  Jockey  Club,  W.  H.  Rowe,  reg- 
istrar, 571  Fifth  avenue,  New  York, 
N.    Y. 

American  Trotting  Register  Associa- 
tion, William  H.  Knight,  secretary, 
355  Dearborn  street,  Chicago,  111. 
American  Morgan  Register  Associa- 
tion, H.  T.  Cutts,  secretary,  Middle- 
bury,  Vt. 

American  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  As- 
sociation, I.  B.  Nail,  secretary, 
Louisville,    Ky. 


Pony 


American        Shetland 
Club   Studbook.l 


American    Shire    Horse    Stud- 
book. 


American 
Studbook. 


American    Trotting   Register. 


American    Morgan   Register. 


American    Saddle   Horse  Reg 
ister. 


ASSES 


Jacks  and  Jennets    American    Jack    Stock    Stud- 
book. 


American  Breeders'  Association  of 
Jacks  and  Jennets,  J.  W.  Jones,  sec- 
retary,   Columbia,   Tenn. 


SHEEP 


Cheviot #•••    American      Cheviot      Sheep 

Flock    Book. 

Cotswold    American    Cotswold   Record.. 

Dorset  Horn Continental  Dorset  Club  Rec- 
ord. 

Hampshire    Down.     Hampshire  Down   Flock  Rec- 
ord. 

Leicester    American   Leicester  Record.. 

Lincoln     National       Lincoln       Sheep 

Breeders'    Record. 

Oxford   Down American   Oxford  Down  Rec- 
ord. 

Shropshire    American     Shropshire     Sheep 

Record. 

Southdown American  Southdown  Record. 

Suffolk    American   Suffolk   Flock  Rec- 
ord. 


American  Cheviot  Sheep  Society,  F. 
E.  Dawley,  secretary,  Fayetteville, 
N.     Y. 

American  Cotswold  Registry  Associa- 
tion, F.  W.  Harding,  secretary, 
Waukesha,    Wis. 

The  Continental  Dorset  Club,  Joseph 
E.  Wing,  secretary,  Mechanicsburg, 
Ohio. 

Hampshire  Down  Breeders'  Associa- 
tion of  America,  Comfort  A.  Tyler, 
secretary,     Nottawa.     Mich. 

American  Leicester  Breeders'  Associa- 
tion, A.  J.  Temple,  secretary,  Cam- 
eron,   111. 

National  Lincoln  Sheep  Breeders'  As- 
sociation, Bert  Smith,  secretary, 
Charlotte,   Mich. 

American  Oxford  Down  Record  As- 
sociation, W.  A.  Shafor,  secretary, 
Hamilton,    Ohio. 

American  Shropshire  Registry  Asso- 
ciation, Mortimer  Levering,  secre- 
tary,   Lafayette,    Ind. 

American  Southdown  Breeders'  Asso- 
ciation, Frank  S.  Springer,  secre- 
tary, 510  East  Monroe  street, 
Springfield,    111. 

American  Suffolk  Flock  Registry  As- 
sociation, George  W.  Franklin,  sec- 
retary, Des  Moines,  Iowa. 


704 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Name    of    breed. 
Merino    (Delaine)  . 


Book   of   record. 


Dickinson       Spanish      Merino 
Sheep  Register. 


Improved       Delaine 
Register. 


Merino 


National  Delaine  Merino  Reg- 
ister. 


Merino  (French)  .  American  Rambouillet  Rec- 
ord. 

Merino  (German).  International  Von  Homeyer 
Rambouillet   Club   Record. 

Merino  (Spanish) .  Register  of  the  Michigan 
Merino  Sheep  Breeders'  As- 
sociation. 

Do    Register    of    the    New    York 

State  American  Merino 
Sheep  Breeders'  Association 

Do    Register  of    the    Ohio   Merino 

Sheep  Breeders'  Association 

Do    Register      of      the      Standard 

American  Merino  Sheep 
Breeders'   Association. 

Do Register  of  the  Vermont  Me- 
rino Sheep  Preeders'  Asso- 
ciation. 


By  -whom   published. 

Dickinson  Merino  Sheep  Record  Com- 
pany, H.  G.  McDowell,  secretary, 
Canton,    Ohio. 

Improved  Delaine  Merino  Sheep 
Breeders'  Association,  George  A. 
Henry,  secretary,  R.  F.  D.  8,  Belle- 
fontaine,    Ohio. 

National  Delaine  Merino  Sheep 
Breeders'  Association,  J.  B.  John- 
son, secretary,  248  West  Pike  street, 
Cannonsburg,    Pa. 

American  Rambouillet  Sheep  Breed- 
ers' Association,  Dwight  Lincoln, 
secretary,    Milford    Center,    Ohio. 

International  Von  Homeyer  Rambouil- 
let Club,  B.  M.  Moore,  secretary, 
Orchard   Lake,    Mich. 

Michigan  Merino  Sheep  Breeders'  As- 
sociation, E.  N.  Ball,  secretary, 
Ann    Arbor,    Mich. 

New  York  State  American  Merino 
Sheep  Breeders'  Association,  J.  H. 
Earll,    secretary,    Skaneateles,    N.    Y. 

Ohio  Merino  Sheep  Breeders'  Asso- 
ciation, Wesley  Bishop,  secretary, 
R.   F.  D.   1,  Delaware,   Ohio. 

Standard  American  Merino  Sheep 
Breeders'  Association,  J.  P.  Ray, 
secretary,  R.  F.  D.  3,  East  Bloom- 
field,  N.  Y. 

Vermont  Merino  Sheep  Breeders'  As- 
sociation, C.  A.  Chapman,  secretary, 
Middlebury,  Vt. 


HOGS 


Berkshire American  Berkshire  Record. . 

Tamworth    American     Tamworth     Swine 

Record. 

Yorkshire     American  Yorkshire  Record.  . 

Cheshire     Cheshire    Herdbook. 

Chester,    Ohio    Im-  O.    I.    C.   Record 

proved. 


Duroc  Jersey 
Do    


American   Duroc   Jersey   Rec- 
ord. 


National    Duroc    Jersey    Rec- 
ord. 

Hampshire      (Thin    American  Hampshire  Record. 
Rind). 

Poland    China American  Poland  China  Rec- 
ord. 

Do    National    Poland    China    Rec- 
ord. 

Do    Southwestern     Poland    China 

Record. 

Do    Standard   Poland   China  Rec- 
ord. 


American  Berkshire  Association, 
Frank  S.  Springer,  secretary,  510 
East  Monroe  street,   Springfield,   111. 

American  Tamworth  Swine  Record 
Association,  E.  N.  Ball,  secretary, 
Ann    Arbor,     Mich. 

American  Yorkshire  Club,  Harry  G. 
Krura,  secretary,  White  Bear  Lake, 
Minn. 

Cheshire  Swine  Breeders'  Associa- 
tion, Ed.  S.  Hill,  secretary,  Free- 
ville,    N.   Y. 

O.  I.  C.  Swine  Breeders'  Association, 
J.  C.  Hiles,  secretary,  Cleveland, 
Ohio. 

American  Duroc  Jersey  Swine  Breed- 
ers' Association,  T..  B.  Pearson, 
secretary,  Thorntown,   Ind. 

National  Duroc  Jersey  Record  Associ- 
ation, Robert  J.  Evans,  secretary, 
Peoria,   111. 

American  Hampshire  Swine  Record 
Association,  E.  C.  Stone,  secretary, 
Armstrong,    111. 

American  Poland  China  Record  Com- 
pany, W.  M.  McFadden,  secretary, 
Union    Stock    Yards,    Chicago,    111. 

National  Poland  China  Record  Com- 
pany, A.  M.  Brown,  secretary, 
Drawer   16,   Winchester,   Ind. 

Southwestern  Poland  China  Record 
Association,  H.  P.  Wilson,  secre- 
tary,   Gadsden,    Tenn. 

Standard  Poland  China  Record  Asso- 
ciation, George  F.  Woodworth,  sec- 
retary, Maryville,  Mo. 


FARMER'S 
CYCLOPEDIA    OF    LIVE    STOCK 


INDEX 


Aberdeen  Angus  cattle, 

360 

popularity,          .     >:    . 

360 

prepotency, 

361 

strong    and    weak    points 

361 

value  on  range, 

361 

Abortion  in  cattle, 

124 

in    sheep, 

139 

Absorption  of  feeds,     . 

23 

Aconite,         .... 

159 

as  a  poisonous  plant, 

169 

Acorns,   analysis, 

74 

digestibility, 

79 

for  bogs, 

549 

Actinomyces, 

117 

Actinomycosis    in   cattle,     . 

117 

in    meat    inspection, 

270 

Adulteration    of    milk, 

274 

Advanced  registry  of  stock, 

202 

Adzuki  beans,  analysis, 

74 

Aerator   for  milk, 

477 

Aerobic  ferments  in  manure, 

178 

African  goose, 

15 

millet,    analysis, 

76 

Afterbirth  in  cattle,  retained, 

125 

Age  and  economy  of  gain, 

64 

and    gains    in    hogs, 

550 

of  cows  and  productivity 

464 

of    horses, 

33S,  339 

Agricultural  colleges,  work  of, 

198 

Agropyron  spp.,  analysis,     . 

.     76,79 

Air  sac  mite  in  chickens,  . 

155 

supply    for    stock, 

.      92 

treatment  for  milk  fever 

125 

Aitchbone, 

237 

Albion  cattle, 

369 

Albumen    from    blood, 

250 

Alderney   cows,     . 

429 

Alfalfa,    analysis, 

74 

and  grains  for  steers, 

387 

bloating    from, 

450 

digestibility, 

79 

for    cows,  . 

449 

for  horses, 

321 

for  mules, 

347 

for    ostriches,     . 

695 

for   soiling  hogs, 

532 

for  steers, 

397 

hay  for  hogs, 

547 

Page 
Alfalfa    hay    for    sheep,      .         .         598 

hay    for    steers,  .         388,389 

meal  for  hens,  .         .         .         646 

pasture    for    hogs,     .         .         525 

pasture   for   sheep,     .         .         591 

protein  equating  factor,     .     83, 84 

silage   for   cows,         .         .         450 

time  to  cut  for  steers,     .         398 

vs.    alfalfa  and    prairie    hay 
for  steers,       .         .         .         398 

vs.  sugar  beet  pulp  for  steers,  406 
Alfilaria,    analysis,        ...  74 

Alimentary     tract     of     farm     ani- 
mals,       ....  18 
Alkali    for    sheep,        ...         590 

meadow  grass,  analysis,     .  74 

Alligation  in  calculating  rations,     71,  73 
Almond  hulls,  analysis, 

for  horses, 

Aloes,  

Alsike  clover,  analysis, 

digestibility, 

hay    for    sheep, 

protein   equating  factor,  . 
Alteratives,  .... 

Altering   (see  Castration) 
American     Angora     goat     associa- 
tion,       .... 

bison,  .... 

Merino    sheep,  . 

National    live    stock    associa- 
tion,       .... 

poultry    food,    analysis,     . 

short  cut  ham, 

Stock   Food    for  hogs, 
Ammonia  for  refrigeration, 
Amoeba    meleagridis,  . 
Anaerobic   ferments   in  manure, 
Anas    boschas,      .... 
Anatomy  of  animals,  . 

of  cattle, 

of  chickens, 

of   horses,  .... 

of    sheep,  .... 

of    swine,  .... 
Ancestors,  influence  of 
Ancon  sheep,  origin  of 
Andalusian    jack, 


74 
327 
159 

75 
80 

598 
83 

159 


626 

682 
567 

201 

74 

239 

547 

261 

156 

178 

15 

16 

425 

633 

281 

563 

497 

30 

33 

342 


roe 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

Page 

Anaesthetics, 

159 

Arctic  cold  air  machine,     . 

261 

Anglesey    cattle,  . 

366 

fox,    .... 

694 

Angora  cat, 

693 

Ardennes  horse,   . 

300 

goat, 

14,  621 

Areca    nut, 

159 

Angus  (see  Aberdeen  Angus) 

Argali, 

13 

Animal   food    for    ducklings, 

664 

Army  mules, 

344 

food    for    egg   production 

644 

Aromatic  ammonia, 

159 

food  for  hogs,  . 

544 

Arsenic  dips  for  sheep  scab, 

147 

husbandry    teaching, 

199 

poisoning, 

166 

meal,    analysis, 

74 

Arthritis  in  lambs, 

141 

parasites,    . 

196 

Artichokes,  analysis,     . 

74 

products,    . 

231-278 

for   cows,    . 

447 

Animals,    anatomy    of, 

16 

for   hogs,    . 

529 

as  machines, 

63 

for   horses, 

327 

breeding    of, 

28 

Artillery  horse;     . 

305 

characters  of,     . 

3 

Ascaris  equorum  in  horses, 

103 

chemical    composition    of 

45 

suilla  in  pigs, 

133 

contribution       to       nath 

mal 

Ash    in    bones,     . 

60 

wealth,    .         . 

6 

in  plants,  . 

48 

duty  of  man  toward, 

4 

of  animal  tissues, 

47 

feeding  capacity  of, 

64 

Ashes  for  cattle, 

412 

fondness    for,     . 

7 

for   hogs,    . 

549 

importance  in  civilization 

4 

for    sows,    . 

520 

improvement  of, 

5 

Aspergillosis   in  sheep, 

143 

number    domesticated, 

3,   7 

Asses,            .         .         .         .11, 

340,  348 

origin    of,  . 

9 

Assimilation  of  feeds, 

23 

productive  capacity  of, 

64 

Asthenia  in  chickens, 

154 

relations    to    man,     . 

3 

Asthma   in  horses, 

105 

study   of,    . 

4 

Astragalus    mollissimus, 

167 

useful, 

681 

Atavism,        .... 

30 

Anoa, 

13 

Atlas  gluten  feed,  analysis, 

74 

Anodynes,     .... 

159 

gluten  feed,  protein  equa 

ting 

Anssr  cinereus, 

15 

factor, 

84 

cygnoides, 

15 

gluten  meal,  digestibility 

79 

Antelope,       .... 
Anthelmintics, 

684 

Atropine  for  plant  poisoning, 

170 

159 

Auction  sales  of  stock, 

209 

Anthrax  in  cattle, 

in  horses,  . 

in  pigs, 

in    sheep,  . 
Antidotes   for   poisonous   plants 
Antiseptics, 
Aphthous  fever,   . 

117 
97 
131 
142 
170 
159 
116 

Auctioneering    off    stock,     . 
Aurochs,        .... 
Australian   saltbush,   analysis, 

185 
11 

78 

Auto-cure  for  bacon, 
Avenine    in    oats, 
Aylesbury    ducks, 
Ayrshire    cows,    . 
Azoturia    in    horses,     . 

244 
313 
662 
431 
104 

Apoplexy   in  horses,     . 

106 

Babcock    milk    test,     . 

479 

Appetite,  loss  of 

91 

Baby  beef,  breeds  for, 

382 

in  horses,  . 

332 

beef,  defined, 

371 

in  pigs, 

137 

beef,  dressed  weight, 

383 

Apple  pomace,  digestibility, 

79 

beef,    farming, 

191 

pomace,  for  cows, 

447 

beef,    production,         381, 

383,  384 

pomace,  for  hogs, 

529 

beef,  rations  for, 

382,  383 

pomace,  silage  for  cows, 

447 

beef,  system  of  feeding, 

383 

Apples  and  pomace,  analysis, 

74 

Bacillus  hotulinus, 

272 

for   cows,   . 

447 

bovis    morbificans,     . 

272 

for  horses, 

327 

cyanogenes, 

277 

for   hogs,    . 

529 

enteritidis, 

272 

Apricots    for   horses, 

327 

erythrogenes, 

277 

Arab    horse, 

284 

necrophorus, 

141 

origin    of, 

10 

suipestifer, 

128 

Arabian    camel,    . 

. 

686 

suisepticus, 

130 

Aragallus    spicatus, 

. 

167 

tuberculosis, 

113 

INDEX 


707 


Page 

Backsets  in  dressing  lambs, 

. 

610 

Bacon  and  lard  hogs  compared, 

502 

curing, 

244, 

246 

effect  of  feeds  on  firmnes 

s, 

553 

English,    Danish    and    other 

methods   of   curing, 

245 

hogs, 

502, 

557 

home    curing,    . 

245 

Bacteria    in    cow's    teats,     . 

276 

in    milk,     . 

276, 

474 

in  milk   at  different  temper- 

atures, 

478 

Bactrian  camel,    . 

686 

Bakewell  Leicester  sheep,   . 

574 

Balanced  rations, 

73 

rations,  calculation  of, 

69 

Baldness  in  chickens, 

155 

Bang  system  for  eradicating  tuber- 

culosis,   . 

115 

Banteng,        .... 

12 

Barbadoes    sheep, 

576 

Barb   horse, 

284 

Barley  and  products,  analysis, 

74 

and   peas,   digestibility, 

79 

digestibility  by  swine, 

82 

fertilizing   value, 

175 

for  chickens, 

644 

for   cows,   . 

437 

for    hogs,  . 

534 

for    horses, 

*313, 

328 

for    sheep, 

601 

for  steers, 

385, 

395 

grass,  analysis,  . 

74 

hay     and     grain,     digestibil- 

ity. 

79 

malted  for  horses, 

314 

protein   equating   factor, 

83,  i 

straw,    fertilizing   value, 

175 

Barns   for  cows,  . 

475 

Barnyard  to  preserve  manure, 

179 

millet,    analysis, 

76 

millet,   digestibility, 

79 

Barrenness   in   animals, 

164 

Barrow,  definition  of, 

522 

vs.  sow. 

550 

Beans,    adzuki,    analysis,     . 

74 

analysis, 

74 

carob,  analysis, 

74 

digestibility, 

79 

for   cows,   . 

438 

for   hogs,    . 

534 

for  horses, 

320 

for  steers, 

385 

silage,   digestibility, 

80 

Bearded    hog, 

14 

Bedding  for  cows, 

438 

Beech   nuts    for    steers. 

385 

Beef,  amount  from  acre  of  silage, 

400 

and      milk,      relative 

Bcon- 

omy, 

428 

Page 

Beef,  baby,  economy  of,  .  .  381 
breeds,  .  .  .  353-369 
cattle,          .         .         .           349-421 

cattle  classification,  .         .  371 
cattle,      cutters      and      can- 

ners,  ....  372 
cattle  defined,  .  .  .  371 
cattle  economic  impor- 
tance, ....  351 
cattle  farms,  .  .  .  190 
cattle,        increasing       profits 

from,  ....  410 
cattle  industry,  .  349-421 
cattle,  market  classes,  .  369 
cattle,  market  grades,  .  369 
cattle,  market  quotations,  224 
cattle,  market  require- 
ments, ....  371 
cattle,  points  of,  .  .  371 
cattle,  statistics,  .  .  353 
cuts  of,  ...  236 
cuts  on  farm,  .  .  .  252 
cuts,  percentage  of,  .  237 
early  maturity  of,  .  381-383 
extract,  ....  250 
farming  systems,  .  188-192 
fat,  prime  and  baby  com- 
pared, .  .  .  414, 415 
hams,  curing,  .  .  .  244 
heifers,  age  to  breed,  .  416 
industry,  precautions  in,  351 
measles  in  meat  inspec- 
tion, ....  271 
money  value  of  corn  for,  396 
on  the  farm,  .  .  .  251 
parts,  percentage,  .  .  238 
refrigeration  of,  .  .  262 
tallow,  ....  242 
tongues,  ....  244 
vs.  dairy  type  for  feeding,  413 

Beets,    analysis,            ...  74 

for   cows,   ....  447 

protein   equating  factor,  .  84 

Beggar  weed  hay,  analysis,  .         .  74 

hay,  for  horses,           .         .  322 

hay,   for  mules,          .         .  347 

Behring      system      of      vaccinating 

against    tuberculosis,     .  115 

Belgian  draft  horse,     .         .         .  300 

hares,           ....  689 

Bell-Coleman    system    of    refrigera- 
tion,        ....  261 

Benzine   for    stomach   worms,     .  151 

Berkshire    hogs,  ....  504 

Knot   sheep,        .         .         .  571 

Bermuda  grass,  analysis,     .         .  74 

hay  for  cows,     .         .         .  451 

hay  for  mules,            .         .  347 

Bernicla  canadensis,     ...  15 


708 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


sheep 


Bighead  in  horses, 

in   sheep,    . 
Big  jaw  in  cattle, 
Bilious  fever  in  horses, 
Biological    survey, 
Bishoping  teeth, 
Bismuth, 
Bison,    .... 

American, 

European, 
Bitches,  spaying, 
Bitter    milk, 
Black   East   India   duck, 

faced    Scotch 

hawk, 

head  in  turkeys, 

leg  in  cattle, 

leg  in  sheep, 

quarter  in   cattle, 

Spanish  chickens, 

Suffolk    hogs,     . 

Top  Spanish  Merino 
Bladder  worm   in   sheep, 
Bladders  for  casings,  . 
Blanket  wool, 
Blanketing   horses, 
Bleeding  at  nose  in  horses 

at    slaughtering, 

in  cattle, 
Blending    of    characters 

ity,      .        .        . 
Blistering  agents, 
Bloat   in   cattle,   . 

in   sheep,    . 

in   sheep   on   rape, 
Bloating  caused  by  alfalfa 

due  to  careless  feeding. 
Block  hog,   . 
Blomo  feed,  analysis, 

feed,  digestibility, 

feed,  for  horses, 
Blood   albumen,   . 

amount  in  animals, 

clotting, 

diseases  in  cattle, 

diseases    in   horses, 

diseases    in   sheep, 

dried,  analysis, 

dried,   for  steers, 

dried,   protein   equating 
tor, 

function  of, 

meal,  analysis 

meal  for  hogs 

molasses  feed,  analys 

poisoning  in  pigs 


in  hered- 


spavm, 

system  of  farm  animals, 

use   of, 


fac- 


Page 

Page 

110 

Blooded   stock   raising, 

184 

141 

Bloody  urine  in  cattle, 

124 

117 

urine  in  horses, 

104 

96 

Blue   Andalusian   chickens, 

637 

681 

fox,    .... 

694 

340 

grass,  analysis,  . 

74 

159 

grass  hay,  digestibility, 

80 

682 

grass  pasture  for  sheep, 

591 

12 

joint  hay,  analysis,  . 

74 

12 

milk, 

277 

162 

Swedish  ducks, 

662 

277 

Boars,            .... 

558 

663 

castration  of,     . 

161 

575 

kind  to  buy, 

516 

290 

management  of, 

515 

156 

selection   of, 

515 

117 

wild  of  Europe, 

499 

142 

Bob-white  quail,  . 

696 

117 

Bog  spavin, 

108 

637 

Bokhara   clover,    analysis,    . 

75 

507 

Bologna  bulls, 

372 

567 

sausage, 

247 

149 

Bone  and  bone  meal,  analysis, 

74 

249 

ash    for    chicks, 

655 

620 

green  for  chicks, 

659 

338 

meal  for  cows,  . 

460 

105 

meal  for  hogs,  . 

549 

233 

meal  for  steers, 

406 

123 

sour       and       bone-stink 

in 

- 

meat, 

262 

32 

spavin, 

108 

159 

Bones,    ash   in,     . 

60 

122 

use   of,        . 

250 

138 

weakness  in  pigs, 

136 

592 

Bookkeeping  on  the  farm,  . 

7 

450 

Boophilus  annulatus,  . 

120 

90 

Borax,  effect  of,  . 

251 

500 

in  milk, 

276 

74 

Border  Leicester  sheep, 

574 

80 

Bos  bison,     .... 

12 

330 

bonasus, 

12 

250 

bubalus, 

13,  687 

233 

caffer, 

13 

24 

frontalis,    . 

12 

123 

gaurus, 

12 

106 

grunniens, 

12 

139 

indicns, 

12, 688 

74 

longifrons, 

11 

406 

planifrons, 

11 

primigenius, 

11 

85 
23 

sondiacus, 

12 

taurus,        .         .         .         . 

12 

74 

urns, 

11 

547 

Boston   shoulder   of  pork,  . 

239 

74 

Botfly  in  horses. 

110 

132 

in  sheep,     .         .         .         . 

147 

248 

Bourbon  red  turkey,   . 

671 

108 

Box    stalls    for   horses, 

337 

19 

Brahma  chickens, 

637 

250 

Brahmin  cattle,   . 

12, 688 

INDEX 


709 


Page 


Brain   congestion   in  horses. 

106 

sausage,  homemade,  . 

256 

Brainard  system  of   refrigeratioi 

i,         259 

Bran,    analysis,    . 

79 

and    shorts,     digestibility 

T,           80 

fertilizing   value, 

175 

for   cows,   . 

436 

for   hogs,    . 

535 

for    horses, 

317 

for    mules, 

348 

for   sheep, 

605 

for    steers, 

385 

Branch  grass,  digestibility,  . 

80 

Branding  cattle,  . 

418 

Braunschweiger  sausage,     . 

249 

Bread    for   horses, 

317 

Breaking    mules, 

345 

Breathing,    rate   of, 

24 

Breeders,  associations  of,     . 

310,  702 

requirements    of, 

184 

Breeding  animals,  rations  for 

58 

farm   animals,   . 

28 

horses, 

308 

mules, 

340 

practical  methods,     . 

38 

records, 

185 

sheep, 

581 

swine, 

517,  521 

theories    of, 

28 

Breeds    of    chickens,    . 

636 

cows  and  productivity, 

465 

dairy    cows, 

428 

ducks, 

662 

geese, 

667 

goats, 

622, 629 

guineas, 

677 

hogs,  .... 

503 

hogs  compared, 

508-512 

horses, 

284 

pigeons, 

674 

sheep, 

566 

turkeys, 

671 

improved,   . 

5 

pets   and   freaks, 

4 

prepotency  of,   . 

32 

Brewers'  grains,  analysis,    . 

74 

grains,  digestibility, 

80 

grains,  fertilizing  value  o: 

175 

grains,  for  cows, 

437 

grains,  for  horses,     . 

318 

grains,  for  steers, 

385 

grains,       protein       equ? 

iting 

factor, 

84 

Brisket  of  beef,  . 

237 

Broad  tail  sheep, 

573 

Broiler   chicks, 

657,  658 

chicks,  celery  for, 

657 

Broken  knee  in  horses.- 

109 

wind    in    horses, 

105 

Brome  grass,  analysis, 

75 

hay  for  cows,   . 

451 

Brome  hay  for  horses,  . 

hay    for    sheep, 

hay  for  steers, 

pasture  for  hogs, 
Bromide  of  potash, 
Bromus  spp.,  analysis, 
Bronchitis   in   cattle,   . 

in   chickens, 

in  horses,  . 

in    sheep,    . 
Broncos, 

Bronze  turkeys,   . 
Brooders,    care   of, 
Broom  corn  hay  and    seed 
sis, 

corn  millet,  analysis 
Brown  Swiss  cattle,     . 
Brush    for    sheep, 
Buck   (see  Ram) 
Buckwheat     and     products 
sis, 

digestibility, 

for    chickens, 

for   cows,   . 

for   hogs,    . 

for   horses, 

middlings  for  cows 

protein   equating  factor 

wild,   analysis, 
Buffalo,    African, 

American, 

gnat,  .         . 

grass,    digestibility, 

grass  hay  for  steers 

grass,    protein   equat 
tor, 

Indian, 

uses,    . 

water, 
Buildings   for  hogs, 

for   poultry, 
Bull    frog,    . 
Bulls,   castration    of, 

percentage   of  pure 
Bum    lambs, 
Bungs  for  casings, 
Bur  clover,  analysis, 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 

of  Plant   Industry, 
Burmese   cattle,   . 
Burros, 
'Bus   horse, 
Butcher  hogs, 

stock  cattle  defined, 

stock  market  quotations. 
Butchering,  packing  house  gang 
Butter,    churning, 

composition, 

fat,   feeding   for, 

in  cold  storage, 


322 
599 
398 
525 
159 
75 
123 
156 
104 
139 
285 
671 
656 

75 

76 

368 

578 


analy- 


bred 


75 

80 

643 

438 

535 

319 

438 

84 

75 

13 

12 

121 

80 

398 

fac- 

83 
13 
682 
687 
512 
649 
699 
161 
416 
614 
249 
75 
195,  273 
196 
12 
343 
304 
556 
372 
225 
213 
483 
485 
463 
266 


710 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

Butter  maker,  qualifications  of 

493 

on    farm,    . 

483 

overrun, 

484 

packing, 

485 

salting, 

484 

statistics,    . 

427 

working,    . 

484 

Buttercup   hay,    analysis 

75 

digestibility, 

80 

Butterine,      .... 

243 

Buttermilk,  analysis,  . 

76 

for   hogs,    . 

545 

Buttons  from  bones   and  horns 

250 

Cab    horse,    .... 

303 

Cabbage,    analysis, 

75 

for   cows,    . 

447 

Cactus,  analysis,  . 

75 

(see  also  prickly  pear.) 

Cairina   moscha,  . 

15 

Calculi  in  cattle,  . 

124 

Calf-kneed   horse, 

303 

Calves,       amount       of       skimi 

nilk 

for, 

375,  376 

boiling  milk  for, 

378 

castration    of,    . 

161 

cocoa  shell  milk  for, 

378 

cocoanut  oil  cake  for, 

378 

cod  liver  oil  for, 

378 

colostrum    for,   . 

375 

corn  meal  as  cream  substi 

tute 

for, 

379 

corn  oil  for, 

379 

cost  of  gain, 

410 

cottonseed  meal  as  cream 

sub- 

stitute,    . 

379 

cream  substitutes  for, 

378 

curds  for,  . 

379 

defective  rations  for, 

378 

dehorning, 

416 

diphtheria. 

118 

dried  blood  for  scours, 

378 

dry     matter     for     pound 

of 

gain, 

378 

eggs    for,    . 

378,  381 

English  method  of  raising 

377 

feeding    for    dairy    stock 

384 

feeding  for  veal, 

380 

flaxseed  for, 

379 

formalin  for  scours, 

379 

gains      as      compared      -v 

pith 

pigs, 

379 

germ  oil  meal  for, 

379 

ground  bone  for, 

378 

hay  for, 

383 

hay  tea   for, 

374 

importance    of   grain    in 

ra- 

tion,        . 

383 

joint-ill  in,         , 

126 

kafir  corn  meal  for,  . 

379 

Kalberrahm    for, 

378 

Unseed  meal  for, 

379 

] 

Page 

Calves,  manure  value, 

. 

176 

market    quotations,    . 

. 

225 

method   of  raising,   . 

182 

objections    to    natural    feed- 

ing, 

377 

objections         to          skimmilk 

for,          . 

380 

oleomargarine  for,     . 

378 

379 

quantity  of   manure, 

176 

range    management, 

373 

rearing, 

373 

rice  meal  for,  . 

377 

rickets  in, 

127 

scouring,    . 

*126 

,378 

skimmilk  and  grain  vs.  whole 

milk, 

374 

skimmilk  substitutes, 

376 

skimmilk     system     of     feed- 

ing, 

375 

slaughtering, 

240 

,254 

soy  bean  silage  for,  . 

403 

starch  as  cream  substitute 

378 

teaching  to  drink, 

375 

teaching  to  eat  grain, 

376 

weight    at    birth, 

419 

whey  vs.  skimmilk  for, 

377 

California    frog, 

699 

ham, 

, 

239 

Calk  for  horseshoes,     . 

. 

166 

wounds  in  horses, 

. 

109 

Call   ducks, 

. 

663 

Calomel,        .... 

159 

Calorie  defined,    . 

56 

Camels,          .... 

*685 

,686 

Canada  geese, 

15 

,668 

Canary  birds,  importation, 

681 

Canker    in    horses, 

109 

in    pigeons, 

157 

Cantharides, 

159 

for  ring  bone, 

108 

Capercailzies,   importation, 

682 

Capons  as  mothers, 

660 

character  of, 

657 

removing  testes, 

660 

Capped  elbow, 

109 

hock, 

109 

knee, 

109 

Capra   falconeri, 

14 

hircuSj        .... 

14 

Capsules   for   insemination, 

163 

for  medical  treatment, 

158 

Carabao,        .... 

687 

Carbohydrates,   absorption   of, 

23 

for   protecting   protein, 

53 

in    feeds,    . 

49 

Carbolic  acid,     . 

159 

dips  for  sheep  scab,  . 

147 

Carcasses,  burning  and  burying 

95 

Caribou,        .... 

684 

Carmon  trotting  stallion,     . 

287 

INDEX 


711 


Carob   beans,   analysis, 

74 

beans,  for  horses, 

321 

Carpet  wool, 

620 

Carriage  horse,  American, 

306 

horse,   classes  of, 

307 

Carrots,   analysis, 

75 

fertilizing  value, 

75 

for   cows,   . 

447 

for    horses, 

327 

for  steers, 

405 

protein    equating    factor, 

84 

Cars  for  shipping, 

217 

refrigerator, 

260 

Cart   horse, 

305 

Casein  in  milk,  . 

26 

Cashmere  goats,  . 

14 

Casings  for   sausage,  . 

249 

Cassava,    analysis, 

75 

digestibility, 

80 

for  hogs,     . 

529 

for    horses, 

327 

for  mules, 

347 

for  steers, 

405 

Castle  Martin  cattle, 

366 

Castor   oil, 

159 

Castration  of  animals, 

161 

of   mules, 

345 

of    swine, 

522 

precautions  in, 

162 

Catalo,            .... 

13,  6S2 

from  Galloway  cross, 

683 

Catalonian  jack, 

342 

Catarrh  in  cats, 

693 

in    cattle, 

123 

in   chickens, 

156 

in   horses, 

104 

in  sheep, 

138 

Catarrhal  fever  in  horses, 

96 

Catechu,        .... 

159 

Cathartics, 

159 

for  colic,     . 

103 

Cats,              

693 

diseases  of, 

693 

Cattail  millet,  analysis, 

76 

digestibility, 

80 

Cattle  (beef)    349-421,    (dairy) 

423-493 

abortion    in, 

124 

actinomycosis  in, 

117 

age  and  cost  of  gain, 

410 

anatomical  points,     . 

524 

anthrax    in, 

117 

blackleg    in, 

117 

bloat    in, 

122 

branding, 

418 

breeds, 

352, 425 

breeds   for  baby  beef, 

382 

buffalo  gnat  on. 

121 

butcher  stock  defined. 

372 

commission    for    buying 

and 

selling, 

220,  221 

corn  stalk  disease  in, 

123 

Page 
Cattle,  cost  of  growing  on  range,         189 
cost  of  shipping  abroad,  228 

cowpox   in,  ...         117 

creeps   in,  ...         127 

dehorning,  .         .  417, 418 

digestive  diseases  in,  .         122 

dipping    before    shipping,         214 
diphtheria    in,  .         .         118 

diseases    of,        .         .  111-127 

dressed    weight    of    different 


breeds, 

413 

farming,   systems  of, 

188 

fatness  and  price, 

224 

fattening   range, 

189 

feeding  standards,     . 

65 

fertilizing  value, 

175 

foot  and  mouth  disease  in, 

116 

garget   in,           ... 

126 

hemorrhagic     septicemia 

in,            .... 

116 

hides,          .... 

241 

hides,  prices  for, 

224 

horn  fly  on, 

121 

horns  as  affecting  price, 

224 

loading   on   cars, 

222 

loss  of  cud  in, 

122 

malignant  catarrh  in, 

118 

malignant    edema    in, 

118 

mange  of,           ... 

121 

manure,  characteristics  of, 

177 

market     grades     for     fatten- 

ing,         .      ^  . 

415 

market  quotations,     .          224,  225 

milk    fever    in, 

125 

mycotic  stomatitis  in, 

120 

nagana   in, 

129 

nervous    diseases, 

124 

Oesophagostoma    i  n  fl  a  t  u  m 

in,            .... 

120 

origin    of,            ... 

11 

oversoiling   and   watering, 

221 

parasites  of,       . 

120 

percentage     of      pure      bred 

bulls,       .... 

416 

plague,        .... 

115 

preferences  of  packers,     . 

223 

prices     for     different     kinds, 

222 

,223 

prices     in       different       mar- 

kets,       .... 

224 

rabies    in,            ... 

117 

ranching, 

189 

respiratory  diseases   in,     . 

123 

rinderpest   in, 

115 

salt  for,       .... 

412 

sex     and     age     as     affecting 

price,       .... 

224 

shipment   to    Chicago, 

212 

shipping, 

221 

shrinkage  in  shipment. 

228 

slaughtering,      .        .         233,251 

712 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 


Cattle,     space     required     on     ship- 

Chickens,    age    for    breeding    pur 

board, 

227 

poses,      .... 

647 

stockers  and  feeders, 

372 

age  of  hens  for  eggs, 

647 

stomach  worms  in,     . 

120 

alfalfa   meal  for, 

646 

teeth  of,     . 

18 

animal  food  for  eggs, 

645 

test  of  breeds  for  beef, 

413,  414 

animal      food      for      fatten- 

Texas  fever   in, 

118 

ing,          .... 

658 

ticks, 

120 

animal  meal  vs.  cut  bone, 

645 

tuberculosis  in, 

111-115 

asthenia    in, 

154 

urinary   diseases, 

124 

barley   for, 

644 

warble  flies  in, 

121 

Black  Spanish, 

637 

water    for, 

412 

Blue  Andalusian, 

637 

weight  as  affecting  price 

223 

bone  ash  for  chicks, 

655 

Caustic      potash      for      dehon 

ling 

bone  development  on  corn, 

642 

calves, 

417 

bowel    trouble    in    chicks, 

657 

Cavalry  horse, 

306 

Breeds  for  farm,       .         639 

640 

Cayuga  ducks, 

662 

broilers,       .... 

657 

Cayuse  ponies, 

295 

broken     glass     and     crockerj 

Celery  for  broilers, 

658 

for,             .        .        .    . 

646 

Celtic    pony, 

.     9,295 

brooder  care, 

656 

Cement  floors  for  hogs, 

512 

buckwheat   for, 

643 

Cerealine,    digestibility, 

80 

buildings    for, 

649 

for  cows, 

440 

caponizing, 

659 

for  hogs,     . 

535 

care  of  breeding  stock, 

660 

Cerebritis    in   horses, 

106 

cholera  in,           ... 

154 

Cerebro-spinal         meningitis 

in 

classification  of  breeds, 

636 

horses, 

101 

clover    meal   for, 

647 

Cervelat   sausage, 

249 

Cochins,      .... 

637 

Ceylon  jungle  fowl, 

15 

cold  storage  of  eggs, 

652 

Chaffed  hay  for  mules, 

348 

color  of  eggs,     . 

640 

Chalk  for  diarrhea, 

160 

color  of  egg  yolk, 

651 

Champignon  after  castration, 

162 

condition  powders  for, 

646 

Charbon  (see  Anthrax) 

corn  for  eggs, 

641 

Charcoal,       .... 

160 

corn   for  hens, 

643 

for  sows, 

520 

cost  of  eggs, 

635 

Cheat   (see  Chess) 

cowpeas  for, 

644 

Cheddar    cheese, 

485 

cramming  in  fattening,     . 

659 

Cheese,  cold  curing  of, 

266 

Creve-Coeur, 

638 

curing, 

486 

curtain  front  houses, 

649 

factory,  machinery  for, 

493 

cut   clover  for, 

644 

fertilizing  value  of, 

175 

daily  method  of  feeding, 

644 

goats'  milk   for, 

629 

desiccated   eggs, 

652 

making  on  the  farm, 

485 

diseases  of,          .           153-156, 657 

statistics, 

427 

Dominique, 

639 

Chenopodium  album  for  hogs, 

549 

Dorking, 

639 

Cheshire  hogs, 

506 

dressing  for  market, 

661 

Chess,    analysis, 

75 

dried    blood    for, 

645 

digestibility, 

80 

dry  mashes  for, 

644 

for  steers, 

398 

dry  meals   for, 

647 

Chester  White  hogs,  . 

505 

dust  for, 

650 

Cheviot  sheep, 

573 

early   fall   penning   for  eggs 

649 

Chicago  beef  cuts, 

236 

early  molting, 

648 

horse  market,     . 

211 

effect  of  cabbage  on  eggs, 

646 

pork  cuts, 

238 

effect  of  milk  on  flesh, 

658 

Chicken  corn  for  mules, 

347 

egg  breeds, 

636 

corn  seed,  analysis,    . 

75 

eggs,  period  of  incubation, 

654 

farming,  systems  of, 

194 

eggs   produced    in   winter, 

635 

lice, 

155 

exercise     and      fertility      of 

pox, 

154 

eggs,        .... 

653 

Chickens, 

635-661 

fancy  breeds,     . 

639 

age  as  affecting  gains, 

659 

fattening  in  crates,          , 

659 

INDEX 


713 


Page 

Page 

Chickens,    fattening   methods,     . 

658 

Chickens,  moisture  for  incubator, 

655 

fattening  on  ground  vs.  whole 

molting,   Van  Dresser  meth- 

grain,     .... 

658 

od,            .... 

648 

Faverolles, 

637 

mortality         in         incubator 

feather   eating, 

660 

chicks, 

657 

feather  value,     . 

661 

nitrogenous  vs.   carbonaceous 

feed   consumed   by  hens, 

647 

rations,    .... 

641 

feeding  hens,     . 

641 

normal  growth  of  chicks, 

657 

feeding   for   soft   roasters, 

657 

nutritive  ratio  for  eggs, 

641 

feeding  in  brooder,    . 

656 

oats   for, 

644 

feeding  young  chicks, 

654 

operating  incubators, 

655 

fertility  of  eggs, 

653 

Orpington, 

639 

flavor  of  eggs, 

651 

overfeeding    chicks, 

657 

floored        vs.        unfloored 

oyster  shells  for,       .          646 

,654 

coops, 

649 

packing  and  shipping, 

661 

fresh  meat  for,  . 

645 

packing  hatching  eggs, 

6.52 

fries,            .... 

657 

plumping, 

661 

general  care  of  chicks,     . 

656 

Plymouth  Rocks, 

638 

general  purpose  breeds,     . 

638 

preserving  eggs, 

652 

gluten  meal  in  fattening, 

658 

price    of   eggs, 

635 

grading  eggs,_     . 

652 

profits,        .... 

635 

grain  for  laying  hens, 

642 

pure  breeds  on  farm, 

640 

grain  required  for  pound  of 

quality  of  meat  and  feed, 

658 

gain, 

659 

raising,    capital    required, 

636 

grain    vs.    grain    and    green 

raising  cross-bred,     . 

660 

bone,        .... 

659 

resting  eggs  before  setting, 

654 

green  food  for  hens. 

646 

Rhode   Island   Red, 

638 

grit   for,     .... 

646 

roasters,      .... 

657 

Hamburgs, 

637 

rock  phosphate  for  chicks, 

654 

hatching  eggs  under  hens, 

654 

roup  in,      . 

153 

hatching  frozen  eggs, 

653 

sand    for, 

654 

hatching  in  incubators,     . 

655 

salt    for    hens, 

646 

heating    houses, 

650 

self    feed, 

647 

Indian  Game, 

639 

selling  day-old  chicks, 

656 

influence  of  cock  on  egg  pro- 

sex of  eggs, 

653 

duction, 

647 

skimmilk  for,             .          645 

,658 

Java,           .... 

639 

sore  head  in, 

154 

kafir  corn  for,     . 

644 

squab   broilers, 

658 

La   Fleche, 

638 

statistics, 

635 

Langshans, 

637 

stimulating  feeds  for  eggs, 

645 

Leghorns, 

636 

straw  vs.  gravel  floors,     . 

649 

leg  weakness  in  chicks, 

657 

summer    rations, 

642 

leukaemia    in, 

155 

sunflower  seed  for, 

643 

light    Brahma, 

637 

tallow  for,           .         .          642 

,645 

lime    for, 

646 

temperature      of      sitting 

loss  in  incubator, 

155 

hens,        .... 

656 

loss  in  weight  in  dressing, 

661 

test  of  breeds  for  eggs,     . 

640 

loss   in     weight    of    eggs    in 

test    of    breeds    for    fatten- 

hatching, 

654 

ing,          .... 

659 

mangels  for,       .         .          644 

,646 

tuberculosis  in,           .          154, 657 

manure,  amount  produced, 

647 

turning  eggs  in  hatching, 

655 

marketing, 

660 

vegetable  vs.   animal  protein 

marketing  eggs, 

652 

for,          .... 

645 

mashes    for, 

644 

vs.  ducks,  .... 

664 

meat  breeds, 

637 

warm  vs.  cold  houses, 

650 

meat  meal  for,           .          654 

,655 

water  for  hens, 

647 

meat  vs.  vegetable  diet, 

658 

wheat  for, 

644 

milk    albumen, 

645 

whole    vs.    ground   grains, 

643 

Minorcas, 

636 

Wyandottes, 

638 

moistening        rations        for 

yards   for,           .         .         , 

650 

hens,        .... 

643 

Chicks  (see  Chickens) 

ri4 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


drilling1   (see  Refrigeration) 

Cockerels,    caponizing, 

660 

Chine   of  mutton, 

239 

Cockle  seed  for  horses, 

317 

Chinese    geese, 

668 

Cocoa  shell  milk  for  calves, 

378 

hog, 

14,  499 

Cocoanut  cake  analysis, 

75 

pheasant, 

697 

oil   cake  for  calves, 

378 

Chloral   hydrate, 

160 

Cod  fat  of  beef, 

237 

for    colic, 

103 

liver  oil  for  calves,    . 

378 

Chloride  of  lime  in  refrigeration 

264 

Coefficients  of  digestibility, 

69 

Choke   in   cattle, 

122 

Cold    air   machines    for    refrigera 

in   horses, 

102 

tion,        .... 

261 

in  sheep, 

138 

blooded  horses,  . 

294 

Cholera   in   chickens, 

154 

storage    houses,    construction 

L 

in    ducks, 

156 

of,            .... 

267 

in  hogs, 

128 

storage      houses,      insulation 

L 

in  geese,     . 

156 

of,            .... 

267 

Chops    of   mutton, 

239 

storage    (see    also    Refrigera- 

Chuck of  beef,     . 

237 

tion.) 

Chufas    for    hogs,        .         .    ■ 

529 

Colds   in  horses, 

104 

Churning,      .... 

483 

Colic  and  defective  feeding,         90; 

333 

Cicuta    maculata, 

168 

engorgement, 

102 

occidentalis, 

168 

flatulent, 

103 

vagans, 

168 

in  horses,  .... 

102 

Circulation        in        cold        stoi 

•age 

obstruction, 

102 

rooms, 

263 

spasmodic, 

103 

Cladonia  rangeferina, 

684 

worm,          . '       . 

103 

Classes  of  beef  cattle, 

369 

Colleges,  agricultural  work  of,    . 

198 

of    hogs, 

555 

Colostrum  for  calves, 

375 

of  horses, 

301 

Colt-ill    in    horses, 

96 

of   mules, 

346 

Colts  (see  also  Horses) 

Classification    of   farm    stock, 

7 

care  of,       . 

334 

Classifying    stock    in    shipping, 

216 

castration  of,     . 

161 

Clear  back  of  pork, 

239 

grain   for, 

334 

belly    of   pork, 

239 

milk  for,     .... 

328 

Cleveland   bay  horse, 

292 

Coluniba  Uvea,     .... 

9 

Clothing,    wool, 

620 

Combing    wool,    .... 

620 

Clover  (see  also  Crimson  clover 

and 

Commission   charges,   . 

220 

Red    clover) 

Composition    of    animal    tissues, 

45 

Clover,  all  kinds,  analyses,  . 

75 

of  feeds,  table,           .         .      74-79 

and  timothy,  digestibility 

80 

of  plants,  .... 

47 

for   chickens,     . 

644 

Compound   lard, 

242 

for   cows,   . 

451 

Compression    machines    for    refrig- 

for   steers, 

398 

eration, 

261 

hay,  analysis,     . 

75 

Condemned    meat, 

270 

hay  for  hogs, 

548 

stock,          .... 

216 

hay  for  horses,  . 

322 

Condimental  feeds  for  cows, 

460 

hay  for  sheep,    . 

598 

feeds,  for  hogs, 

547 

hay  for  steers, 

388 

feeds,  for  steers, 

395 

meal  for  hens,    . 

646 

Condition  powders  for  hens, 

646 

pasture  for  hogs, 

525 

Conestoga    horse, 

296 

pasture  for  sheep, 

591 

Connemara  ponies, 

295 

silage,  analysis, 

75 

Constipating  feeds,       . 

91 

silage  for  cows, 

451 

Constipation  in  pigs, 

137 

steamed  for  geese, 

668 

Consumption   in  cattle, 

112 

Club  foot  in  horses, 

109 

Contagion,    prevention    of, 

95 

Clydesdale    horse, 

296 

Contagious    abortion   in   cattle, 

125 

Coach  horse, 

291,  303 

Contamination         from        previous 

Coal  for  hogs,       . 

549 

sire,          .... 

34 

Cob    horse,            . 

303 

Cooking    feeds, 

51 

Cob  meal  for  steers,    . 

387 

feeds  for  hogs, 

544 

Cochin    chickens, 

637 

Cooler  for  milk, 

477 

Cocked  ankles  in  horses, 

109 

Coolers, 

262 

INDEX 


715 


Page 

Oooley  cans  for  milk, 

480 

doling  (see  Refrigeration) 

Co-operative  cold  storage  for  farm- 

ers,         .... 

269 

creameries, 

489 

Copperas  for  hogs, 

549 

Cork     in     cold     storage     construc- 

tion,       .... 

267 

Corn,       amount       undigested       by 

steers,      .... 

389 

and  alfalfa  for  steers, 

387 

and  cob  meal,  digestibility, 

80 

and     corn     products,     analy- 

sis,          .... 

75 

and    corn    products,    digesti- 

bility,     ...        80,  82,  83 

and    corn    products,    protein 

equating  factor,     .         .     83, 84 

and  stock,  relation, 

388 

belt    bog, 

500 

cobs,   digestibility,     . 

80 

chops   for   steers, 

386 

dry  vs.   soaked  for  steers, 

389 

fertilizing   value, 

175 

flour  as  sausage  fiHei, 

247 

fodder,  analysis, 

75 

fodder,   digestibility, 

80 

fodder,      equivalent      in      si- 

lage,       .... 

399 

fodder  for  cows, 

452 

fodder  for  sheep, 

599 

fodder  for  steers,       .          398,399 

for    cows, 

439 

for  egg  production, 

641 

for    hens, 

643 

for    hogs, 

535 

for    horses, 

314 

for   sheep, 

602 

for  steers, 
frosted  for  steers. 

386 

386 

grinding  for  horses, 

315 

ground  vs.  whole  for  steers, 

387 

hogging, 

536 

horse     beans     and     sunflower 

silage, 

80 

husking  for  steers,     . 

389 

in      shock      vs.      silage      for 

steers, 

400 

meal  as  cream  substitute, 

379 

meal  for  cows, 

439 

meal  for  hogs, 

536 

meal    for   horses, 

315 

meal  for  mules, 

347 

meal  for  steers, 

387 

meal     vs.       ear       corn       for 

steers, 

389 

money  value  for  beef, 

396 

oil  for  calves,     . 

379 

preparation  for  steers, 

387 

shelled       vs.       ground       for 

steers,     .... 

389 

Page 

Corn  shives  for  cows,          .         .  451 

shives  for  hogs,         .         .  537 

shives  for  horses,       .         .  324 

shives  for  steers,         .         .  399 

silage,    analysis,          .         .  75 

silage,    digestibility,           .  80 

silage  for  cows,         .         .  452 
silage  for  horses,       .         .     •   323 

silage  for   steers,       .         .  387 

slump  for  cows,         .         .  441 

stalk   disease,     .         .         .  122 

stalks,  fertilizing  value,     .  175 
stalks,         pasturing         with 

steers,              ...  399 

stover  for  cows,         .        .  451 

stover  for  horses,       .         .  324 

stover  shredded  for  steers,  390 

white  flint  for  geese,           .  670 

with   supplemental   feeds   for 

steers,               ...  386 

Corned  beef,         ....  255 

Corns  in  horses,             .         .         .  109 

in    mules,            .         .         .  109 

Correlation  of  variations,     .         .  38 

Corrosive    sublimate,            .         .  160 

sublimate  as  disinfectant,  94 

Cots  for  hogs,      ....  514 

Cotswold  sheep,             .         .         .  575 

Cotton    field   pasture   for    steers,  402 

mules,          ....  347 

Cottonseed,  analysis,             .         .  75 

protein   equating   factor,        84,  85 

digestibility,        ...  81 

for  cows,             .         .         .  443 

for  hogs,             ...  537 

for    steers,          ...  389 

hulls  for  cows,           .         .  443 

hulls  for  hogs,           .         .  538 

meal  and  hulls  for  steers,  390 

meal  as  cream  substitute,  379 

meal,  effect  on  butter,       .  442 

meal,  fertilizing  value,      .  175 

meal  for  cows,           .         .  441 

meal  for  hogs,           .         .  537 

meal   for    horses,        .         .  316 

meal  for  mules,         .         .  347 

meal   for   sheep,         .         .  602 

meal  for  steers,         .         .  389 

meal,  poisonous  effects,     .  537 

oil  for  hogs,       .       _ .  538, 549 

roasted       and      boiled       for 

steers,      ....  390 

Couch  grass,  analysis,           .         .  76 

Cow   manure,    composition,          .  176 

Cowpea  hay  for  hogs,           .         .  548 

hay  for  horses,           .         .  324 

hay  for  mules,           .        .  347 

hay  for  sheep,    .         .         .  598 

hay  for  steers,           .         .  400 

hay  vs.  timothy  for  steers. 

pasture  for  hogs, 


526 


716 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

Page 

Cowpea  silage  digestibility, 

81 

Cows,  kafir  corn  for, 

444 

Cowpeas,    analysis, 

76 

kafir  corn  fodder  for,       .         454 

digestibility, 

81 

lespedeza   for, 

454 

for  chickens, 

644 

linseed    meal    for, 

444 

for  cows, 

453 

malt  sprouts  for. 

437 

for  hogs, 

539 

maintenance, 

461 

for   horses, 

321 

mangels  for, 

447 

for  mules, 

347 

middlings  for, 

436 

protein   equating   factor, 

83,84 

milking  methods, 

472 

Cowpox,         .... 

117 

millet  hay  for, 

454 

Cows  (see  also  Dairy  Cows) 

narrow  vs.  wide  rations,             446 

age  and   productivity, 

464 

nutrene  for, 

445 

alfalfa  for, 

449 

oats    for, 

445 

apple  pomace  for, 

447 

oats  and  peas  for, 

454 

apples    for, 

447 

open  shed  for,    . 

463 

artichokes   for, 

447 

pasture   for, 

458 

average  profits  from, 

470 

peas    for, 

445 

barley  for, 

437 

period  of  pregnancy, 

419 

beans  for, 

438 

potatoes  for. 

448 

bedding  for, 

468 

protection  from  flies 

471 

beets    for, 

447 

pumpkins  for, 

448 

Bermuda  hay  for, 

451 

quality    and    value 

of    ma- 

bone  meal   for, 

460 

nure, 

176 

bran    for, 

436 

rape    for,    . 

455 

breeds  and  productivity, 

465 

rations    for, 

461 

brewers'  grains  for, 

437 

relative     profit     from     milk, 

brome   grass   for, 

451 

cream  and  butter, 

469 

buckwheat    for, 

438 

roots    for, 

447 

cabbage  for, 

447 

rye  meal  for, 

445 

cerealine    for,    . 

440 

rye  pasture  for, 

455 

clover    for, 

451 

salt   for, 

460 

commission  for  selling, 

220 

serradella    for, 

455 

condemned  for  food, 

216 

size   of   ration, 

464 

condiment|l  feeds  for, 

460 

skimmilk    for,    . 

460 

corn  for,     . 

439 

soiling  crops  for, 

456 

corn  shives  for, 

451 

sorghum  for, 

455 

corn  slump   for, 

441 

soy  bean  hay  for, 

455 

corn   silage   for, 

452 

soy  beans  for,   . 

438 

corn  stover  for, 

451 

spelt    for. 

445 

cottonseed   for, 

443 

statistics  of, 

427 

cottonseed   hulls   for, 

443 

sterility    in. 

164 

cottonseed  meal   for, 

441 

sugar   for, 

460 

cowpeas  for, 

453 

sugar  beet  pulp  for, 

448 

dehorning, 

475 

sugar  beets  for. 

448 

distillers'  grains  for, 

443 

sugar  feed  for, 

460 

dried  beet  pulp  for, 

460 

timothy  for, 

456 

feeding    in    stalls,    pens 

and 

turnips    for, 

449 

yards  compared,     . 

462 

various       kinds       of 

silage 

feeding  standard, 

65 

for, 

453 

fiat  pea  for, 

454 

vetch   for, 

456 

fruits    for, 

447 

water  for, 

460 

germ  feed  for. 

440 

wheat  for, 

436,  456 

gluten   flour   for, 

441 

Coyotes  and  sheep  diseases 

158 

gluten  meal   for, 

440 

Crab  grass  hay,  analysis, 

76 

grain  at  pasture, 

458 

digestibility, 

81 

grain  rations  for, 

445 

Crating  stock, 

208 

hay  for, 

454 

Craven  cattle, 

366 

hominy  feed  for, 

441 

Cream,   care  of,   . 

482 

increasing  profits  from, 

487 

ripening, 

482 

India  wheat   for, 

439 

starters   for, 

482, 483 

individuality  in, 

466 

Creameries, 

488 

INDEX 


111 


Page 

Page 

Creameries,  building  materials  for,       492 

Death   camas,       »        »        . 

168 

location    of, 

492 

Deer,              .... 

684 

machinery  for, 

492 

Dehorning    calves, 

416,  417 

Creamery   companies, 

488 

cows,  effect  on  milk  yielc 

475 

companies,    formation    of,         489 

Delaine    Merino    sheep, 

567 

companies,    constitution 

and 

wool, 

620 

bylaws, 

490 

Delphinium  hicolor,     . 

168 

Creaming  of  milk, 

479 

glaucum, 

168 

creeps  in  cattle, 

127 

Demodex  folliculorum  suis, 

135 

Creole  ponies, 

296 

Deodorizers, 

159 

Creolin  for  sheep  ticks, 

149 

Devon   cattle, 

367 

Creosote  for  stomach  worms, 

151 

cattle,    popularity,     . 

367 

Crested    White    ducks, 

663 

cattle,       standard       require- 

Creve-Coeur chickens,  . 

638 

ments, 

367 

Crimson    clover,    analysis, 

75 

cattle,  value  in  crossing, 

367 

clover,  digestibility, 

80 

Dexter  cows, 

435 

clover,   for   cows, 

451 

Diabetes  in  cattle, 

124 

clover,  protein  equating  factor,    83 

in  horses, 

104 

Crooked  foot  in  horses, 

109 

saccharine, 

104 

Crop  bound  in  chickens, 

156 

Diamond  skin  disease, 

130 

Crops,  fertilizing  value, 

173-175 

Diarrhea  in  cattle, 

123 

Cross    breeding, 

40 

in   chickens, 

156 

Crosses  in  animals, 

33 

in    ducks, 

156 

Croton    oil, 

160 

in  turkeys, 

156 

Croup  in  lambs, 

139 

Dickinson  Merino  sheep,     . 

568 

Crude  fiber  in  plants, 

49 

Dicotyles    torquatus, 

14 

Cud  in  ruminants, 

27 

Digester  for  tankage, 

250 

loss    of, 

.  27,122 

tankage  for  hogs, 

546 

Cumberland  cuts  of  pork, 

239 

Digestible  matter  in  feeds, 

.      83-85 

Curd  for  cheese, 

486 

Digestibility,   coefficients  of, 

69 

Curds    for    calves, 

379 

of  feed    stuffs, 

50 

Cured  hay,  digestibility  of, 

51 

of  feeds,     determination, 

51 

Curing  meats, 

244,  254 

of  feeds,  table, 

.     79-83 

Cutlets  of  mutton, 

239 

Digestion, 

21 

Cuts  of  beef, 

236, 252 

factors   affecting, 

51 

of    mutton, 

239 

of  different  nutrients, 

22 

of    pork, 

238 

of     feeds    by    different 

ani- 

of  veal, 

239 

mals, 

51 

Cygnas  musicus, 

698 

time  required  for,     . 

23 

nigripennis, 

698 

Digestive  diseases  of  cattle, 

122 

olor, 

698 

Diphtheria  carried  in  milk, 

278 

Cysticercus    ceUulosae, 

134 

in  fowls, 

153 

tenuicollis, 

135 

Dipping  diseased  stock, 

214 

Cytodites  nudus, 

155 

plants  for  sheep  scab, 

146 

Dairy    barns, 

475 

vats  for  hogs,    . 

515 

cattle, 

427-493 

Dips  for  sheep   scab, 

145 

conditions, 

474 

Diseased  stock  shipment, 

214 

cows  (see  Cows) 

Diseases  due  to  careless  feeding 

90 

division,  IT.  S.  Dept.  Agri 

196 

of    carabao, 

687 

farming,    example   of, 

186 

of  cats, 

693 

farming  pasture  system, 

187, 188 

of    cattle, 

111-127 

herd,   formation   of, 

428 

of  dogs, 

157 

maids, 

372 

of  ducks  and  geese, 

156 

sanitation, 

474 

of  goats, 

152 

Dairying,   importance  of     . 

427 

of  horses, 

95-111 

increasing   profits    from, 

487 

of   mules, 

111 

literature  on,     . 

493 

of  ostriches, 

695 

Dan  Patch,  .   _     . 

287 

of  pigeons, 

156 

Dartmoor   ponies, 

295 

of  poultry, 

153-157 

Deacon    calves. 

239 

of  rabbits, 

690 

Dead  bodies,  disposal  of     . 

95 

of  reindeer, 

685 

hogs, 

559 

of    sheep, 

137-152 

718                     FARMERS  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 

Page 

Page 

Diseases  of  swine, 

127-137 

Ducks,  cost  of  growing, 

661 

of  turkeys, 

156 

diseases, 

156 

transmitted  by  milk, 

277 

dry    land    strain, 

661 

Disinfectants, 

94, 159 

eggs,  hatching  under  hens,       663 

Disinfection  of  premises, 

94 

eggs,  period  of  incubation,       663 

Distemper  in  cats,          .    . 

693 

extent  of  industry,  . 

661 

in  dogs, 

157 

feeding  breeding  birds, 

666 

in   horses, 

96 

feeding  older  ducklings, 

664 

Distillery  cattle  defined, 

372 

green  food  for  . 

665, 666 

grains,    analysis, 

75,76 

handling  in  brooder, 

663 

grains,  digestibility, 

81 

incubating    eggs, 

663 

grains   for   cows, 

443 

killing    age, 

665 

grains  for  hogs, 

539 

marketing, 

666 

grains  for  horses, 

318 

mixing  grit  with  food, 

664 

grains  for  steers, 

389, 391 

method   of   feeding, 

664 

grains,  protein  equating 

:ac- 

necessity  of  soft  food  for 

664 

tor,          .... 

84 

number  of  drakes  to, 

663 

grains,     various     kinds 

for 

origin    of, 

15 

cows, 

444 

picking, 

666 

slop,   analysis, 

76 

setting   eggs    under   hens 

664 

Dochmius  cernuus, 

151 

vegetable  rations  only  for 

664 

Dogs,              .... 

690 

vs.  chickens, 

664 

as  food, 

691 

water  for, 

665 

diseases  of, 

157 

Durham  cattle  (see  Shorthorns 

and 

origin  and  breeds, 

691 

Polled  Durhams) 

skins, 

257 

Duroc-Jersey  pigs, 

504 

skins  for  rugs, 

258 

Durra,    analysis, 

76 

uses, 

692 

Dutch  Belted  cows, 

434 

vs.  sheep, 

580 

rabbits, 

690 

vermifuge   for, 

692 

Dyanthes  excelsa  for  hogs, 

549 

Domestic  wool, 

620 

Dysentery  in  cattle, 

123 

Domestication  of  animals, 

3 

Dziggetai, 

11 

influence  on  variation, 

37 

East  Friesland  horse, 

292 

Dominant  characters  in  hybrids 

32 

Prussian  horse, 

292 

Dominique    chickens, 

639 

Echinococcus  disease  from  meat 

271 

Dorking    chickens, 

639 

in  pigs, 

135 

Dorset   sheep, 

572 

Eczema    in   cattle, 

127 

for  winter  lambs, 

606 

in  horses, 

109 

Doves,            .... 

674 

in  sheep, 

140 

Draft    horses, 

296, 304 

Edema  in  sheep, 

141 

horses  for  farmers,  . 

305 

Egg  meat,   frozen, 

264 

Dragoon  pigeon,  . 

674 

Eggs,  age  and  fertility, 

653 

Drenching,    .... 

158 

boiled  for  ducklings, 

664 

Dressed   weight   of   beef,     . 

237 

commission  charges, 

652 

weight  of  hogs,  . 

239,  555 

composition  of, 

651 

Dried    beef, 

255 

color  in  different  breeds, 

640 

blood  for  calves, 

378 

color  of  yolk,     . 

651 

blood  for  eggs, 

645 

cost  in  winter, 

635 

blood  for  hogs, 

547 

cost  of  producing, 

635 

blood  for  steers, 

406 

desiccated, 

652 

distillery  grains  for  steers 

?        391 

determining    fertility, 

656 

Dromedary, 

686 

digestion    of    hard    and 

soft 

Dropsy  in  sheep,  . 

139 

boiled, 

651 

Dry  lot  for  nodular  disease, 

152 

duck,     period      of      incuba- 

matter  in   feeds, 

.    83,85 

tion, 

663 

Duchess  pigeons, 

674 

early  molting  of  hens  for 

648 

Ducklings,    feeding, 

664 

effect   of   freezing  on   hatch- 

Ducks, amount  to  feed. 

664 

ing, 

653 

animal   feed   for, 

664 

effect  of  light  on  hatching 

654 

breeds, 

662 

factors   affecting  fertility 

653 

buildings    for,    .        . 

665 

feeding   for, 

641 

INDEX 


m 


Page 

Page 

Eggs,  fertility  influenced  by  exer- 

Equus, onager,     ... 

11 

cise, 

653 

prejvalskii, 

11 

fertilization    of, 

27 

quagga, 

11 

fertilizing  value  of, 

175 

somaliensis, 

11 

flavor, 

651 

zebra,          .... 

11 

flavor  from  cabbage, 

646 

Ergot,  cause  of  abortion,     . 

125 

for  calves, 

378,  381 

injurious  to  horses, 

336 

geese,  time  required  for  hatch- 

poisonous, 

169 

ing. 

669 

Eriscoma  cuspidata,  analysis, 

77 

hatching   under  hens, 

654 

Erysipelas   in   horses, 

109 

humidity  in  cold  storage, 

263 

Essex  hogs,           .... 

507 

influence     of     cock     on 

fer- 

Estrum,  effect  on  milk, 

473 

tility, 

653 

Ethan  Allen,         .... 

290 

keeping  in   cold  storage, 

652 

Ether  extract  in  feeds, 

49 

loss     of     weight     in     hatch- 

Ewes, breeding, 

581 

ing,          . 

654 

flushing, 

581 

marketing, 

652 

for  winter  lambs, 

607 

methods    of    grading, 

652 

selection  and  care  of, 

580 

methods  of  preserving, 

652 

(see  also   Sheep) 

moisture  in  incubating, 

655 

Examination   of   the   horse, 

95 

moisture  in  refrigeration 

264 

Exercise  for  sows, 

519 

onion  flavor, 

651 

importance   of, 

94 

packing  hatching, 

652 

Exmoor  ponies, 

295 

period      of      incubation 

for 

Expansion   machines   for   refrigera- 

chicken, 

654 

tion,        .... 

261 

preserving, 

652 

Experiment    stations, 

197 

price  of,     . 

635 

Expositions    and   fairs,    educationa 

L 

production    in   U    S., 

635 

value,      .... 

204 

rations  for, 

58 

Express  rates  for  shipping  stock, 

208 

refrigeration    of, 

263 

Extract  of  beef, 

250 

resting  before  setting, 

654 

Fagopyrism  in  sheep, 

140 

sex  of, 

653 

Eainting  in  horses, 

106 

temperature     in     cold     s 

tor- 

Eairs,  live  stock, 

204 

age, 

263 

management, 

205 

temperature  in  incubation 

656 

state  and  county, 

204 

turkey,  hatching, 

672 

state   appropriations   for, 

205 

turning  in  hatching, 

655 

Farcy  in  horses, 

98 

weight  of, 

651 

Farm  crops,  fertilizing  value,     . 

175 

Egyptian  corn,  analysis  of, 

76 

horse  breeding, 

192 

wild  cat, 

693 

hygiene,      .         .         .         .      1 

39-95 

Electioneer  trotting  stallion, 

286 

Farmer  sausage, 

249 

Electric  shock  in  horses, 

106 

Farmers'   Institute   specialist, 

200 

Elk, 

684 

institutes,   work    of, 

199 

Embden   geese, 

667 

Farrowing   of   sows,     . 

520 

Emmer,    analysis, 

76 

Fasciola  hepatica  in  sheep, 

150 

for   sheep, 

602 

Fat  animals,  greater  value  of,    . 

47 

Enemas,        .... 

158 

content   of   milk, 

25 

Energy,  net  of  food,     . 

56 

in  animal  tissues, 

46 

production, 

55,56 

on  sheep, 

598 

sources  of  in  animal  body 

57 

percentage   in   cattle, 

238 

used   up   in   animal  body 

55 

Fatness,  effect  on  price  of  cattle, 

224 

English  long  cut  ham, 

239 

Fats,  absorption  of. 

23 

pork   cuts, 

238 

compared  with  carbohydrates 

Epilepsy  in  horses. 

106 

for  energy  value, 

57 

Epizootic  in  horses. 

96 

for  protecting  protein, 

53 

Epsom  salts. 

160 

function,  of. 

62 

Equus  asinus, 

11 

in  feeds,   function  of. 

49 

caballus, 

11 

of     feeds      and     of     animal 

hemionus, 

11 

body,       .... 

54 

hemionus  Jciang, 

11 

origin  of  in  animal  body, 

54 

libycus, 

11 

storage   in  body, 

55 

m 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK: 


Fattening  chickens, 


horses, 

limit  of,     . 

rations  for  sheep, 

steers,  time  required 
Faverolle  chickens, 
Favus  in  chickens, 
Feather      eating      chickens,      treat- 
ment, 

on  legs  of  Shire  horse,     . 
Feathers   (see  the  various  kinds  of 

fowls) 
Fecundity   in   breeding   animals, 
Feeder   cattle, 

hogs, 
Feeding  and  diseases, 

dairy  cows, 

hogs, 

horses, 

mares, 

methods  for  cows, 

methods   for   steers, 

mules, 

principles  of,     . 

sows, 

stallions, 

standards, 

stock,  literature  on, 

stuffs,   composition  table, 

stuffs,  fertilizing  value, 
Feeds,  affected  by  moisture, 

constipating, 

digestibility    of, 

digestibility  table,     . 

effect  on  animals, 

hygiene    of, 

influence  on  offspring, 

influence  on  sex, 

laxative, 

medicinal  effects  of, 

moldy     or     otherwise     defec- 
tive, 
Feet,  bones  of, 

diseases  in  horses, 
Felis  caligata,       .         .         , 

catuSj 

lyncus  rufus,     . 
Fell   cutting   in   slaughtering, 
Fences  for  hogs, 

for   sheep, 
Fermentation  of  milk, 
Fertility  of  eggs, 
Fertilization   of  eggs, 
Fertilizers,  methods  of  valuation 
Fescue   grass,    analysis, 
Festuca   scrabrella,   analysis, 
Fetus  calf  meat, 
Fiber   in  plants, 
Fibrin  in  blood, 
Figs  for  horses, 


658 
670 
331 
63 
596 
407 
637 
155 

660 

298 


164 
373 

558 

90,  333 

435 

552 

312-337 

335 

462 

406 

346 

45-85 

520 

336 

64,68 

74 

74-79 

175 

89 

91 

50 

79-83 

37 

89 

29 

36 

91 

91 


89 

17 

109 

693 

693 

693 

234 

514 

580 

476 

656 

27 

174 

76 

76 

240 

49 

24 

327 


Page 

Fillet  of  veal,       ....  240 

Firm  bacon,           ....  554 

Fish   culture   and   distribution,  700 

fry,    where   to   obtain,        .  701 

hatching  stations,       .         .  701 

meal,    analysis,            .         .  76 

Fisheries,  Bureau  of,           .         .  700 

Fistula  in  horses,         .         .         .  109 

Fits    in   pigs,        ....  136 

Flank   steak,         ....  237 

Flat  foot  in  horses,       .         .         .  109 

pea,   analysis,     ...  76 

pea  for  cows,      .         .         .  454 

pea  for  horses,           .         .  321 

Flaxseed,   analysis,        ...  76 

as  cream  substitute,           .  379 

for   sheep,           .         .         .  603 

Fleas  on  dogs,       ....  158 

Fleece  (see  also  Wool) 

weight    of,          .         .         .  566 

Flies,  protecting  cows   against,  471 

Floating   horses'    teeth,        .         .  102 

Flukes  in  sheep,           .         .         .  150 

Flushing  ewes,     ....  581 
Food, 


Stuffs) 


changes  in  body, 

chief  function  of, 

necessity  of, 

(see  also  Feeding 

use   of,        ... 
Foot  and  mouth  disease,  carried  in 
milk,        .... 

and  mouth  disease,  in  cattle, 

and  mouth  disease,  in  meat, 

and  mouth   disease,   in   pigs, 

and  mouth  disease,  in  sheep, 

rot  in  cattle, 

rot  in  sheep, 
Forage   for   cows, 

for  steers, 
Forest   service,      .... 
Formalin,  .... 

for    fumigation, 

for  scours  in  calves, 

for        treating       tuberculous 
milk,        . 

in   milk, 
Fowl   cholera, 

diphtheria, 
Fowls,  diseases  of, 

origin   of, 
Foxes,    .... 
Frankfurt  sausage, 
Freemartin, 
French  Canadian  cows, 

Coach  horse, 

Draft  horse, 

Kanuck   horse, 

Eambouillet    sheep, 
Fries,   chicken,      .... 
Friesian  cows  (see  Holstein  cows'* 


55 
50 

50 

278 
116 
270 
131 
141 
127 
140 
449 
404 
196 
160 
94 
379 


115 

275, 479 

154 

153 

153-156 

14 

694 

248 

419 

432 

291 

300 


569 

657 


INDEX 


?2i 


Page 

Page 

Frogs,   raising,     . 

700 

Germ  feed  for  cows, 

440 

varieties  and  uses,     . 

699 

Germ    oil    meal    as    cream    substi 

Frozen    meat, 

267 

tute,        .... 

379 

Fruits  for  cows, 

447 

German  clover  (see  Crimson  Clover 

) 

for  horses, 

326,  327 

Coach  horse, 

292 

Fuel  value  of  feeds, 

83-85 

feeding  standards,     . 

35,  68 

Fuller's  earth  for  bleaching  lard 

242 

Rambouillet  sheep,    . 

569 

Gaits   in   saddle  horses, 

289 

Giant  lily  for  hogs, 

549 

Gallinaceas, 

7 

Giblets,  pickle  for, 

247 

Galloway   cattle, 

362 

Gid  in  sheep,       .... 

149 

cattle,  popularity, 

362 

Gilts,  definition  of,       . 

522 

cattle  prepotency, 

364 

Ginger, 

160 

horses,        .... 

294 

Glanders  in  horses, 

98 

skin  rugs, 

258 

in  meat,     .... 

270 

Gallus  tankiva,     . 

14 

treatment  of,     . 

99 

gallus,         .... 

14 

Glauber  salts,       .... 

160 

lafayettii, 

15 

Gleet,   nasal   in   horses,        .         .  98, 105 

sonneratii, 

15 

Glucose  feed,  analysis, 

75 

varius, 

15 

Glue  from  pig  feet  and  bones,     . 

250 

Gambel's  partridge, 

696 

Gluten  feed  and  meal,  analysis, 

75 

Gambrel  in  dressing  hogs, 

254 

feed     and     meal,     digestibil 

Game,   preservation   of, 

683 

ity,         .... 

79-81 

reserves, 

683 

feed   for   cows, 

441 

Gapes  in  chickens, 

155 

feed   for   hogs, 

539 

Garget  in  cattle, 

126' 

feed  for  sheep, 

603 

in  sheep, 

140 

feed  for  steers, 

391 

Garlic  flavor  in  milk, 

467 

flour  for  cows, 

441 

sausage, 

248 

meal  for  cows, 

440 

Gasoline  for  stomach  worms, 

151 

meal     for     fattening     chick 

Gastric  juice,       .... 

22 

ens,          .... 

658 

Gastritis  in  cats, 

693 

meal  for  mules, 

347 

Gaur,             

12 

meal   for  sheep, 

603 

Gayal, 

12 

meal    for    steers, 

*391 

Geel  dikkop  in  sheep, 

142 

meal,    protein    equating   fac 

Geese, 

667 

tor,          .... 

84 

breeding    mongrels, 

668 

Goats,            ....           621-630 

breeds   of,            ... 

667 

age  and  teeth, 

625 

care   of  goslings, 

669 

as  brush  killers, 

623 

crossings, 

668 

Angora  breeding, 

625 

diseases, 

156 

Angora,   care  of, 

627 

eggs,    fertility, 

669 

Angora,  care  of  kids, 

628 

eggs,     hatching     in     inci 

ba- 

Angora,  cost  and  profits, 

627 

tor,          .... 

669 

Angora,  description  of,     . 

623 

eggs,  hatching  under  hens, 

669 

Angora,  introduction, 

622 

eggs,  production  by  different 

Angora,   kidding, 

627 

breeds, 

668 

Angora   mohair,            622,  623 

,626 

fattening, 

670 

Angora      registration      socie- 

feeding breeding  birds, 

668 

ties,          .... 

626 

feeding   goslings, 

669 

Angora  shearing, 

626 

feathers,      .... 

670 

Angora  statistics, 

621 

gains  in  goslings, 

670 

Angora,   uses   of, 

622 

green  feed  for, 

668,  669 

Angora  venison, 

622 

killing  and  picking, 

670 

Angora   vs.   sheep, 

627 

mating,       .... 

668 

Angora,  winter  feeding,    . 

627 

nesting    habit, 

669 

disease   immunity, 

629 

origin    of,            ... 

15 

diseases    of, 

152 

preparing  for  market, 

670 

farming,    systems    of, 

194 

white  flint  corn  for, 

670 

fattening, 

627 

Gelding  vs.  mares, 

338 

kids   bottle   fed, 

629 

Gentian 

160 

literature   on. 

630 

Geographical  races  of  animals,    . 

38 

milch  as  brush  destroyers. 

629 

722 


FA&MER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Goats,  milch  breeding, 

629 

milch   feeding, 

629 

milch    herd, 

628 

milch,      period      of      useful- 

ness,       .... 

629 

milch,  record  associations, 

630 

milch,  value  of, 

628, 629 

milk,   characteristics    of, 

629 

milk   for   cheese, 

629 

milk  yield, 

628 

Maltese   breed, 

630 

mountain, 

684 

origin  of, 

13 

period  of  gestation, 

626 

Saanen    breed, 

629 

salt  for,      .... 

627 

skins,          .... 

623 

'skins,  duty  on, 

626 

statistics, 

621 

takosis  in, 

153 

tallow,        .... 

242 

Toggenburg  breed, 

629 

tuberculosis  in, 

153 

Going  light  in  fowls, 

154 

Golden   pheasant, 

697 

rod  poisonous  to  horses, 

337 

Goslings   (see  Geese) 

Gothair    sausage, 

249 

Gourd  vine,  analysis, 

76 

Governments    (hogs), 

558 

Grade   breeding, 

41 

Grading   up, 

41 

up  sheep, 

579 

Grain     and     roughage     mixed 

for 

steers, 

395 

for  baby  beef, 

383 

for  cows  on  pasture, 

458 

for  fattening  chickens, 

658 

for    hogs, 

534, 543 

for  lambs, 

589 

for  laying  hens, 

642 

for  sheep, 

601 

rations  for  cows, 

445 

rations  for  ewes, 

585 

required  for  chickens, 

659 

stubble  field  for  steers. 

395 

whole        vs.        ground 

for 

horses,     . 

319 

Grama  grass,  analysis, 

76 

grass   for  horses, 

324 

Grasses,   digestibility, 

81 

for  soiling  hogs, 

532 

mixed,  protein  equating 

fac- 

tor, 

83 

Gray  African  geese,     . 

667 

jungle  fowl, 

15 

Graylag  goose, 

15 

Grazing  sheep, 

611 

Grease  from  lard  and  tallow, 

243 

in  horses, 

109 

Greasewood,  analysis,  . 

76 

Page 

Great  horse  of  England, 

297 

Grinding  grains  and  digestibility. 

52 

Grit  for  chickens, 

646 

Grooming  horses, 

338 

Ground  bone  for  calves, 

378 

Grouse,   ruffed,     . 

696 

Growth,  stage  of  in  plants  and 

di- 

gestibility, 

51 

Grunting  in  horses,     . 

105 

Guernsey  cows, 

430 

Guinea  grass,  analysis, 

76 

Guineas,        .... 

676 

Farmers'  Bulletin  on, 

677 

feeding  the   chicks, 

677 

marketing, 

677 

origin    of, 

16 

vs.  hens  for  hatching, 

677 

Guttural  pouches,  pus  in, 

105 

Gypsum     as     a     manure     prese 

rva- 

tive, 

179 

Hackney  horse, 

291 

Haematobia  serrata,     . 

121 

Haematopinus   urius, 

135 

Hair   grass,   analysis, 

76 

of  hogs  for  mattresses, 

250 

Ham    curing, 

245,  246 

Hambletonian    horses, 

286 

Hamburg  chickens, 

637 

Hampshire  hogs, 

507 

sheep, 

571 

Hanoverian   horse, 

292 

Haslet  of  veal, 

240 

Hautgout,     .... 

272 

Hay,  analysis, 

76 

cut  vs.  uncut  for  steers, 

404 

cutting  for  horses, 

323 

digestibility, 

81 

for  cows,     . 

454 

for  hogs, 

547 

for   horses, 

325 

tea   for   calves, 

374, 375 

Head    cheese, 

248 

cheese,  homemade,     . 

256 

meat,  pickle  for, 

247 

scab   in    sheep, 

147 

Heart  beat,  rate  of,     . 

24 

diseases  in  horses, 

106 

meat,   pickle  for, 

247 

Hearts,  preservation  of, 

244 

Heat,  measurement   of, 

56 

period  of  in  cows  as  affec 

ting 

milk, 

473 

production  of  in  animals 

55 

used  up   in   animal  body 

55 

Heaves   in   horses, 

105 

Heavy  butcher  hogs, 

553 

Hebridean   ponies, 

295 

Hedysarum,   analysis, 

76 

Hegelund  method  of  milking. 

472 

Heifers  (see  also  Cows  and  Cai 

tie) 

age  to  breed  beef, 

413 

INDEX 


723 


Page 

Page 

Heifers,   spaying, 

162 

Horse  farming,  systems  of, 

192 

Hemlock   poisoning, 

168 

manure    characteristics, 

177 

Hemoglobin   for   Texas  fever,     . 

119 

manure  composition, 

176 

of  blood, 

23 

market,   Chicago, 

211 

Hemorrhagic     septicemia     in     cat 

markets,  rules  of, 

210 

tie,           .... 

110 

ranching, 

192 

Hemp  for  pigeons, 

675 

tail       rush        injurious 

to 

seed,  effect  on  plumage,     . 

37 

horses, 

. 

337 

Hen      manure,      composition      anc 

L 

Horses, 

283-340 

value,      .... 

176 

affected  by  poor  feeds, 

102 

Hens  (see  Chickens) 

age  of, 

. 

338 

Herd  books,          .... 

202 

alfalfa    for, 

. 

321 

Heredity,       .        .        .        .      .  . 

28 

almond  hulls  for, 

. 

327 

tendencies   of, 

29 

anatomy  of, 

. 

281 

Hereford   cattle, 

355 

and  farming,     . 

. 

283 

crossing  with  other  breeds, 

356 

anthrax  in, 

. 

97 

Polled,        .... 

356 

artichokes   for, 

. 

327 

Polled  clubs, 

359 

Ascaris   equorum   in, 

103 

strong  and  weak  points,    . 

355 

asthma    in, 

. 

105 

Herpes    in    horses, 

109 

azoturia   in, 

. 

104 

Hides  for  rugs, 

257 

barley    for, 

. 

131 

of  cattle,  care  of, 

241 

beans    for, 

. 

320 

of      cattle,      percentage 

beggar  weed  for, 

. 

322 

weight, 

238 

Belgian  draft, 

. 

300 

tanning,      .... 

257 

big  head  in, 

. 

110 

High-blowing  in  horses,  •  . 

105 

bilious    fever   in, 

. 

96 

meat,           .... 

272 

blankets  for, 

. 

338 

Higher  mountain   sheep,     . 

576 

blomo   feed  for, 

. 

330 

Highland  cattle, 

364 

blood  diseases  in, 

. 

106 

sheep,          .... 

575 

bloody   urine   in, 

. 

104 

Himalayan  rabbits, 

690 

box   stalls   for, 

. 

337 

Hinnies  from  burros, 

343 

bran    for, 

. 

317 

value  of,             ... 

345 

bread  for, 

. 

317 

Hobbling  to  induce  pacing  gait, 

289 

breeding, 

. 

308 

Hobby  horses, 

294 

breeding   associations, 

310 

H.  0.  feeds,  analysis, 

76 

breeds   of, 

. 

284 

feeds,  digestibility,     . 

81 

brewers'  grain  for, 

318 

Hog  cholera,         .... 

128 

broken   wind    in, 

105 

louse,           .... 

135 

brome  hay  for, 

. 

322 

Hogging  corn,       .... 

536 

bronchitis  in,     . 

. 

104 

Hogs  (see  Swine) 

buckwheat  for, 

. 

319 

Holderness  cattle, 

368 

'bus, 

304 

Holland  cattle  (see  Holstein  Cows) 

cab, 

. 

303 

turkeys,       .... 

671 

carob  bean  for, 

. 

321 

Holstein  cows, 

433 

carriage, 

. 

306 

Homer  pigeon, 

674 

carrots  for, 

. 

327 

Hominy  feed  for  cows, 

441 

cassava   for, 

. 

327 

feed  or  meal,  analysis, 

75 

catarrh  in, 

. 

104 

meal,    digestibility, 

81 

catarrhal  fever  in, 

. 

96 

Hoof  of  horses, 

165 

cerebo-spinal         meningit 

is 

Hoofed  animals, 

7 

in, 

. 

101 

Hoose  in  sheep, 

152 

choke    in, 

. 

102 

Hordeum  jubatum,  analysis,       .     74, 78 

Cleveland  bay, 

. 

292 

Horn  fly  on  cattle, 

121 

clover  hay  for, 

. 

322 

Horns,  use  in  manufacturing,     . 

250 

Clydesdale, 

296 

Horse  beans,  analysis, 

74 

coach, 

. 

291,  303 

beans    and    sunflower    seeds, 

colds  in,     . 

. 

104 

digestibility, 

80 

colic  in, 

. 

102 

chestnuts    for   horses, 

316 

colt-ill  in, 

. 

96 

chestnuts  for  steers, 

391 

corn  for, 

. 

314 

doctor,        .... 

95 

corn  meal  for, 

. 

.        315 

724 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

Page 

Horses,  corn  shives  for, 

324 

Horses,  lupines  for, 

316 

corns   in, 

109 

lung   fever   in, 

105 

cost  of  feeding, 

333 

maintenance    ration, 

332 

cottonseed   meal   for, 

316 

mangels  for, 

327 

cowpea  hay  for, 

324 

market  classes  of, 

300 

cowpeas  for, 

321 

maturity  of, 

339 

cutting  hay   for, 

323 

meat    for, 

331 

determination      of     tempera 

method  of  handling, 

182 

ture  in,           ... 

95 

milk    for, 

328 

diabetes    in, 

104 

millet  for, 

321 

digestibility  of  feeds  for, 

83 

millet  hay  for, 

325 

digestive   capacity   of, 

336 

miscellaneous  feeds  for, 

328,  331 

digestive    diseases    of, 

101 

molasses  for, 

329 

diseases    of,                             95-11 

Morgans,     . 

290 

distemper  in,     . 

96 

nasal  gleet  in, 

98, 105 

distillery  grains  for, 

318 

nerve  diseases  in, 

106 

draft,          .... 

304 

new  corn  product  for, 

324 

draft  type  of, 

296 

nose   bags   for, 

335 

duration  of  pregnancy, 

312 

number  of  meals  per  day 

335 

examination    of, 

95 

numbers   of, 

283 

exclusive  grain  ration  for, 

332 

oats  for,     . 

312 

farcy   in,             ... 

98 

origin   of, 

9 

fattening, 

331 

Orlov   trotter, 

290 

feeding,      .         .         .           312-337 

pacers, 

287 

feeding  standards,     . 

65 

parasites  of, 

110 

fistula    in,          ... 

109 

pasture   for, 

326 

five-toed, 

9 

peas   for, 

320 

flat  pea  for, 

321 

Percheron, 

298 

French    Draft, 

300 

peritonitis   in, 

103 

fruits  for,           .        .         326,327 

pink  eye  in, 

96 

glanders   in,       . 

98 

pneumonia    in, 

.  97,105 

grama  grass  for, 

324 

points   of, 

308,  311 

grinding  grain  for, 

319 

ponies, 

294 

Hackney, 

291 

potatoes  for, 

327 

hay    for, 

325 

pox   in,       . 

97 

heaves  in, 

105 

proportions   of, 

311 

heavy     species     of     northern 

pulse   of, 

312 

Europe, 

10 

pumpkins  for, 

327 

hoof  of,      . 

165 

purpura  hemorrhagica  in, 

106 

horse  chestnuts  for, 

316 

quantity    and    value   of 

ma- 

hunter,        .... 

293 

nure, 

176 

improvement    of, 

283 

quittor    in, 

109 

in    early    history    of    Amer 

- 

rabies  in, 

100 

ica,          .... 

284 

rations  for,         .           332, 

334,  335 

in   England, 

283 

respiratory  diseases  in, 

104 

in  France, 

284 

rice    for, 

320 

inflammation    of   urinary   or 

- 

ringbones    in, 

107 

gans,        .... 

104 

roaring   in, 

105 

influenza  in,       . 

96 

roots    for, 

326 

injurious  feeding  stuffs, 

336 

rutabagas    for, 

328 

irregularities   of   teeth,     . 

102 

rye  for, 

316 

jaundice    in, 

103 

Saddle,       ... 

289 

kafir    corn    for, 

321 

scalma   in, 

97 

laceration  of  mouth, 

102 

shipment   to    Chicago, 

212 

lameness  in,       .         . 

107 

shipping, 

217,  218 

lampas  in,           ... 

102 

shipping   abroad, 

227 

lentils  for, 

320 

Shire, 

297 

linseed  meal  for, 

318 

shoeing, 

165 

lockjaw    in, 

100 

silage  for, 

323 

loco  in,       . 

337 

sirup  for, 

330 

loss  of  appetite,        .        , 

332 

skin  diseases  in, 

109 

INDEX 

725 

Page 

Page 

Horses,  sorghum  hay  for,     . 

326 

Impregnator, 

163 

sources    of,          ... 

283 

Improved       Black       Top 

Merino 

soy   beans   for, 

320 

sheep,      .         . 

567 

spavin  in,           ... 

108 

Delaine  Merino  sheep, 

567 

species  of,           ... 

9 

large  Yorkshire  hogs, 

505, 506 

splints  in,           ... 

107 

Inbreeding, 

39 

stover    for, 

324 

Incubator  chicks,  losses  in, 

155,  657 

strangles  in, 

96 

Incubators  for  hatching  eggs 

,     .         655 

straw  for, 

325 

operating, 

655 

Suffolk  Punch, 

297 

supplying  moisture  to, 

655 

sugar  beets  for, 

328 

India  wheat  for  cows, 

439 

sunstroke  in,       . 

106 

Indian  cattle, 

.  12, 688 

surra  in,             ... 

100 

Game  chickens, 

639 

sweet    clover    for, 

326 

hemp, 

160 

sweet  potatoes  for,     . 

328 

hemp  for  colic, 

102 

tallow,         .... 

242 

millet,    analysis, 

.    76,77 

teeth,           .... 

18 

ponies, 

284 

teeth  in  determining  age, 

339 

Runner   ducks, 

662 

temperature  of, 

312 

Indigestion  in  cattle, 

123 

tetanus   in, 

100 

Influence  of  previous  sire, 

33 

Thoroughbred, 

284 

Influenza  in  horses, 

96 

timothy  for, 

326 

in  sheep, 

143 

Trotter,      .... 

285 

Inhalation  of  medicines, 

159 

turnips  for, 

328 

Insemination,   artificial, 

163 

typhoid  fever  in, 

96 

Inspection  of  meat, 

270 

ventilation    for, 

337 

of  milk,     . 

274-278 

vetches   for, 

320 

Institute  train  specials, 

200 

water  for, 

333 

Interbreeding, 

39 

wheat    for, 

317 

Interference  in  horses, 

109 

Hot  blooded  horses, 

294 

International    Live     Stock    Exposi- 

Hothouse lambs, 

606 

tions, 

204 

Humidity  in  cold  storage  rooms, 

263 

von     Homeyer     Rambouillet 

Humped  cattle, 

688 

sheep, 

569 

Humus,   importance  of, 

173 

Intrauterine     influences     in 

hered- 

Hungarian  hay,  fertilizing  value, 

175 

ity, 

34 

millet,    analysis, 

76 

Iodide  of  potash, 

160 

millet,   digestibility, 

81 

Iron  peroxide, 

160 

millet,  protein  equating  fac 

salts, 

160 

tor,           .... 

83 

Italian  jack, 

342 

Hunter  horse,       .... 

293 

Itch  in  dogs, 

158 

Hunting,  regulation  of 

683 

Jack  bean  meal  for  steers, 

385 

Hurford  wheel  in  hoisting  swine, 

236 

rabbits, 

689 

Hybrids, 

32 

Jacks,            .... 

340-34S 

Hybridization,      .... 

32 

breeding  mules   from, 

343 

Hydrochloric   acid, 

160 

breeds   of, 

342 

Hydrophobia  (see  Rabies) 

selection  of, 

341 

Hygiene  of  farm  animals, 

89-95 

Jalap,             .... 

160 

Hygrometer     to     determine     mo  is 

Japan  clover,  analysis, 

75 

ture,        .... 

263 

pig,     .          •         •  #     • 

14 

Hypoderma  lineata,     . 

121 

Japanese   millet,    analysis, 

76 

Hypodermic  syringe,   . 

158 

peafowl, 

698 

Ice,   amount  required  in  refrigera- 

Jarque,         .... 

256 

tion,        .... 

262 

Jaundice  in  horses, 

103 

bacterial  contamination  of, 

259 

Java  chickens, 

639 

for  refrigerator  cars, 

260 

jungle   fowl, 

15 

houses  on  the  farm, 

267 

Jennet   jacks, 

341 

on  the  farm,     . 

260 

Jerked  beef  and  venison,     . 

256 

use  in  refrigeration, 

258 

Jersey   cows, 

429 

Tcterohematuria   in  sheep, 

142 

Red  hogs, 

504 

Illness,  detection  in  horse, 

95 

Jewish  slaughtering, 

233 

Impregnation   artificial,       ,        . 

163 

Johnson  grass,  digestibility, 

81 

726 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

i 

Johnson  grass,  digestibility,  . 

81 

Lambs,  castration"  by  western  meth- 

grass for  steers, 

*401. 

402 

od,            . 

Joint-ill  in  calves,. 

126 

cow's  milk  for, 

in  pigs, 

132 

daily  ration, 

Judging  hogs, 

*500-5G 

docking,   castrating  and  dip- 

sheep, 

577 

ping,        . 

stock,   students'   work, 

199 

dressing  and  marketing, 

J  uncus  balticus,  analysis,    . 

79 

fattening  period, 

species,   digestibility, 

80 

feeding,      .... 

Jungle  fowl, 

14 

feeding  qualities  of, 

Kafir  corn  and  products,  analysis, 

76 

grains    for, 

corn    and    products,    digesti- 

market   quotations, 

bility,      . 

81 

marketing    Christmas, 

corn       and       sorghum 

for 

method   of   feeding, 

steers, 

387 

reviving  after  chilling, 

corn  fodder  for  cows, 

454 

(see  also  Sheep) 

corn  for  chickens, 

644 

shelter  for, 

corn  for   cows, 

444 

tongues,  curing, 

corn  for  hogs, 

*528 

,539 

vs.  old  sheep,     . 

corn  for  horses, 

321 

weaning,     .... 

corn  for  sheep, 

603 

white  scours  in, 

corn  for  steers,  . 

391 

winter,        .... 

corn  meal  for  calves, 

379 

winter  care  of, 

corn  meal  for  cows, 

444 

Lambs'  quarters  for  hogs, 

corn,    protein    equating 

fac- 

Lamellirostres,      .... 

tor, 

.     83, 1 

Lameness  in  horses,     . 

corn  stover  for  steers, 

401 

Lampas  in  horses, 

Kalberrahm  for  calves, 

378 

Lampblack  in  cold  storage  construc- 

Kemp in  wool, 

620 

tion,        .         . 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  analysis, 

76 

Langshan   chickens, 

blue   grass,   digestibility, 

80,  81 

Lard  hog, 

blue   grass,   protein   equating 

homemade, 

factor,     . 

83 

in   hogs,     .... 

red    turkey, 

671 

manufacture  of, 

Keratitis  in  cattle, 

127 

Large  Black  hogs,       . 

Kerosene    emulsion    as    fly    repel- 

White  hogs, 

lant, 

472 

Larkspurs,              .... 

for  roup, 

154 

Laryngitis  in  horses, 

Kerry  cows, 

434 

in  sheep, 

Kiang,            .... 

11 

Lathy rus   sylvestris,   analysis, 

Kidney  worm  in  pigs, 

133 

for  cows, 

Kidneys,  function  of, 

24 

Laudanum,            .... 

Killing  animals  on  farm,     . 

251 

Laws  on  importing  stock,    . 

Kindness    to    animals     and     diges- 

on stock  shipments, 

tion, 

52 

Laxative  feeds, 

King  system  of  ventilation, 

92 

Laxatives,              .... 

Knee-sprung  horse, 

303 

Lead    poisoning, 

Knuckle  of  veal, 

240 

Leaf  lard,              .... 

Knuckling  in  horses, 

109 

Leather  from  various  animals,     . 

Kola  nut  for  horses,    . 

328 

Leg,  bones  of, 

Kreatin  in  urine, 

25 

ulceration  in  sheep, 

La  Fleche  chickens,     . 

638 

Leghorn    chickens,        .         4 

Lactation  period  in  cows,    . 

464 

Lehigh  valley  summer  sausage, 

Ladies'  hack  horse, 

306 

Leicester    sheep, 

saddle  horse, 

306 

Lentils   for  horses, 

Lambing  period, 

588 

Lespedeza  for  cows, 

wagon, 

613 

hay,   analysis, 

Lambs,  arthritis  in, 

141 

(see   also    Japan   Clover) 

at   pasture, 

589 

Leukaemia  in  fowls, 

care  of,      . 

588 

Lice   on   chickens, 

castration,           ,        , 

161 

on  pigs,      . 

Page 


INDEX 


727 


Lice  on  turkeys, 
Light  butcher  hogs, 

effect  on  aninials, 


672 
556 
37 
557 
74 
94 
94 


Lima  beans,  analysis, 
Lime  as  a  disinfectant, 

chloride  as  a  disinfectant 
for  absorbing  moisture  in  re- 
frigeration,     .         .         .         264 
for  chickens,       .         .         .         646 
in  the  ration,     .         .   -  60 

sulphur   dips   for  sheep  scab, 

145, 146 
water,  .         .         .         .         160 

water  for  preserving  eggs,  652 
Lincoln  sheep,  ....  574 
Line  breeding,       .         .         .  •       .  39 

Linseed  meal,   analysis,       .         .  76 

meal  as  cream  substitute,  379 

meal,  digestibility,  .  .  81,82 
meal,  fertilizing  value,  .  175 
meal  for  chickens,  .  .  642 
meal  for  cows,  .         .         444 

meal  for  horses,  .  .  318 
meal  for  sheep,  .         .         603 

meal  for  steers,  386,388,391,392 
meal,    protein    equating    fac- 
tor, ....  85 

oil, 160 

Litters  of  pigs,  size  of,       .         .         517 
size   of   in   animals,       .  28 

Live    stock   courses    in    agricultural 

colleges,  .         .         .         199 

stock    exchange,  .         .         216 

stock  exposition  and  fairs,  204 
stock      farming,      broadening 

influence,         .        .         .        206 
stock,    importance     in    farm- 
ing, .         .         .         .  6 
stock        importation,         laws 

on,  ....         195 

stock,  inspection  at  yards,  215 

stock,   local   buyers,  .         207 

stock   marketing,       .  206-229 

stock  marketing  locally,     .         208 

stock   organizations,  190-206 

stock  papers,      .        .         .        205 

stock  regulations,       .         .         202 

Liver  flukes  in  pigs,         .         .     .         134 

flukes  in  sheep,  .         .         150 

sausage,  .         .         .         248 

Livers,  preservation  of,       .         .         244 

Lockjaw  in  horses,       .         .         .         100 

Loco   disease   in  horses,       .         .         337 

in    sheep,  .         .         .         596 

weeds,  ....         167 

Logger  horse,        ....         305 

Loin   of  beef,       ....         237 

of  pork,       ....         239 

London   beef   cuts,        .         .         .         237 

Longhorn  Leicestershire  cattle,  366 

Lop-eared   rabbit,         .        .        .         690 


meat     mspec- 


Luinpy  jaw  in  cattle, 
Lung  diseases  in  horses, 

fever    in    horses, 

fluke  in   pigs, 

worms  in  pigs, 

worms  in  sheep. 
Lupines  for  horses, 

poisonous, 
Lymphadenitis     and 
tion, 

in  sheep,     . 
Lyon  sausage, 
Mail   order   sales, 
Maintenance   rations, 

rations  for  cows 

rations   for  hogs, 

rations  for  horses 
Maize  feed,  digestibility 
Majorca  jack, 
Male    fern, 
Malignant  catarrh  in  cattl 

edema    in    cattle, 
Mallard  duck,     . 
Mallein  test  for  glanders 
Malt  sprouts,  analysis, 

sprouts,  digestibility, 

sprouts,  for  cows, 

sprouts,  protein  equating  fac 
tor,  .... 

Malt  skimmings,  analysis, 
Maltese  cat,  .... 

jack,  .... 

Mammitis   (see  Garget) 
Mange  in  dogs, 

in    horses, 

in    pigs,      .... 

of  cattle, 
Mangels,    analysis, 

digestibility, 

fertilizing   value, 

for  cows, 

for  hens, 

for  hogs,     .... 

for    horses, 

protein    equating   factor, 
Manure,    applying    on   land,     ■  . 

chicken,   amount   and  preser- 
vation, 

composition  of, 

checking  injurious  fermenta- 
tion,        .... 

covered  yards  for, 

effect        when        fresh        on 
plants, 

European     methods    of    pre- 
serving, 

fermentation, 

fertilizer  value  of, 

fire-fanging, 

from  different  aged  stock, 


117 
105 
105 
134 
134 
152 
316 
169 

270 
143 
249 
185 

63 
461 
551 
332 

81 
342 
160 
118 
118 

15 

99 
74-76 

81 
437 

84 

76 

693 

342 


158 

109 

135 

121 

76 

81 

175 

447 

644,  646 

529 

327 

84 

180 


647 

177 

178 
180 

180 

178 
178 
64 
178 
175 


728 


FARMER' 8  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 
Manure     from     different     animals, 

characteristics,  .  .  177 
from  different  animals,  com- 
position, .  .  .  176 
heap,  care  of,  .  179, 180 
losses  from  leaching,  .  179 
plowing      in      on      different 

soils,  ....  181 
preservation     of     solid     and 

liquid  portions,  .  .  178 
preserving  barn  cellars,  .  180 
preservatives,  .  .  .  179 
quantity    produced   by   farm 

animals,  .         .         .         176 

relative    value    of    solid    and 

liquid  portions,  .  .  177 
yards  for  preserving,         .         179 

Manx  cat, 693 

Mares,  feeding,     ....        335 
spaying,      ....         162 
sterility,      ....         164 
Market  classes  of  beef  cattle,     .        369 
classes  of  hogs,  .        .        555 

classes  of  horses,       .        .        300 
classes  of  mules,       .        .        346 
Marketing,  best  time,  .        .        217 

chickens,  .        .        .        660 

ducks,         ....        666 
eggs,  ....        652 

live  stock,  .        .  206-229 

pure  breeds,       .         .         .         208 
(see  also  Shipping) 
sheep,  ....        606 

squabs,        ....         676 
turkeys,      ....         673 
Markets  for  horses,  rules  of  sale,         210 
Marsden  feed  for  hogs,       .         .         537 
Marsh    grass,    analysis,        .         .  76 

hay  for  cows,  .  .  .  454 
Maryland  pig  pen,  .  .  .  513 
Mashes  for  hens,  .        .        .        644 

Meadow  hay,  fertilizing  value,  175 

fescue,  protein  equating  fac- 
tor, ....  83 
Measle  worms  in  pigs,          .        .        134 
Meat  by-products,         .-       .        .        241 
curing  on  the  farm,           .         254 
diseases    transmitted   by,           270 
for  horses,           .         .         .         331 
fresh  for  eggs,           .        .         645 
importance  in  diet,           .  6 
inspection,          .        .          270-274 
inspection,  federal,     .          272,273 
inspection,  state  and  munici- 
pal,         ....        273 
meal,   analysis,           .        .          76 
meal  for  chickens,      .        .         645 
meal  for  ducklings,           .         664 
meal  for  hogs,           .         .         547 
poisoning,                    .        .        271 


Page 

Meat  rations  for  fattening  chicks, 

658 

scraps,   analysis, 

76 

scraps,  protein  equating  fac- 

tor,         .... 

84 

tuberculous, 

113 

Meats,  curing,       .... 

243 

home  dressed,  market  for, 

213 

Medicines,              .... 

158 

Medium  butcher  hogs, 

556 

ratio  in  feeds, 

66 

Yorkshire   hogs, 

505 

Megrims  in  horses, 

106 

Meleagris  gallopavo,    . 

15 

mexicana, 

15 

ocellata,      .... 

15 

Melilotus  alba,  analysis, 

75,78 

Melophagus  ovinus, 

148 

Mendel's   law,       .... 

33 

Meningitis,         cerebro-spinal 

in 

horses,     .... 

101 

in  horses, 

106 

Merino  sheep,       .... 

567 

wool,            .... 

616 

Merinos  for  winter  lambs, 

607 

Mesquite  beans,  analysis,    . 

74 

Mess  pork,             .... 

239 

Metabolism,            .... 

62 

of  feeds,     .... 

20-23 

Mexican  sheep,  Merino, 

568 

Middlings,   analysis,     . 

79 

fertilizing   value, 

175 

for  cows, 

436 

for  pigs,     .... 

543 

for  sheep, 

605 

Milk,  abnormal  conditions  in,     . 

277 

adulteration, 

274 

aeration    of,        . 

477 

albumen  for  ducklings, 

664 

albumen  for  eggs, 

645 

analysis, 

76 

and   beef,  relative  economy, 

428 

as      affected      by      heat 

in 

cows,       .... 

473 

bacteria  in,         .         .          276,475 

boiled  for  calves, 

378 

care  of,       . 

475 

centrifugal  separation  of, 

480 

composition, 

274 

contamination  of, 

276 

contamination  with  dirt  and 

bacteria, 

476 

cooling,       .... 

477 

deep  setting  of, 

480 

dirt  in,       ...         . 

476 

diseases  transmitted  by,    . 

277 

effect  of  rations  on, 

463 

effect    of    weather    on    yield 

of 

469 

examination  of, 

275 

INDEX 


729 


Page 
Milk,  fat  and  feeds,  .        .        463 

fat  content  of,  .         .  25 

fat  source  of,      .         .  57, 463 

fermentation,  .  .  .  476 
fertilizing  value,  .  .  175 
fever,  ....         125 

for  cows,  .        .        .        460 

for  horses,  .         .         .         328 

goat's,    character   of,  .         629 

heavy  rations  for,       .         .  58 

influence  of  cold  on,  .         265 

inspection,  .         .  274-278 

methods  of  delivering  to  fac- 
tories, ...         493 
pasteurization  of,       .         .         478 
physiology  of  production,  57 
practical    methods     of    han- 
dling,     ....         477 
preservation       with       forma- 
lin,          .     ^   .        .        .        479 
preservatives  in,         .         275, 474 
preventing          contamination 

of,  ....        277 

pure  market,  .  .  .  474 
relation  of  heat  and  bacte- 
ria, ....  478 
removal  of  weedy  flavors,  467 
secretion  of,  .  .  .  25 
shallow  setting,  .  .  480 
skim  vs.  whole  for  calves,  378 
statistics  of,  .  .  .  427 
sugar,  ....  26 
teeth  in  colts,  .  .  .  339 
tester,  ....  479 
tuberculous,  .  .  113, 115 
utensils,  care,  .  .  475 
utensils,  washing,  .  .  476 
vessels,  cleaning,  .  .  277 
water-dilution       system       of 

creaming,        .         .         .         480 
weedy  flavor  in,  .         .         466 

(see  also  Skimmilk) 
Milker,  hygiene  of,  .         .         277 

Milkers,  market  quotations,         .         225 
Milking   machines,        .         .         .         473 
methods,     ....        472 
Millet,    analysis,  ...  76 

digestibility,       .        .        .     81,82 
and  soy  bean  silage,  digesti- 
bility,     ....  81 
hay  for  cows,     .         .         .         454 
hay  for  horses,            .         .         325 
seed  for  hogs,     .         .         .         539 
seed  for  horses,           .         .         321 
seed  for  sheep,             .         .         603 
Milo  maize,  analysis,    ...  77 
digestibility,        ...  81 
Minced  ham,          .         .         .                 248 
Mineral  matter  for  animals,       .           60 
poisons,      ....         166 
Minorca  chickens,         .         .         .         636 


Page 

Mites  on  chickens,        .        .        .  155 

Modiola  decumbens,  analysis,      .  77 

Mohair, 622 

Mohair  tariff  on,           ...  626 
Moisture   absorption    in    cold    stor- 
age,         ....  264 
Molascuit,  analysis,       ...  77 
Molasses,  beet  for  cows,      .        .  460 
for  curing  meat,        .        .  255 
for  hogs,             .         .         .  549 
for  horses,           .         .         .  329 
for  mules,          .        .        .  348 
for  sheep,            .        .        .  605 
for  steers,           .         .         .  406 
protein  equating  factor,     .  85 
Moldy  feeds,         ....  89 
feeds  cause  of  heaves,      .  105 
Mongrel  geese,      ....  668 

Mouflon, 13 

Moniezia  expansa  in  sheep,          .  150 

Morgan  family  of  horses,           .  286 

horse,          ....  290 

Morphine, 160 

for  colic,             .         .        .  102 

Morse  gray  horse,         .         .         .  298 

Mortadella  sausage,  .  .  .  249 
Mountain  goat,  .  .  14, 684 
Mule  breeding  by  artificial  insemi- 


nation, 

jacks, 

mares,  breeding, 
Mules,  .... 

beggar  weed  hay  for, 

breeding, 

cassava  for, 

castration  of,     . 

chicken  corn  for, 

classes  of, 

corn  meal  for, 

cowpeas  for, 

diseases  of, 

feeding, 

gluten   meal   for, 

industry  of  raising, 

molasses  for, 

oats  for, 

rations    for, 

shipment  to  Chicago, 

silage  for, 

sweet  potatoes  for,    . 

uses  of, 

wheat  for, 
Muscovy  ducks,     . 
Muscular    system     of     farm 

mals, 
Musk    ox, 
Mustang, 
Mute  swan, 
Mutton,  cuts  of, 

cuts  on  farm,    . 

tallow, 


164 
341 
345 

340-348 
347 
340 
347 
345 
347 
346 
347 
347 
111 
346 
347 
344 
348 
347 
348 
212 
348 
347 

344,  345 

347 

15,  662 

ani- 

17 

.  13, 685 

284, 295 
298 
239 
253 
242 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

Page 

Mutton  tongues,  curing, 

244 

Oat  and  oat  products,   analysis, 

77 

Nagana  in  cattle, 

120 

and  peas   for   cows 

454 

Narcotics,    .           ... 

159 

digestibility, 

. 

81,83 

Narragansett    pacers, 

289 

fertilizing   value, 

. 

175 

turkeys, 

671 

for  chickens, 

. 

644 

Narrow  ratio   in   feeds, 

66 

for  cows, 

. 

445 

National  Delaine  Merino  sheep, 

567 

for   goats, 

627 

Native   jack, 

343 

for  hogs,     . 

. 

540 

Natural    breeding, 

39 

for   horses, 

. 

312 

Neapolitan   hog, 

499 

for   mules, 

. 

347 

Needle  grass,  analysis, 

77 

for  sheep, 

. 

604 

Nellies,          .... 

372 

for  steers, 

. 

392 

Nerve  diseases  in  cattle, 

124 

protein   equating  factor, 

83,84 

diseases  in  horses, 

106 

sheaf,   for   steers, 

392 

diseases  in  sheep, 

139 

straw,  fertilizing  value,     . 

175 

Never-slip  calks, 

166 

straw   for   steers, 

404 

Nervous  exhaustion  in  sheep, 

94 

Oesophagostoma       columbianum, 

152 

system  of  farm  animals, 

17 

dentatum, 

. 

134 

Nettle  rash  in  horses, 

109 

inflatum,     . 

120 

New  forest  ponies, 

295 

Oestrus    ovis, 

. 

147 

horse  disease, 

101 

Offal  of  sheep, 

238 

Jersey  ham, 

248 

Offspring,     influence     of 

maternal 

Mexico  Merino  sheep, 

568 

fluids    on, 

. 

30 

York  shoulder  of  pork, 

239 

size  of  and  feed, 

. 

29 

Neurectomy  for  ring  bone, 

108 

vigor  of,     . 

. 

29 

Nicotine   dip   for   sheep   scab, 

145 

Oilmeal   fertilizing   value 

175 

Niter,             .... 

160 

(see  also  Linseed 

meal) 

Nitrogen  free  extract  of  plants 

49 

Oldenburg    horse, 

. 

292 

Nodular  disease  of  sheep, 

152 

Oleo   oil   and  fat, 

. 

242 

Noiles,  wool  grade, 

621 

Oleomargarine, 

. 

243 

Non-conductor  in  cold  storage 

3on- 

for  calves, 

.         . 

378 

struction, 

267 

Olive    oil, 

. 

160 

Norfolk  polled  cattle   . 

366 

pomace,    analysis, 

. 

77 

trotters, 

291 

Onager, 

. 

11 

Norman  horse,     . 

298 

Onion   flavor   in  eggs, 

. 

651 

Normandy  cows, 

435 

flavor  in  milk, 

. 

467 

Nose  bags  for  horses, 

335 

Opium,      .... 

160 

Numida    meleagris, 

16 

for  peritonitis, 

. 

103 

Nutrene   for   cows, 

445 

Oranges  for  horses,     . 

327 

Nutrition,   laws   of,     . 

62-64 

Orchard   grass,   analysis, 

77 

of  farm  animals, 

20 

grass  hay,  digestibility,     . 

81 

principles   of,      . 

45 

grass,    protein    equating   fac- 

study of,     . 

45 

tor, 

. 

83 

Nutritive    ratio    of   feeds, 

83-85 

Oreamnos    montanus, 

. 

14 

ratio,    denned, 

66 

Origin  of  farm  animals, 

. 

9 

substance  in  feeds,    . 

21 

Orlov   trotter, 

. 

290 

Nux  vomica, 

160 

Orpington  chickens,     . 

. 

639 

Oak  leaves,  analysis,    . 

77 

Osteomalacia   in   cattle. 

. 

127 

leaves    for    steers, 

401 

Osteoporosis  in  horses, 

. 

110 

moss   analysis,   . 

77 

Ostertag     system     for     eradicat 

ng 

forage  analysis, 

77 

tuberculosis, 

. 

115 

sawdust  for  smoking  meat 

245 

Ostriches,  care  and  use, 

695 

Oat   and   pea   forage,   analysis, 

77 

feathers, 

. 

695 

and  pea     fodder,     digest 

bil- 

Outcrossing    animals, 

40 

ity, 

81 

Overloading  the  paunch  in 

sheep, 

138 

feed  for  hogs,     . 

540 

Overreaching  in  horses, 

. 

109 

forage,  digestibility, 

81 

Overrun  in  butter, 

484 

forage,  protein  equating 

fac- 

Ovibos    mosr.hatus, 

685 

tor, 

83 

Ovis    amnion, 

13 

hay  for  horses, 

326 

aries, 

13 

straw  for  horses, 

325 

canadensis, 

13 

INDEX 


731 


Page 
Ovis  musimon,     ....  13 

Oxen,  care  of,  .         .         .         420 

for   draft    purposes,  .         419 

shoeing,  ....  420 
Oxford  sheep,  ....  571 
Oyster  shells  for  chickens,  .         646 

shells  injurious  for  chicks,         654 

Pacers, 287 

Packing  house   methods   of   slaugh 
ter, 

hogs, 
Palatability    of    feeds     and     diges- 
tion, 
Paloverde  twigs,  analysis, 
Palpitation  in  horses, 
Pancreas,      .... 
Pancreatic    juice, 
Panicum  molle,  analysis,     . 
Papers,  stock,       ... 
Paragonimus    westermanii, 
Para   grass,   analysis, 
Paralysis  in  horses,     . 
Parasites   in  meat, 
Parental  tendencies,     . 
Parents,  equality  of  in  heredity 
Park  cattle  of  England, 
Parsnips,   analysis, 
Partridges, 

Parturient  apoplexy  or  paresis, 
Pasteur  treatment  for  rabies, 
Pasteurization   of  milk, 
Pasteurized  milk, 
Pasture,      carrying      capacity 
steers, 

crops  for  hogs, 

for  cows,     . 

for  hogs, 

for    horses, 

for  sows,     . 

for  steers, 

grasses,   digestibility, 

grasses    for, 

compared    with    soiling 
silage, 

hygienic  care  of, 
Pasturing   steers   with   grain, 
Pavo   cristatus,     . 

muticus, 

nigripennis, 
Pea  and  oat  pasture  for  hogs, 
Pea  bean,  digestibility, 

fowl, 

meal,  bran,  etc.,  analysis, 

meal,  digestibility,     . 

meal,    protein    equating    fac- 
tor, ....  84 

pasture  for  hogs,       .         .         527 

silage,  analysis,  .         .  77 

Peas,    analysis,      ....  77 

digestibility,       .        .        .     80,82 

for  cows,  .        .        .        445 


233 

557 

51 

77 

106 

240 

22 

77 

206 

134 

77 

106 

271 

29 

30 

11 

77 

696 

125 

158 

478 

478 

for 

401,  402 
525 
458 
524 
326 
519 
401 
81 
458 
ind 

459 

95 

402 

698 

698 

698 

527 

81 

698 

77 

81 


Page 
Peas  for  hogs,      ....  540 
for    horses,          .         .         .  320 
for  sheep,             .         .         .  604 
for  sheep  pasture,     .         .  593 
oats  and  vetch  fodder,  diges- 
tibility,           ...  81 
straw  for  horses,       .         .  325 
Peanut   by-products,   analysis,     .  77 
forage,    analysis,        .         .  77 
hay  for  steers,    .         .         .  403 
pasture  for  hogs,       .         .  526 
Peanuts,    digestibility,          .         .  81 
for  hogs,     ....  540 
Pearl  disease  in  cattle,        .         .  112 
guineas,      ....  677 
millet,   analysis,         .         .  76 
millet   for  steers,       .         .  402 
Peat   as  manure  preservative,     .  179 
Peavine    hay,    analysis,        .         .  77 

Peccary, 14 

Pedigrees,  how  recorded,     .         .  202 

meaning  of,       .         .         .  42 

Pekin  ducks,         ....  662 

Pelts  of  sheep,     ....  241 

Pelvic    girdle,    bones    of,      .         .  17 

Pencillaria  for  steers,           .         .  402 

Penholders,            ....  559 

Penicillium  in  sheep,           .         .  143 

Pepper,  effect  on  plumage,           .  37 
Percentage  composition  of  feeds,      74-79 

Percheron  horse,           .         .         .  298 

horse  and  the  farmer,         .  299 

Pericarditis  in  cattle,           .         .  123 

in   horses,            .         .         .  106 

Peritonitis  in  horses,           .         .  103 

Persian    cat,          .         .         .         .  693 

Perspiration   in  animals,     .         .  25 

Pharyngitis  in  horses,           .         .  105 

Phasianus    torquatus,            .         .  697 

Pheasants, 697 

importation,        .         .         .  681 
Phthisis   in   cattle,       ...  112 
Physiology   of  farm  animals,     .  20 
Pickle  for  bacon,         .         .         .  245 
Pickled    pier's    feet,    homemade,  256 
Pickling,  effect  of,       .         .         .  244 
solutions,             .         .         .  243 
Pie  melon,  analysis,     ...  77 
Pigeon   grass  seed  and  hay,   analy- 
sis,          ....  77 
grass  seed  for  hogs,           .  541 

Pigeons, 674 

breeds   of,           ...  674 

buildings  for,     .         .         .  674 

determining    sex,        .         .  676 

diseases,      .  156 
hatching       and       feeding 

squabs, 
hemp  for, 
marketing  squabs, 
mating, 


675 
675 
676 
676 


732 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

Pigeons,  pox  of,           ...         157 

training  flyers, 

676 

Pigs   (see  also  Swine) 

Pigs'  feet  for  glue, 

250 

feet, 

248 

skins, 

257 

snouts, 

250 

Pinworms  in  pigs, 

134 

Pink  eye  in  horses, 

96 

Pip  in  chickens, 

156 

Pirosoma  bigeminum, 

118 

Pitchy  mange  in  pigs, 

136 

Pithing    animals, 

233 

Plant   food,    elements, 

174 

poisons, 

166 

Plants,  composition   of, 

47 

poisonous  to  horses, 

337 

water  in,     . 

47 

Plate   of   beef,     . 

237 

Pleurisy  in  sheep, 

139 

Plymouth  Rock  chickens, 

638 

Pneumonia   in   chickens, 

156 

in  horses, 

97, 105 

in   pigs, 

132 

in  sheep,    . 

139 

Poisoning  in  pigs, 

137 

Poisonous   plants, 

166, 167 

Poisons, 

166 

Poitou   jack, 

343 

Poland-China   hogs, 

503 

Poll  evil  in  horses, 

109 

Polled  Albion  cattle, 

369 

Durham  cattle, 

368 

Hereford   cattle, 

356 

Hereford    clubs, 

359 

Kansans, 

359 

Merino  sheep,     . 

568 

ox,       . 

11 

Pollution  from  previous  sir 

e> 

34 

Polo  ponies, 

295 

Polygamy  in  animals, 

37 

Polypus,  nasal  in  horses, 

105 

Ponies, 

294 

Pork,  cuts  of, 

238 

cuts  on  farm,     . 

254 

measle   worms, 

'.         134, 271 

microscopic     examination,         273 

production,  statistics  of,  .         500 

refrigeration    of, 

262 

sausage, 

247 

sausage,  homemade, 

256 

trichina  in, 

271 

Portulaca   oleracea,   analysis, 

77 

Pot   cheese, 

487 

Potatoes,    analysis, 

77 

digestibility, 

.     81, 82 

fertilizing   value, 

175 

for  cows, 

448 

for  hogs,     . 

530 

for    horses, 

327 

for  sheep, 

601 

194 

74 

264 

635 

177 
176 


672 
697 


Page 

Potatoes  for  steers,       .         .         .  405 

protein  equating  factor,     .  84 
Potassium   permanganate   for  plant 

poisoning,        .         .         .  169 

Potential  energy  defined,     .         .  55 

Poultry,  capital  required,     .         .  636 

diseases    of,        .         .  153-157 

drawn  vs.  undrawn,           .  265 

farming,  systems  of,  . 

food,    American,    analysis, 

in  cold  storage, 

industry,  statistics,    . 

manure,  characteristics  of, 

manure,  composition  of,    . 

(see    also     Chickens,    Ducks, 

Geese,  Turkeys,  etc.) 

Poults,  turkey,     .... 

Prairie    chickens, 

grass,    protein    equating    fac- 
tor,         ....  83 
hay,  digestibility,       .         .  81 
hay  for  steers,     388,389,397,398 
Pregnancy,  duration  of,       .         .  28 
period  in  sheep,         .         .  586 
Prejvalsky's    horse,      ...  9 
Premiums   at   fairs,     .         .         .  205 
Prenatal   influences   in  heredity,  34 
Prepotency,            ....  31 
of  breeds,           ...  32 
Preservatives  in  milk,           .          275, 474 
proprietary,        .         .         .  255 
Prickly  comfrey,  analysis,           .  77 
for  hogs,             .         .         .  533 
pear   for   steers,          .         .  403 
Prime  heavy  hogs,       .         .         .  556 
Pritch,  use  in  slaughtering,         .  234 
Probang    for    choking,          .         .  102 
Products  of  animals,    .         .           231-278 
Proprietary  feeds  for   steers,       395,  396 
Protein  equating  factor  of  feeds,  83-85 
function   of ,       .         .         .  53, 62 
in  animal  tissues,     .         .  46 
in  animals,  source  of,       .  48 
in   plants,            ...  48 
Provender,  analysis,     ...  77 
Prunes  for  horses,       .         .         .  327 
Pseudo-tuberculosis  in  sheep,     .  143 
Psoroptes  communis  ovis,    .         .  144 
Psychrometer,        ....  263 
Public  domain,  overgrazing  of,  616 
Pulse    rate,            ....  24 
Pumping  bacon,            .         .         •  245 
Pumpkins,  analysis,     ...  77 
for  cows,     ....  448 
for  hogs,     ....  530 
for  horses,           .         •         •  327 
Pure  bred  sires,  prepotency  of,  31 
bred  stock  farming,           .  183 
Purgatives,            ....  159 
Purpura  hemorrhagica  in  horses,  106 
Purslane,    analysis,      ...  77 


INDEX 


733 


Page 

Page 

Purslane  for  nogs, 

527 

Rations,  size  of  and  milk  proc 

uc- 

Pyemia  in  meat, 

271 

tion,        . 

464 

in    pigs,      . 

132 

trial, 

70 

Quack  grass,  analysis, 

77 

Rats  as  carriers  of  trichina, 

133 

grass,  digestibility,     . 

82 

Rauh's  Stock  Food  for  hogs, 

547 

Quagga, 

11 

Rawhide,    making, 

257 

Quail, 

696 

Ray    fungus,        . 

117 

Quaker  oat  feed,  analysis, 

77 

Razorback  hogs, 

508 

oat  feed,  digestibility, 

81 

Record    books, 

202 

oat  feed  for  cows,     . 

445 

Red  clover,  analysis,     . 

75 

Quarantine  district,     . 

214 

clover,   digestibility, 

80 

line  for  Texas  fever, 

118 

clover     hay,     fertilizing 

Fal- 

Quinine,        .... 

160 

ue,           ... 

175 

Quittor  in  horses, 

109 

clover,  protein  equating 

Eac- 

Babbits, 

689 

tor,          . 

83 

for  meat, 

689 

dog  flour,  analysis,    . 

79 

Eabies  in  cattle, 

117 

hogs, 

504 

in  dogs, 

157 

milk, 

277 

in   horses, 

100 

Polled  cattle,     . 

366 

in  meat,     . 

270 

top,   analysis,     . 

77 

in   pigs, 

131 

top,  digestibility, 

81 

in  sheep, 

142 

top,     protein     equating 

fac- 

Races  of  animals,  geographical, 

38 

tor, 

83 

Rachitis  in  calves, 

127 

water  in  cattle, 

118 

Rack  gait  in  horses,     . 

289 

Refrigeration   and   the   farmer, 

269 

Racks  for  feeding  sheep,     . 

585 

importance   of, 

261 

Radnor    sheep, 

576 

machines  for,     . 

261 

Raisins  for  horses, 

327 

of  animal  products, 

258 

Rams,  castration  of,    . 

161 

of   beef,      . 

262 

during  service, 

583 

of  butter, 

266 

selection  and  management, 

582 

of   cheese, 

266 

Rambouillet  sheep, 

569 

of   cream, 

266 

Rana  areolata, 

699 

of  dairy  products,     . 

265 

catesbiana, 

700 

of  eggs,     . 

263 

clamata,     . 

699 

of   milk,     . 

265 

palustris,     . 

699 

of   pork,     . 

262 

septentrionalis, 

699 

of   poultry, 

264 

silvatica,     . 

700 

on  the  farm,     . 

267 

virescens,            . 

699 

on  vessels, 

267 

Range  required  for  one  steer, 

397 

period   of, 

262 

(see  also   Sheep,   Cattle 

and 

plants    using    ice, 

259 

Horses) 

shrinkage  of  meat  in, 

262 

Rangifer    tarandus, 

684 

temperature     and     humi 

iity 

Rape,  analysis,     . 

77 

in,            ... 

263 

and  corn  silage,  analysis, 

77 

Refrigerator    cars, 

260 

for  cows,    . 

455 

Registration  advanced, 

202 

pasture   for   hogs, 

527 

of  stock,     . 

201 

pasture  for  sheep,     . 

591 

Regulations  in  stock  yards, 

220 

protein  equating  factor, 

83 

Reindeer,      .... 

684 

Rations,    balanced, 

69 

training   of, 

685 

faulty  and  disease,     . 

90 

Rennet  extract  for  cheese, 

486 

for  cows,     . 

461 

Reproduction  in  animals.     . 

27 

for  horses, 

333 

Reproductive   diseases   in   cattle 

124 

for  mules, 

348 

organs  of  farm  animals, 

20 

for  pigs,     . 

521 

Respiration,  purpose, 

24 

for  sheep, 

597 

rate  of,       . 

24 

light,  medium  and  heavy 

for 

Respiratory  diseases  in  cattle, 

12^ 

steers, 

395 

diseases   in   sheep.     . 

139 

narrow  vs.  wide  for  cows 

446 

organs  of  farm  animals, 

20 

narrow  vs.  wide  for  horses 

332 

Retail  beef  cuts. 

237 

processes  in  computing, 

69 

Reversion  in  heredity, 

30 

734 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Rheumatism  in  cattle, 

Rhode  Island  bent  hay,  analysis 

Island  Red  chickens, 
Ribs  of  beef, 


Rice 


and     by-products, 
ity, 

bran   for   steers, 

by-products    for    hogs 

flour  as  sausage  tiller. 

for  horses, 

hulls  for  steers, 

meal  for  calves, 

polish  for  steers 

wild,  analysis,     . 
Rickets   in    calves, 

in    pigs, 
Rinderpest, 
Ring  bones  in  horses, 
Ringneck   pheasant, 
Ringworm  in  cats, 

in   horses, 
Roadster  horse,     . 
Roaring    in    horses, 
Roaster    chickens, 
Roasting  pigs, 
Robertson's  silage  for  cows 

silage  for  steers, 
Rock  phosphate  for  chicks, 
Rocky  mountain  sheep, 
Rodents, 

Romney  Marsh  sheep, 
Roots  for  cows, 

for  hogs, 

for  horses, 

for   sheep, 

for  steers, 

vs.  silage  for  steers, 
Ropy   milk, 
Rouen    ducks, 
Roughage,  amount  to  feed  steers 

for  steers, 
Roughs  (hogs),  . 
Round  casings,     . 

of   beef, 

worm  in  pigs,     . 
Roup, 
Rowen  hay,  digestibility, 

hay,  protein  equating 
Royal   Siam  cat, 
Rubber  pad   in  horseshoeing 
Rugs  from  hides, 
Rumination, 
Ruminants,    digestibility 

for, 
Rump  of  beef,     . 
Runt    pigeon, 
Russian  thistle,  analysis, 
Rutabagas,  analysis,     . 

digestibility, 

for  horses, 

for  steers, 


gestibil 


of    feeds 


Page 

127 

77 

638 

237 


factor, 


81 
392 
541 
247 
320 
392,  393 
377 
392,  393 

77 
127 
135 
115,  687 
107 
697 
694 
109 
302 
105 
657 
558 
455 
403 
654 
13,  684 
7 
575 
447 
529 
326 
600 
404 
404 
277 
662 
408 
396 
558 
249 
237 
133 
153 

81 

83 
693 
166 
257 

26 


79-82 
237 
674 

77 

77 

82 

328 

405 


Rutabagas,  protein  equating  factor, 
Rye   and   by-products,   analysis, 

and     by-products,     digestibil 
ity,  .        . 

bran,   fertilizing  value 

fertilizing    value 

for  horses, 

for  hogs,     . 

for  soiling, 

for  steers, 

grass  for  steers, 

hay  for  horses, 

Italian,  analysis, 

meal  for  cows, 

pasture   for   cows, 

pasture  for  sheep, 

pasture  for  steers, 

perennial,    analysis, 

protein   equating   factor 

straw  for  horses, 
Saccalin,    analysis, 
Saddle    gaits, 

horse, 

of   mutton, 
Sainfoin  hay,  analysis, 
St  Vitus  dance  in  horses,    . 
Salami    sausage, 
Saliva,    action    of, 
Salt,  amount  to  feed 

for  butter, 

for  cattle, 

for   chickens, 

for  cows,     . 

for   goats, 

for   hogs,    . 

for    pickling, 

for   sheep, 

for  sows, 

for    steers, 

for   stock, 

marsh  hay,  analysis, 

marsh  hay,  digestibility, 
Saltbushes,  analysis,     . 

digestibility, 
Saltpeter  for  curing  meat, 

for  pickling, 
Sand   for    chickens, 
Sanitation    on    farm, 
Sarcolactic        acid 

meat, 
Sarcoptes  scabei  suis, 

mutans, 
Sausage,  absorption  of  water  by 

casings    for, 

fillers   for, 

formulae   for, 

making, 

poisoning, 

smoking,     . 

time  of  cooking, 
Sawdust  for  bedding, 


Page 

84 

77 


175 

175 

316 

541 

457 

393 

403 

326 

77 

445 

455 

591 

403 

77 

83,84 

325 

77,78 

289 

289-306 

239 

78 

106 

249 

21-22 

62 

484 

412 

646 

460 

627 

549 

244 

590 

520 

412 

61 

78 

82 

78 


255 

244 

60,  554 

4 

in        ripening 

262 
135 
155 
247 
249 
247 
247 
246 
272 
247 
248 
468 


INDEX 


T35 


Page 

Page 

Sawdust  in  cold  storage  construc- 

Sheep as  browsers, 

578 

tion, 

26S 

Barbadoes, 

576 

Scab  in  sheep,     . 

144 

barley  for, 

601 

Scabies  of  cattle, 

121 

big  head  in, 

141 

Scalding  hogs, 

236 

bloat   in,     . 

138 

on  farm,     . 

254 

blue  grass  pasture  for, 

591 

Scalma  in  horses, 

97 

botfly, 

147 

Scaly  legs  in  chickens, 

155 

bran  for, 

605 

Scarlet  clover  (see  Crimson  C] 

over) 

breeding  for  winter  lambs 

607 

Scarlet  fever  carried  in  milk 

278 

breeds  of, 

566 

Score  card  for  bacon  hog, 

502 

breeds  on  ranges, 

612 

card  for  lard  type, 

500-502 

buildings  for,     . 

584 

card  for  mutton  sheep, 

578 

care  and  selection  of  ram 

582 

card  for  fine  wooled  she 

3p,         577 

care  of  lambs,    . 

588 

Scours   in   calves, 

126 

cars  for,     . 

606 

formalin   for,     . 

379 

Cheviot, 

573 

in  steers, 

387 

classification   of   breeds, 

567 

pigs, 

137,  521 

clover    hay    for, 

598 

treatment, 

378 

clover  pasture  for, 

591 

Scrag  end  of  mutton,     .     . 

239 

commission  for  selling, 

220 

Scraping  hogs, 

236 

commission  for  buying, 

221 

Screenings,  analysis, 

79 

condemned  for  food, 

216 

for  hogs,     . 

541 

corn  for,     . 

602 

for  sheep, 

604 

corn  fodder  for, 

599 

Screw  worm  fly  in  horses,    . 

111 

cost  of  wintering  ewes, 

586 

Scrubs  vs.  pure  bred  hogs, 

550 

Cotswold, 

575 

Selection,   artificial   in   breedi] 

ig,           28 

cottonseed  meal  for, 

602 

Self   feed  for  hens, 

647 

cowpea  hay  for, 

598 

feed  for  sheep, 

594 

deposition  of  fat  on, 

597 

Selling  at  stock  yards, 

219 

dipping  before  shipping, 

214 

stock    at    auction, 

185 

diseases  of, 

137-152 

Separator  for  milk,     . 

480, 481 

Dorset, 

572 

milk,    analysis, 

76 

eczema  in, 

140 

on  farm,     . 

493 

emmer  for, 

602 

Septicemia  in  meat,     . 

271 

farm,  description  of, 

192 

in    pigs, 

132 

farming,  beginning, 

579 

Serradella,   analysis,     . 

78 

farming  systems, 

192-565 

for  cows, 

455 

fattening  in  winter, 

593 

Sesame  meal,  analysis, 

78 

fattening  on  a  large  scale 

605 

Sesbania  macrocarpa,  analysis 

78 

fattening    on    pasture, 

591 

Sex  and  age  of  parents,     . 

35 

fattening    rations    for, 

596 

and    food, 

29,  36 

feed  of  ewes  after  lambing 

587 

determination  of. 

35 

feeding  ability  of,     . 

565 

influence     of    sire    anc 

dam 

feeding  standards,     . 

65 

on, 

35 

fences    for, 

580 

Shank  beef, 

237 

fertilizing   value, 

175 

Shavings   for  bedding, 

468 

flaxseed   for, 

603 

Shearing  ewes,     . 

588 

flukes    in,    . 

150 

machines, 

617 

foot  and  mouth  disease  in 

141 

sheep, 

617 

foot  rot  in, 

140 

sheep  in  west, 

612 

for  wool  alone, 

616 

Shed  for  cows,     . 

463 

garget  in, 

140 

for   sheep, 

584 

gentle  handling, 

585 

steers, 

411 

gid    in, 

149 

Sheep,            .... 

561-621 

gluten   meal   for, 

603 

Sheep,  abortion  in, 

139 

grains   for, 

601 

age    and    productivene 

■ss    of 

grains  for  ewes, 

585 

ewes, 

587 

grazing, 

611 

alfalfa  hay  for, 

598,  615 

Hampshire, 

571 

alfalfa  pasture  for,    . 

591 

head  scab  in,     . 

147 

anatomy    of, 

563 

Highland, 

575 

736 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

Page 

Sheep,   influenza    in, 

143 

Sheep,  shelter  in  fattening, 

594 

judging  fatness, 

598 

shipment  to   Chicago, 

212 

kafir  corn  for,     . 

603 

shipping,     . 

217 

killed  by  dogs, 

580 

shipping  abroad, 

227 

lambing  in  the  west, 
Leicester, 

613 

shrinkage  on  shipment, 

606 

573 

Shropshire, 

570 

Lincoln, 

574 

silage  for, 

599 

linseed  meal  for, 

603 

skins, 

257 

locoed, 

596 

slaugbtering, 

235 

lung  worms  in, 

152 

slaughtering  on  farm, 

252 

malignant  edema  in, 

141 

sore  eyes  in,     . 

140 

manure,  characteristics, 

177 

sore  mouth  in, 

137 

manure,  composition  and 

val- 

Southdown, 

570 

ue,            ... 

76 

soy  beans  for,    . 

604 

market  quotations,     . 

227 

statistics  of, 

565 

market  ripeness  of, 

597 

sterility  in, 

164 

marketing, 

226,  606 

stomach  worms, 

150 

Merino, 

567 

Suffolk,       . 

571 

middlings  for, 

605 

sugar  beet  pulp  for, 

600 

milk  yield  of,    . 

587 

summer  and  winter  ranges 

611 

millet  seed  for, 

603 

tagging         and         trimn 

ling 

molasses    for, 

605 

hoofs, 

593 

nodular  diseases  in, 

152 

tapeworms  in,    . 

149 

oats  for,     . 

604 

teeth  of,     . 

18 

order   of   feeding,     . 

597 

tick, 

148 

origin   of, 

13 

Tunis, 

573 

Oxford,      . 

571 

twin  lambs, 

582 

pasture  for, 

591 

usefulness  of,    .        . 

565 

pea  pasture  for, 

593 

vs.   Angora   goats,     . 

627 

peas  for,     . 

604 

vs.  lambs, 

595 

pelts, 

241 

vitality  of  lambs, 

587 

period  of  pregnancy, 

586 

washing,     . 

618 

potatoes    for, 

601 

weight  of  fleece, 

621 

pox, 

142 

weight  of  scoured  wool, 

621 

pox  in   meat,     . 

270 

Welsh  Mountain, 

576 

profits   in, 

565 

wethers  vs.   rams, 

596 

pseudo-tuberculosis   in, 

143 

wheat  for, 

605 

quantity    and    value    of 

ma- 

winter  feeding  for  ewes, 

585 

nure, 

176 

winter  feeding  in  the  west, 

614 

racks  for  feeding,     . 

585 

winter  lambs,     . 

606 

Rambouillet, 

569 

wool  grading, 

620,  621 

rams  in  west, 

614 

worms  in, 

151 

ranching, 

611 

Shelter  for  ewes, 

584 

ranching,  profits  of, 

565, 615 

for  hogs,     .         .         . 

552 

rape  pasture  for, 

591 

for  steers, 

411 

Rocky  Mountain, 

684 

winter  lambs,     .         . 

609 

Romney   Marsh, 

575 

Shetland  ponies, 

294 

roots  for, 

600 

Shipment   of   stock   to   leading 

cit- 

roughage  for,     . 

598 

ies, 

212 

rye  pasture  for, 

591 

subdividing, 

220 

salt  and  water  for,    . 

590 

Shipping  (see  also  Marketing) 

scab, 

144 

bill  of  lading,    . 

218 

score  cards  for, 

577 

diseased  animals, 

214 

screenings   for, 

604 

liability   of   railroads, 

218 

self-feed   for,     . 

594 

Tates, 

218-219 

shearing,     . 

617 

securing  cars  for,     . 

217 

shearing  before  fattening 

593 

stock,  laws  on, 

214 

shearing        before        mar 

ket- 

stock,  time  on  road, 

215 

ing, 

226 

Shire  horse,           . 

297 

shearing  in  the  west, 

612 

Shoeing  horses,     . 

165 

shelter  for  ewes.       .        , 

584 

Short  clears  of  pork,    . 

239 

INDEX 


m 


Page 
Short  ribs  of  pork,  ...  239 
Shorthorns,   description,       .         .         353 

on  the  range,     .         .         .         355 

popularity,  .         .         .         354 

standard   colors,  .         .         355 

strong  and  weak  points,  354 

Shropshire   sheep,         .         .         .         570 

for  winter  lambs,       .         .         606 
Siberian    rabbits,  .         .         .         690 

Side  bones  in  horses,    .         .         .         108 
Silage,  beef  produced  on  acre,  400 

compared    with    soiling 
pasture  for  cows, 

for  cows, 

for    hogs, 

for  horses, 

for  mules, 

for  sheep, 

for  steers,  387,  399, 

improper  fermentation  of. 
Silver  fox, 

Silver  nitrate  for  roup, 
Silverside  cut  of  beef, 
Simmenthaler  cows, 
Simulium   pecuarum, 
Single  foot  gait, 
Sire,  defects  of  in  horses, 

importance  of  in  horse  breed- 
ing, 
Sirup  for  horses, 
Size,  increase  of  in  animals, 
Skeleton,   description  of, 
Skimmilk,   analysis, 

and  grain  vs.  whole  milk 
calves, 

for  chickens, 

for  hogs,     . 

money  value  for  calves, 

objections  to  for  calf  food 

quantity   for   calf,      . 
substitutes  for  calves, 
temperature  for  calves, 
Skin  diseases  in  horses, 


of  farm  animals, 
Skinnecl  ham, 
Skull  bones  of, 
Skunks, 
Slaughtering, 

beef, 

hogs, 

lambs, 

on  farm, 

tools  for, 
Slimy  milk, 
Slobbering   caused   by   clover, 
Small  Yorkshire  hogs, 
Smallpox  and  cowpox, 
Smelter  fumes,  effect  on  sheep 

fumes,  poisonous, 
Smoke  house, 

materials  for,     . 


and 

459 
453 
533 
323 
348 
599 

400,  403 
89 
694 
154 
237 
435 
121 
289 
309 


308 

330 

52 

16 

76 


for 

374 

645,  658 
545 
376 
380 
375 
376 
375 
109 
20 
239 
16 
694 

233-258 
233 
236 
609 
251 
251 
277 
323 

505,  506 
117 
139 
167 
246 

245, 246 


Smoking  meat,     ....  245 

methods  in  curing  meats,  246 

sausage,      ....  247 

Snail  clover,  analysis,           .         .  75 

Snuffles   in  sheep,         .         .         .  138 

Soapy  milk,           ....  277 

Sodium  carbonate  in  milk,           .  276 

iodide  for  tetanus,     .         .  100 

Soft  bacon,           ....  554 

roaster   chickens,    feeding,  657 

wool  sheep,         .        .        .  576 

Soil  fertility  and  stock  raising,  173 

fertility,  loss  under  different 

systems  of  farming,       .  174 

Soiling  and  pasture  compared,    .  457 

compared    with    pasture    and 

silage  for  cows,     .         .  459 
crops  for  cows,           .         .  456 
crops,  systems  of  rotation,  456 
hogs,            ....  532 
system  for  dairy  cows,  exam- 
ple of,     .         .         .         .  186 
Somali  wild  ass,        .  11 
Sonnerat's    jungle    fowl,      .         .  15 
Sore  eyes  in  sheep,      .        .         .  140 
head  in  chickens,       .         .  154 
mouth  in  cattle,        .         .  122 
mouth  in  pigs,           .          130, 136 
mouth  in  sheep,           .         .  137 
throat    in    horses,      .         .  105 
Sorghum,    analysis,      ...  78 
digestibility,        .         .         .  82,83 
for  cows,     ....  455 
for  Eogs,     ....  528 
for  steers,           .         .          388,403 
hay  for  horses,          .        .  326 
meal  for  cows,           .         .  445 
protein  equating  factor,    .  83 
seed,  analysis,     ...  78 
seed  for  hogs,     .         .         .  541 
Southdown  sheep,         .         .        .  570 
Southern  cattle  fever,           .         .  118 
Sows  at  farrowing  time,     .         .  520 
care    of,              .        .        .  519 
during  pregnancy,     .         .  520 
exercise  for,       .         .         .  519 
feeding   of,         ...  520 
milk  of,     .        .        .        .  518 
pasture   for,        .         .         .  519 
selection   and  breeding,     .  516 
spaying,      .         .                  .  162 
Soy  bean  hay  for  cows,        .        .  455 
bean  hay  for  hogs,           .  549 
bean  meal  for   steers,       .  393 
bean  pasture  for  hogs,       .  528 
bean  silage,  analysis,         .  78 
bean  silage  for  steers,       .  403 
Soy  beans,  analysis,     ...  78 
beans,   digestibility.          79,80,82 


738 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Soy 


beans  for  cows, 
beans  for  hogs,  . 
beans  for  horses, 
beans  for  sheep, 


Page 
438 
541 
320 
604 


beans,  protein  equating  fac- 
tor, .  .  .  83,84 
Spanish  fly,  ....  159 
merino  sheep,  .  .  .  569 
Spare  ribs  of  pork,  .  .  .  239 
Spavin  in  horses,  .  .  •  108 
Spaying  animals,  .  .  .  162 
Spear  grasses,  analysis,  .  .  78 
Spearing  animals,  .  .  .  233 
Spelt  (see  also  Emmer) 

analysis,      ....  78 

for  cows,    ....  445 
straw  for  steers,         .          403, 404 

Splenetic  fever  in  cattle,     .         .  118 

Splints  in  horses,         .         .         .  107 

Sports  in  breeding,       ...  33 

Springers,  market  quotations,     .  225 

Sprung  knees,       ....  109 

Spurry,  analysis,           ...  78 

Squabs, 674 

Squab  broiled  chickens,       .         .  658 

Squashes,   analysis,       ...  78 

Squirrel  tail  grass,  analysis,         .  78 

Staggers  in  sheep,        .         .         .  149 

Stags,  hogs,           ....  558 

Stallions,    castration    of,      .         .  161 

feeding,       ....  336 

Standard  Delaine  Merino  sheep,  567 

Stock  Food  for  hogs,          .  547 

Standards    for   feeding,        .         .  64 

Starch  as  sausage  filler,       .         .  247 

feed,    analysis,            .         .  78 

for  calves,           .         .         .  378 

Starters  for  ripening  cream,       .  476 

Statistics  on  beef  cattle,     .         .  353 

Steam  for  colds,           ...  105 

Steaming  feeds  and  digestibility,  51 

Stearin,          .....  242 

Steers,  acreage  of  pasture  required 

for,  .         .         .  401,402 

age   and   cost  of   gain,     .  410 

alfalfa  and  grains  for,     .  387 

alfalfa  for,         ...  397 
alfalfa    vs.    sugar    beet    pulp 

for,          .         .         .         .  406 
amount    of    corn    undigested 

by,            ....  389 

amount  of  roughage  to  feed,  408 


barley  for, 

385, 395 

beans  for, 

385 

beechnuts  for,     . 

385 

beef  vs.  dairy  type, 

443 

bone  meal  for, 

406 

bran  for, 

385 

branding, 

418 

breeds  favored  by  farmers 

412 

Brewers'  grains  for, 

385 

Page 

Steers,  brome  grass  hay  for,  .  398 
buffalo  grass  for,  .  .  398 
carrots  for,  .  .  .  405 
cassava  for,  .  .  .  405 
chess  for,  ...         398 

clover    for,  .         .         .         398 

clover  hay  for,  .         .         388 

coarse  fodders  for,  .  .  404 
cobmeal  for,  .  .  .  387 
condimental  feeds  for,  .  395 
corn  and  supplemental  feeds 

for,  ....         386 

corn  chopped  for,  .  .  386 
corn  fodder  for,  .  .  398 
corn  for,  ....  386 
corn  meal  for,  .  .  .  387 
corn  meal  vs.  ear  corn  for,  389 
corn  preparation  for  in  Illi- 
nois, ....  387 
corn    required    for   pound   of 

gain,  ....  389 
corn  shives,  .  .  .  399 
cost  of  gain,  .  .  .  409 
cost  of  gain  on  different  ra- 
tions, ....  394 
cotton  field  pasture,  .         402 

cottonseed   for,  .         .         389 

cottonseed  meal  for,  .         389 

cottonseed     meal     and     hulls 

for,  ....         390 

cowpea  hay  for,  .  .  400 
cowpea      vs.      timothy      hay 

for,  ....         388 

cut  vs.  uncut  hay  for,  .  404 
daily  gains,  .  .  .  408 
dehorning,  .         .  417,418 

distillery  grains  for,  .  389 
dressed    weights    of    different 

breeds,  ....  413 
dried  blood  for,  .         .         406 

dried  distillery  grains  for,  391 
dry  vs.   soaked  corn  for,  389 

fattening    in    the   south,  390 

fattening  on  range,  189, 190 

fattening  season,  .  .  407 
fed      silage,       followed      by 

swine,  ....  400 
feed     required      for      pound 

gain,  ....  408 
feeding  loose  vs.  tied,  .  409 
feeding  methods,  .  .  406 
followed  by  hogs,  .  .  389 
frosted  corn  for,  .  .  386 
frosted  wheat  for,     .  393,394 

gluten  feed  for,  .  .  391 
gluten  meal  for,  .  .  391 
grain  and     roughage     mixed 

for,  ....         395 

grain  feeding  at  pasture,  402 

ground    vs.    whole    corn    for, 

387.  388 


INDEX 


739 


Page 
Steers,    heavy   vs.     light     for    feed- 
ing, ....         409 
home    grown     vs.     purchased 

feeds,  ...         410 

horse    chestnuts    fur,  .         391 

increase    in    weight    at    pas- 
ture,       ....         402 
increasing  profits  from,     .         410 
Johnson  grass  for,     .  401,  402 

kafir      corn      and      sorghum 

for,  ....         387 

kafir  corn  for,  .  .  .  391 
kafir  corn  stover  for,  .  401 
length    of    fattening    period, 

407,  409 
light,  medium  and  heavy  ra- 
tions for,  .  .  394,395 
linseed  meal  for,  386,391,392 
market  grades  for  fatten- 
ing, ....  415 
mature,  feeding,  .  .  385 
method   of   feeding   on   stock 

farm,  ....  182 
molasses  for,  .  .  .  406 
number  of  feeds  per  day,  407 

number      pastured      on      an 

acre,  ....  401 
oak  leaves  for,  .         .        401 

oats  for,  ....  392 
pasture    for,        .         .  401,402 

pasturing  on  corn  stalks,  399 

peanut  hay  for,  .  .  403 
pearl  millet  for,  .  .  402 
points   of,  ...        371 

potatoes  for,  .  .  .  405 
prairie  hay  for,  .  388, 380 

prairie  hay  and  alfalfa,  .  397 
prices    for     different     kinds, 

222, 223 
prickly  pear  for,  .  .  403 
range  required  in  N.  M.,  397 
rice    bran    for,  .         .         392 

rice  hulls  for,  .  392,393 

rice  polish  for,  .  392,393 

roasted  and  boiled  cotton  seed 

for,  ....  390 
roots  for,  .  .  .  404 
roots  vs.  silage  for,  .  .  404 
roughage  for,  .  .  .  396 
rutabagas  for,  .  .  .  405 
rye  for,  .  .  .  .  393 
rye  grass  for,  .  .  .  403 
rye  pasture  for,  .  .  403 
salt  for,  ....  412 
scours  on  corn  alone,  .  387 
scrubs  vs.  grades  for  fatten- 
ing, ....  415 
sheaf  oats  for,  .  .  392 
sheaf  wheat  for,  .  .  393 
shelled  vs.  ground  corn 
for 389 


Steers,  shelter  for, 
shipping, 
shock  corn  for, 
shock  corn  vs.  silage  for, 
shrinkage  in  dressing, 


Page 
411 
221 

387 

400 

9,  390 


silage    for, 


size  of  rotation  for, 
southern    vs.    western, 
soy  bean  meal  for,     . 
soy  bean  silage  for, 
stubble   fields   for, 
sugar    beets    and    pulp 


387,  399,  400,  403 


407 
414 
393 
403 
395 
for, 

405,  406 
411,  412 
404 


tied  vs.  loose,     . 

timothy    for, 

timothy  vs.  corn  fodder,     .  399 

unhusked  corn  for,     .         .  389 

value  of  succulence  in  ration 

for,          ....  410 

velvet  beans  for,         .         .  393 

vetch  hay  for,    .         .         .  404 

water  for,           .         .         .  412 

wheat  for,           .         .         .  393 

wheat   and  alfalfa  for,     .  387 

wheat  bran  for,           .         .  393 

wheat  meal  for,         .         .  394 

wild  rye  grass  vs.  oats  for,  392 

wood   ashes   for,         .         .  412 

Stephanurus  dentatus  in  pigs,     .  133 

Sterility  in  animals,     .         .         .  164 

Stipa  nelsonii,  analysis,       .         .  77 

Stock  and  corn,  relation  between,  388 

breeders'  associations,  objects 

of,  ....  201 
care  on  shipboard,  .  .  229 
cars  attendant,  .  .  215 
cars,  improved,  .  .  217 
classification  of.  7 
classifying  in  shipping,  .  216 
commission  for  buying,  .  221 
condemned,  .  .  .  216 
crating  for  shipment,  .  208 
dipping  diseased  before  ship- 
ment, ....  214 
farmer,  qualifications,  .  6 
farming,  advantage  of,  .  181 
farming,  pure  bred,  .  183 
system  of,  .  .  181-194 
farms,           general,           crops 

grown,  .  .  .  .  187 
farms,  general  sample  of,  181 
farms,  number  in  TJ.  S.,  181 
government  inspection,  214,  227 
raising,  a  science,  .  .  7 
registration  of,  .  .  201 
selling,  ....  185 
shipping  abroad,  .  .  227 
space  required  on  ship- 
board, ....  228 
time  to  ship,  .  .  .  216 
unloading  in  transit,         .  217 


740 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

Page 

Stock,  yardage  charges, 

221 

Sugar  in  milk, 

26 

yards,   rules   of, 

220 

Sulphur,        .... 

160 

Stocker  and  feeder  cattle, 

372 

Sulphuric  acid  as  a  disinfectant 

94 

Stockers  and  feeders,  market  quota- 

ether for  refrigeration, 

261 

tions,       .... 

225 

Sulphurous  acid  for  refrigeration 

261 

Stomach  staggers  in  sheep. 

138 

Summer  range  for   sheep, 

611 

worms   in   cattle, 

120 

Sunflower  seed  for  chickens, 

643 

worms  in  goats, 

153 

seed  for  hogs,     . 

542 

worms  in  ostriches, 

695 

Sunflowers  and  seed,  analysis, 

78 

worms  in  sheep, 

150 

Sunstroke    in   horses, 

106 

Stomatitis,  mycotic  in  cattle, 

120 

in  sheep,    . 

139 

Strangles  in  horses,     . 

96 

Surra  in  horses, 

100 

Straw   for   bedding, 

468 

Sus  barbatus, 

14 

for    horses, 

325 

indica,        . 

14 

for   sheep, 

599 

scrofa,        . 

14 

for    steers,          .         .          403 

,404 

verrucosus, 

14 

String  gang  in  slaughtering  sheep, 

235 

Sussex  cattle,  account  of  breed 

365 

Stringhalt  in  horses,     . 

106 

standard    requirements, 

366 

Stripping    cows, 

472 

Swale  hay,  digestibility,     . 

82 

Strongylus  contortus  in  sheep 

150 

Swans,           .... 

698 

douglasi   in   ostriches, 

695 

Sweat,  excretion  of,     . 

25 

filaria,         .... 

152 

Swedes  (see  Rutabagas) 

filicollis,      .... 

151 

Swedish    medwurst,      . 

249 

micrurus  in  cattle,    . 

123 

Sweeny  in  horses, 

109 

paradoxus, 

134 

Sweetbreads, 

240 

ventricosuSj 

151 

preservation  of, 

244 

Stubble  field  for  hogs, 

528 

Sweet  clover,  analysis, 

.    75,78 

Succulence   value     in   rations     foi 

for  horses, 

326 

steers,      .... 

410 

Sweet  corn,   analysis, 

.    75,78 

Suet,             

237 

silage,    analysis, 

78 

Suffolk  hogs,        .... 

507 

silage,   digestibility, 

80 

horse,          .... 

297 

Sweet  potatoes  for  hogs,     . 

531 

sheep,          .... 

571 

for  horses, 

328 

Sugar    beet    molasses,    analysis, 

78 

for  mules, 

347 

beet  molasses,  protein  equat- 

tubers and  vines,  analysis 

78 

ing  factor, 

85 

Swill,  poisonous  effects  on  pigs, 

137 

beet  pulp,  analysis,    . 

78 

Swine,           .... 

495-559 

beet  pulp,  dried  for  cows, 

449 

acorns   for, 

549 

beet   pulp   ensiling, 

405 

actinomycosis    in, 

131 

beet  pulp  for  cows, 

443 

after  steers  fed  wheat, 

394 

beet  pulp  for  hogs, 

531 

age  and  gain,     . 

550 

beet  pulp  for  horses, 

328 

alfalfa  hay  for, 

547 

beet  pulp  for  sheep, 

605 

alfalfa  pasture  for, 

525 

beet  pulp  vs.  corn  stover  for 

anatomy  of, 

497 

steers,      .... 

406 

animal  feeds  for, 

544 

beet  silage,  analysis, 

78 

apples  for, 

529 

beet  pulp  for  steers,  .         405 

406 

artichokes   for, 

529 

beets,  digestibility, 

82 

bacon  type, 

502 

beets,  fertilizing  value, 

175 

barley  for, 

534 

beets  for  cows, 

448 

beans  for, 

534 

beets  for  hogs, 

530 

Berkshire, 

504 

beets   for   horses, 

328 

blood  meal   for, 

547 

beets,   protein    equating    fac- 

bone meal  for, 

549 

tor,          .#       .         .         .     84, £ 

bran  for,     . 

535 

cane  analysis, 

78 

breeds  of, 

503 

for   cows,   .... 

460 

breeds    compared, 

508-512 

for  horses, 

329 

brome   grass   pasture   for. 

525 

for  mules,  .... 

347 

buckwheat  for, 

535 

for  pickling, 

244 

buildings   for, 

512 

in  the  urine, 

104 

buttermilk  for, 

545 

meal  for  cows,  .        . 

440 

care  of  sows,     . 

520 

INDEX 


741 


Page 

Page 

Swine,  cassava  for, 

529 

Swine,  grain  for  100  lbs.  gain^ 

523 

castration  of,     . 

161,  522 

grains    for, 

534 

cerealine  for,     . 

535 

hair    of, 

250 

Cheshire, 

506 

Hampshire, 

507 

Chester  White, 

505 

hay   for, 

547 

Chinese, 

499 

kafir   corn   for, 

528, 539 

cholera   in, 

128 

killing     and     marketing 

on 

chufas  for, 

529 

farm, 

225 

clover   hay   for, 

548 

lambs'    quarters    for, 

549 

clover  pasture  for,     . 

525 

lard   type, 

500 

commission  for  selling, 

220 

large  black, 

508 

condemned  for  food, 

216 

lice    on, 

135 

condimental   feeds   for, 

547 

maintenance   ration   for, 

551 

cooking  feed  for, 

544 

management  and  selection  of 

corn  for, 

535 

boar, 

515 

corn  meal  for,  . 

536 

mange  in, 

135 

corn  shives  for, 

537 

mangels    for, 

529 

cost    of    feed    per    100 

lbs. 

manure,  characteristics  of 

177 

gain, 

523 

manure,       composition 

and 

cots  for,     . 

514 

value, 

176 

cottonseed    for, 

537 

market  classes  of,     . 

555 

cottonseed  meal  for, 

537 

market  quotations,     . 

226 

cottonseed  oil  for,     . 

549 

Maryland  pen  for,     . 

513 

cowpea  hay  for, 

548 

measle   worm   in, 

134 

cowpea  pasture  for, 

526 

meat  meal  for, 

547 

cowpeas    for, 

539 

method   of  handling, 

182 

digestibility  of  feeds  for, 

82,83 

milk  of  sows,     . 

518 

dipping   vats   for,     . 

515 

millet  seed  for, 

539 

diseases  of, 

127, 137 

minerals   for, 

549 

distillery  grains  for, 

539 

mixed   grains  for,     . 

543 

domestication    of, 

499 

molasses   for, 

549 

dressed  weight  of,     . 

555 

muscles  of, 

497 

dry  and  wet  feed  for, 

544 

Neapolitan, 

499 

Duroc-Jersey, 

504 

oat   feed   for, 

540 

economy  of  breeds, 

508-512 

oats  for,     . 

540 

English, 

499 

organs  "of, 

497 

erysipelas   in,     . 

130 

origin    of, 

14 

Essex, 

507 

origin  of  American, 

499,  500 

exterior    of, 

497 

pasture   for, 

524 

farming  systems  of, 

193 

pea    pasture    for, 

527 

feed  consumed  from  birtl 

1  to 

peanut  pasture   for, 

526 

maturity, 

522 

peanuts    for, 

540 

feeding, 

552 

peas  for,     . 

540 

feeding       for       quality 

of 

period  of  pregnancy, 

517 

pork, 

553 

pigeon  grass  seed  for, 

541 

feeding  standards,     . 

65 

plague, 

130 

fences    for, 

514 

pneumonia  in, 

132 

fertilizing   value, 

175 

poisoned    by    swill,    . 

137 

fits  in, 

136 

poisoning, 

137 

following   steers, 

389,  550 

Poland-China, 

503 

foot  and  mouth  disease  in 

131 

portable  houses  for, 

513 

full  vs.  scant  rations  for 

552 

potatoes    for, 

530 

gains      as      compared      \ 

pith 

preparation  of  grain   for, 

544 

calves, 

379 

prickly  comfrey  for,  . 

533 

gains  before  and  after  w< 

?an- 

pumpkins    for, 

530 

ing,          .         .         . 

524 

purslane    for, 

527 

gains   made  by  litters, 

518 

quantity    and    value    of 

ma- 

giant  lily  for,     . 

549 

nure,* 

176 

gluten  feed  for, 

539 

rape  pasture  for, 

527 

grade    of. 

555 

rations      and      internal 

or- 

grading   in  marketing, 

225 

gans. 

552 

742 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 

Page 

Swine,  razorback, 

503 

Symptomatic   anthrax   in   cattle, 

117 

relation  of  weight,  gain 

and 

Syngamus   trachealis, 

155 

feed, 

523 

Taenia   coenurus   in   sheep, 

149 

rice   by-products  for, 

541 

echinococcus, 

271 

rickets    in, 

135 

fimbriata  in  sheep,     . 

149 

roots    for, 

529 

marginata  in  sheep, 

149 

rye    for, 

541 

saginata     and    meat     inspec- 

score card  for  bacon  type 

502 

tion, 

271 

score   card   for  lard   type 

500 

solium      and     meat      inspec- 

scours   in, 

137,  521 

tion, 

271 

screenings   for, 

541 

Tails  of  beef,       .... 

244 

scrubs  vs.  pure  breeds, 

550 

Takosis   in   goats, 

153 

selection   of   sows, 

516 

Tall   oat  grass,   analysis,     . 

78 

shelter  for, 

552 

Tallow,          ... 

242 

shipment   to   Chicago, 

212 

for   chickens, 

642,  645 

shipping, 

217, 225 

Tamarau, 

13 

shipping   alive, 

225 

Tamworth   hogs, 

506 

shipping   diseased, 

215 

Tankage,    analysis, 

78 

silage    for,      .         .     . 

533 

for  hogs,     .... 

546 

size  of  litters,     . 

517 

manufacture  of, 

250 

sizes  preferred  in  market 

226 

Tanks   for   tankage,     . 

250 

skeleton    of, 

497 

Tanning  hides,     .... 

257 

skimmilk  for,     . 

545 

Tapeworms  in  dogs,     . 

158 

slaughtering, 

236 

in  sheep,     .... 

149 

slaughtering    on    farm, 

253 

in   turkeys, 

156 

soiling,       . 

532 

Tar  for  sheep  botfly,    . 

148 

sore   mouth. 

130 

Tarpan,         .... 

9 

sorghum   for, 

528 

Tawing  method  of  tanning, 

257 

sorghum  seed  for,     . 

541 

Teeth,   bishoping, 

340 

soy  bean  hay  for, 

549 

diseases    of    in    horses,     . 

102 

soy  bean  pasture  for, 

528 

of  farm  animals, 

18 

soy  beans  for, 

541 

of  horses  at  different  ages, 

339 

statistics  of  production, 

500 

Telegony  in  heredity, 

33 

stubble    field    for, 

528 

Temperature,   effect  on  animals, 

37 

Suffolk,       . 

507 

of    animals, 

25 

sugar  beets  for, 

530 

Teosinte,   analysis, 

78 

sunflower  seed  for,     . 

542 

Territory  wool,     .... 

620 

sweet  potatoes  for,     . 

531 

Testing  cows   (see  Tuberculin) 

Tamworth, 

506 

fertility    of    eggs, 

656 

tankage  for, 

546 

Tetanus    in    horses, 

100 

teeth  of,     . 

18 

in    pigs,      .... 

131 

Thin-Kind, 

507 

in  sheep,    .... 

142 

thumps   in, 

136,  521 

Texas  cattle  defined,     . 

223 

trichina    in, 

132 

Thick  wind  in  horses, 

105 

tuberculosis    in, 

131 

Thin-Rind  hogs, 

507 

turnips    for, 

532 

Thorn-headed   worm   in   pigs,     . 

133 

utilization  of,     . 

499 

Thoroughbred  horse, 

284 

ventilation  of  pens, 

513 

influence  of,       . 

293 

vs.   calves, 

550 

types  of,     . 

285 

vetches  for, 

528 

Thoroughpin  in  horses. 

108 

Victorias, 

508 

Throwing-back  in  heredity, 

30 

water   for, 

549 

Thumps  in  pigs, 

136, 521 

weight  at  birth, 

517 

Thymus, 

240 

wetting  down  in  shipping 

225 

Ticks,  eradication  of, 

119 

wheat  for, 

542 

on   cattle, 

120 

whey   for, 

545 

on  chickens, 

155 

wide  vs.  narrow  rations, 

551 

on    sheep, 

148 

wild  of  Europe, 

499 

Timothy,    analysis, 

78 

worms   in, 

133 

digestibility, 

82,83 

yards   for, 

513 

for  cows,     .         .         . 

456 

Yorkshire, 

505 

for  horses, 

326 

Page 

Page 

Timothy  for  steers, 

401 

Turkeys,  selection  of  breeding  flock, 

671 

hay  fertilizing  value, 

175 

white  flint  corn  for, 

673 

hay  for  sheep, 

509 

Turnips,    analysis, 

79 

hay     vs.      corn     fodder 

for 

digestibility, 

82 

steers, 

399 

fertilizing   value, 

175 

protein    equating    factor, 

83 

for   cows, 

449 

vs.  cowpea  hay  for  steers 

388 

for  hogs,     .... 

532 

Tobacco   for  sheep   scab,     . 

145 

for   horses, 

328 

Tongue    of    beef, 

237 

protein  equating  factor,     . 

84 

sausage, 

248 

Turpentine   enemas   in   colic, 

102 

Tornillo   beans,   analysis,     . 

74 

Tympanites  in  cattle, 

122 

Tortoise  shell  cat, 

693 

in  sheep,     .... 

138 

Toulouse  geese,     . 

667 

Typhoid  fever  carried  in  milk, 

278 

Tram  horse, 

304 

fever   in  horses, 

96 

Transportation   and  marketing 

live 

Udder  of  veal,     .... 

240 

stock, 

206-229 

Ungulates,             .... 

7 

Trichinella  spiralis  in  pigs, 

132 

United  States  Department  of  Agri- 

Trichina in  pork, 

271 

culture,  live  stock  investi- 

Trichinosis in  pigs. 

132 

gations, 

195 

Trichocephalus  crenatus,     . 

134 

Urinary    diseases    in    cattle, 

124 

Tripe,  preparation, 

244 

organs    of    farm    animals, 

20 

Triticum  dicoccum  for  sheep, 

602 

Urine,    bloody,      .... 

104 

Trotter    horse, 

285, 305 

secretion    of,      . 

24 

and    the    farmer, 

287 

sugar  in,     . 

104 

Tsetse  fly,     . 

120 

Vaccination  for  blackleg,     . 

117 

Tubercle  bacillus, 

113 

for   Texas   fever, 

119 

Tuberculin  test  for  cattle, 

114 

for  tuberculosis, 

115 

Tuberculosis  carried  in  meat, 

270 

Van  horse,  English,     . 

304 

carried  in  milk, 

278 

horse,  Scotch,     . 

305 

in    cattle, 

111-115 

Variation, 

28 

in  fowls,     . 

154 

as     affected     by     domestica- 

in   goats,    . 

153 

tion,        .... 

37 

in  pigs, 

131 

correlative, 

38 

in  sheep,     . 

142 

laws    of,      . 

29 

transmission    from    cattle 

to 

Varicose  veins  in  horses,     . 

106 

man, 

113 

Variola    in    cattle, 

117 

Tuberculous  milk  treated  with 

for- 

Veal    cuts,              ...          238 

,240 

malin, 

479 

feeding  calves  for,     . 

380 

Tumors   in  pigeons, 

157 

on  farm,     .... 

254 

Tunguse    reindeer, 

684 

Velvet  beans,  analysis, 

79 

Tunis   sheep, 

573 

beans,  digestibility,   . 

82 

sheep  for  winter  lambs, 

606 

beans  for  steers, 

393 

Turkeys,        .... 

670 

Ventilation  for  horses, 

337 

breeds  of, 

671 

importance   of, 

93 

diseases  of, 

156 

of  barns,     .... 

92 

feathers, 

673 

of  cold  storage   rooms,     . 

263 

feeding    incubator   poults 

673 

of  hog   pens, 

513 

feeding  poults, 

672 

Vermifuges,          .... 

159 

hatching   eggs, 

672 

Verminous    bronchitis    in    cattle, 

123 

inbreeding, 

671 

bronchitis  in  sheep, 

152 

literature  on,     . 

674 

Vesicants,      ..... 

159 

management       of       breeding 

Vessels,  fitting  up  for  stock, 

228 

flock, 

671 

Vetch,    analysis, 

79 

marketing, 

673 

and  rape  for  soiling  hogs, 

532 

nesting  habits, 

672 

digestibility, 

82 

new  corn  injurious  to, 

673 

for    cows, 

456 

origin    of, 

15 

for  hogs,     .... 

528 

outdoor  roosting, 

672 

for   horses, 

320 

protection  from  lice, 

672 

hairy,  digestibility, 

81 

rain  protection  for  poults 

673 

hay  for  steers, 

404 

range  for, 

671 

Veterinary   medicines, 

158 

744 


FARMER'S  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  LIVE  STOCK 


Page 


Victor  corn  and  oat  feed,  digesti- 
bility,     . 
Victoria  hogs, 
Vomiting, 
Vulpes  lagopus, 
War  horse  of  England, 
Warble  flies  in  cattle, 
Warthog, 
Warts  in  horses, 
Washing   dairy   utensils, 


Water,  absorption  of  in  animals 

and  body  temperature, 

as  source  of  disease, 

bacteria  in, 

buffalo,        ... 

cause  of  indigestion, 

for  adulterating  milk, 

for  cows, 

for  hens, 

for  hogs,     . 

for  horses, 

for  sheep, 

for  steers, 

for  young  animals,    . 

function    in    animals, 

glass  for  preserving  eggs, 

grass,  analysis, 

hemlock, 

in  animal  tissues, 

in  plants, 

in  sausage, 

requirements  of  animals, 

supply  for  animals, 

temperature      of      for 
mals, 
Watermelons,  analysis, 
Weaklings  among  breeds,     . 
Weaning   pigs,     . 

(see  also  Calves,  Lambs  and 
Colts) 
Weather  and  milk  yield,  . 
Weedy  flavors  in  milk, 
Weight,  increase  of  in  animals, 
Welsh  cattle,        .... 

Mountain   sheep, 

ponies,         .... 
West  Highland  cattle, 

Highland      cattle,      popular- 
ity, .... 
Westphalian    hams, 
Wet  vs.  dry  feed  for  hogs, 
Wetting  feeds  and  digestibility, 
Whale  flesh  meal,  analysis, 
Wheat,   analysis, 

and  alfalfa  for  steers,     . 

and       by-products,       protein 
equating  factor,     . 

bran,  fertilizing  value,     . 

bran  for  steers, 

by-products,    analysis, 


508 

26 

694 

297 

121 

14 

109 

476 

618 

23 

59 

91 

91 

687 

101 

275 

460 

647 

549 

333 

590 

412 

59 

58 

652 

79 

168 

46 

47 

247 

59 


59 

79 


521 


469 
466 
52 
366 
576 
295 
364 

364 

256 

544 

51 

79 

79 

387 

84 
175 
393 

79 


Wheat,  by-products,  digestibility 

digestibility  by  hogs, 

fertilizing    value, 

for   chickens, 

for  cows, 

for  hogs,     . 

for   horses, 

for  mules, 

for  sheep, 

for  steers, 

frozen  for  steers, 

grasses,    analysis, 

hay  for  cows,     . 

hay  for  horses, 

in  sheaf  for  steers,    . 

meal  for  steers, 

middlings,      fertilizing 
ue,  ... 

straw,  fertilizing  value, 

straw  for  horses, 
Whey,  analysis,    . 

for  hogs, 

vs.  skimmilk  for  calves, 
Whip  worm  in  pigs, 
Whistling  in  horses, 

swan, 
White  blood  corpuscles, 

cat,     .... 

clover,   analysis, 

clover,   digestibility, 

clover,  protein  equating 
tor, 

comb  in  chickens,     . 

Pekin   ducks,      . 

scours   in   calves, 

scours  in  sheep, 

turkeys, 
Whitewash  as  a  disinfectant, 
Whole  vs.  ground  grain  for  hogs. 
Wholesale  beef  cuts,  . 
Wide  ratio  in  feeds,    . 
Wild  boar, 

cattle  of  England, 

geese, 

rice,  analysis,     . 

rye  grass  for  steers 

turkey, 
Wiltshire  sheep, 
Wind  gall  in  horses,     . 
Windpipe  meat,  curing, 
Windpipes   for   casings, 
Winter  fat,  analysis,    . 

lambs, 

lambs,  dressing, 

lambs,  feeding, 

lambs,   marketing, 

range  for  sheep, 
Wire  fences  for  hogs, 

grass,   analysis, 
Witch  grass  (see  Quack  Grass) 


Page 

82 

82 

175 

644 

436 

542 

317 

347 

605 

393 

393,  394 

79 

456 


val- 


fac- 


INDEX 


745 


Page 

Page 

Wolff-Lehmann        feeding       stand- 

Worms  in   pigeons, 

156 

ards, 

65 

in   pigs, 

133 

Wooden   tongue  in   cattle, 

117 

in  sheep,     . 

151 

Wool  as  affected  by  the  ration 

617 

Wounds  in  horses, 

110 

classification  of, 

620 

Wyandotte  chickens, 

638 

clean, 

619 

Yak, 

12 

felting, 

621 

Yardage  charges  in  shipping, 

221 

fertilizing   value, 

175 

Yards  for  hogs,    . 

513 

grading, 

621 

hygienic    care   of, 

93 

growth  of, 

616 

Yelts,  definition  of, 

522 

injured  by  dips, 

147 

Yolk  of  wool, 

617 

prices, 

621 

Yorkshire   coach   horse, 

292 

scoured  weights, 

621 

hogs, 

505 

shrinkage  of,     . 

566 

Young,  number  of  in  animals, 

28 

statistics    of, 

616 

Zebras,            .... 

11 

tying  fleeces,      .  • 

619 

Zebroids,        .... 

341 

weight  of  fleece, 

566 

Ewart's  experiments  with 

34 

yolk  of, 

617 

Zebu,              .... 

12, 688 

Wolves  and  sheep  diseases, 

158 

Zinc  carbonate,     . 

161 

Work,  production  by  animals, 

55 

Zygadenus    venenosus, 

168 

Webster  Family  Library  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
Cummings  School  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at 
Tufts  University 


